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diff --git a/41902-8.txt b/41902-0.txt index f2e7838..e06a782 100644 --- a/41902-8.txt +++ b/41902-0.txt @@ -1,36 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 1, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 1 - "L" to "Lamellibranchia" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: January 23, 2013 [EBook #41902] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41902 *** Transcriber's notes: @@ -77,7 +45,7 @@ Transcriber's notes: THE - ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA + ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION @@ -115,7 +83,7 @@ Transcriber's notes: THE - ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA + ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION @@ -127,12 +95,12 @@ Transcriber's notes: New York - Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. + Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, by - The Encyclopædia Britannica Company. + The Encyclopædia Britannica Company. VOLUME XVI, SLICE I @@ -148,50 +116,50 @@ ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: LAAS, ERNST LA FAYETTE, ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER LA BADIE, JEAN DE LA FAYETTE, PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE LABEL LAFAYETTE - LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS LA FERTÉ - LABERIUS, DECIMUS LA FERTÉ-BERNARD - LABIATAE LA FERTÉ-MILON + LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS LA FERTÉ + LABERIUS, DECIMUS LA FERTÉ-BERNARD + LABIATAE LA FERTÉ-MILON LABICANA, VIA LAFFITTE, JACQUES - LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN LAFFITTE, PIERRE - LABICI LA FLÈCHE - LABID LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI + LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN LAFFITTE, PIERRE + LABICI LA FLÈCHE + LABID LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI LABIENUS LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE LABLACHE, LUIGI LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE LABOR DAY LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE LA BOURBOULE LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE LABOUR CHURCH, THE LAGASH - LA BOURDONNAIS, FRANÇOIS LAGHMAN + LA BOURDONNAIS, FRANÇOIS LAGHMAN LABOUR EXCHANGE LAGOON LABOUR LEGISLATION LAGOS (province of Nigeria) LABOUR PARTY LAGOS (seaport of Nigeria) LABRADOR LAGOS (seaport of Portugal) - LABRADORITE LA GRÂCE + LABRADORITE LA GRÂCE LABRADOR TEA LA GRAND' COMBE LABRUM LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS - LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE LAGRANGE-CHANCEL, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH + LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE LAGRANGE-CHANCEL, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH LABUAN LA GRANJA - LABURNUM LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS + LABURNUM LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS LABYRINTH LA GUAIRA - LABYRINTHULIDEA LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, DUBREUIL HÉLION + LABYRINTHULIDEA LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, DUBREUIL HÉLION LAC LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE LAGUNA - LACAITA, SIR JAMES LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE + LACAITA, SIR JAMES LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE LA CALLE LAHIRE, LAURENT DE - LA CALPRENÈDE, COSTES LAHN + LA CALPRENÈDE, COSTES LAHN LA CARLOTA LAHNDA LACCADIVE ISLANDS LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF LACCOLITE LAHORE LACE LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE LACE-BARK TREE LAHR LACEDAEMON LAIBACH - LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD DE LA VILLE LAIDLAW, WILLIAM + LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD DE LA VILLE LAIDLAW, WILLIAM LACEWING-FLY LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON - LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE LAING, DAVID + LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE LAING, DAVID LA CHAISE-DIEU LAING, MALCOLM LA CHALOTAIS, DE CARADEUC DE LAING, SAMUEL - LA CHARITÉ LAING'S NEK - LA CHAUSSÉE, NIVELLE DE LAIRD, MACGREGOR - LACHES LAÏS + LA CHARITÉ LAING'S NEK + LA CHAUSSÉE, NIVELLE DE LAIRD, MACGREGOR + LACHES LAÃS LACHINE LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE LACHISH LAI-YANG LACHMANN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM LAKANAL, JOSEPH @@ -205,16 +173,16 @@ ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI LAKE OF THE WOODS LACQUER LAKE PLACID LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE LAKEWOOD - LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED LAKH + LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED LAKH LACROIX, PAUL LAKHIMPUR LACROMA LAKSHMI LA CROSSE LALAING, JACQUES DE - LACROSSE LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE - LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE LALÍN + LACROSSE LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE + LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE LALÃN LACRYMATORY LA LINEA LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS LALITPUR LACTIC ACID LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR - LACTONES LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD + LACTONES LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD LA CUEVA, JUAN DE LALO, EDOUARD LACUNAR LA MADDALENA LACUZON LAMAISM @@ -388,7 +356,7 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. - Lämmergeyer; + Lämmergeyer; Lapwing; Lark; Linnet; @@ -435,7 +403,7 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. ALBRECHT SOCIN, PH.D. (1844-1899). Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of - Leipzig and Tübingen. Author of _Arabische Grammatik_; &c. + Leipzig and Tübingen. Author of _Arabische Grammatik_; &c. Lebanon (_in part_). @@ -704,18 +672,18 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Author of _Russia_; _Egypt and the Egyptian Question_; _The Web of Empire_; &c. - Lobánov-Rostovski. + Lobánov-Rostovski. E. B.* - ERNEST CHARLES FRANÇOIS BABELON. + ERNEST CHARLES FRANÇOIS BABELON. - Professor at the Collège de France. Keeper of the department of - Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliothèque Nationale. Member of - the Académie des Inscriptions et de Belles Lettres, Paris. + Professor at the Collège de France. Keeper of the department of + Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliothèque Nationale. Member of + the Académie des Inscriptions et de Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Descriptions - Historiques des Monnaies de la République Romaine_; _Traités des - Monnaies Grecques et Romaines_; _Catalogue des Camées de la - Bibliothèque Nationale_. + Historiques des Monnaies de la République Romaine_; _Traités des + Monnaies Grecques et Romaines_; _Catalogue des Camées de la + Bibliothèque Nationale_. Leptis. @@ -798,7 +766,7 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. _Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea_; &c. Lobo, F. R.; - Lopes, Fernão. + Lopes, Fernão. E. R. L. SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.SC. @@ -888,7 +856,7 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. Lithography. F. v. H. - BARON FRIEDRICH VON HÜGEL. + BARON FRIEDRICH VON HÃœGEL. Member of Cambridge Philological Society; Member of Hellenic Society. Author of _The Mystical Element of Religion_. @@ -973,7 +941,7 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. - La Bruyère; + La Bruyère; La Fontaine; Lamartine; La Rochefoucauld; @@ -999,7 +967,7 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. HENDRIK ANTOON LORENTZ. Professor of Physics in the University of Leiden. Author of _La - théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps + théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants_. Light: _Nature of_. @@ -1071,7 +1039,7 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. University of California. Author of _History of the French Revolution_; _Revolutionary Europe_; &c. - Littré. + Littré. H. R. T. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. @@ -1266,7 +1234,7 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. JUSTUUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. - Author of _Das Rheinland unter der französische Herrschaft_. + Author of _Das Rheinland unter der französische Herrschaft_. Lang, Karl Heinrich; Ledochowski; @@ -1309,7 +1277,7 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. See the biographical article: LEGGE, JAMES. - Lâo-Tsze. + Lâo-Tsze. J. L. M. JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. @@ -1354,11 +1322,11 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. Leech, John. J. P. E. - JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHÉMAR ESMEIN. + JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHÉMAR ESMEIN. Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of _Cours - élémentaire d'histoire du droit français_; &c. + élémentaire d'histoire du droit français_; &c. Lettres de Cachet. @@ -1469,7 +1437,7 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. Instruction. Author of _La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois_; &c. - Le Maçon. + Le Maçon. J. W. D. CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N. @@ -1578,7 +1546,7 @@ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. MORITZ CANTOR, PH.D. Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg. - Author of _Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Mathematik_; &c. + Author of _Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Mathematik_; &c. Leonardo of Pisa. @@ -2164,7 +2132,7 @@ FOOTNOTE: - ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA + ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION @@ -2261,7 +2229,7 @@ BREWING). LAAS, ERNST (1837-1885), German philosopher, was born on the 16th of -June 1837 at Fürstenwalde. He studied theology and philosophy under +June 1837 at Fürstenwalde. He studied theology and philosophy under Trendelenburg at Berlin, and eventually became professor of philosophy in the new university of Strassburg. In _Kant's Analogien der Erfahrung_ (1876) he keenly criticized Kant's transcendentalism, and in his chief @@ -2274,7 +2242,7 @@ theory of education. His chief educational works were _Der deutsche Aufsatz in den obern Gymnasialklassen_ (1868; 3rd ed., part i., 1898, part ii, 1894), and - _Der deutsche Unterricht auf höhern Lehranstalten_ (1872; 2nd ed. + _Der deutsche Unterricht auf höhern Lehranstalten_ (1872; 2nd ed. 1886). He contributed largely to the _Vierteljahrsschr. f. wiss. Philos._ (1880-1882); the _Litterarischer Nachlass_, a posthumous collection, was published at Vienna (1887). See Hanisch, _Der @@ -2302,7 +2270,7 @@ hermitage at Graville. A study of Calvin's _Institutes_ showed him that he had more in common with the Reformed than with the Roman Catholic Church, and after various adventures he joined the Reformed Church of France and became professor of theology at Montauban in 1650. His -reasons for doing so he published in the same year in his _Déclaration +reasons for doing so he published in the same year in his _Déclaration de Jean de la Badie_. His accession to the ranks of the Protestants was deemed a great triumph; no such man since Calvin himself, it was said, had left the Roman Catholic Church. He was called to the pastorate of @@ -2318,9 +2286,9 @@ known, and he and his congregation found themselves in conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities. The result was that la Badie and his followers established a separate church in a neighbouring town. In 1669 he moved to Amsterdam. He had enthusiastic disciples, Pierre Yvon -(1646-1707) at Montauban, Pierre Dulignon (d. 1679), François Menuret +(1646-1707) at Montauban, Pierre Dulignon (d. 1679), François Menuret (d. 1670), Theodor Untereyk (d. 1693), F. Spanheim (1632-1701), and, -more important than any, Anna Maria v. Schürman (1607-1678), whose book +more important than any, Anna Maria v. Schürman (1607-1678), whose book _Eucleria_ is perhaps the best exposition of the tenets of her master. At the head of his separatist congregation, la Badie developed his views for a reformation of the Reformed Churches: the church is a communion of @@ -2376,7 +2344,7 @@ of Pacuvius Antistius Labeo, a jurist who caused himself to be slain after the defeat of his party at Philippi. A member of the plebeian nobility, and in easy circumstances, the younger Labeo early entered public life, and soon rose to the praetorship; but his undisguised -antipathy to the new régime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in +antipathy to the new régime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in the senate he occasionally gave expression to his republican sympathies--what Tacitus (_Ann._ iii. 75) calls his _incorrupta libertas_--proved an obstacle to his advancement, and his rival, Ateius @@ -2408,14 +2376,14 @@ Capito. systematic exposition of the common law. His _Libri ad Edictum_ embraced a commentary, not only on the edicts of the urban and peregrine praetors, but also on that of the curule aediles. His - _Probabilium_ ([Greek: pithanôn]) _lib. VIII._, a collection of + _Probabilium_ ([Greek: pithanôn]) _lib. VIII._, a collection of definitions and axiomatic legal propositions, seems to have been one of his most characteristic productions. See van Eck, "De vita, moribus, et studiis M. Ant. Labeonis" (Franeker, 1692), in Oelrichs's _Thes. nov._, vol. i.; Mascovius, _De sectis Sabinianor. et Proculianor._ (1728); Pernice, _M. Antistius - Labeo. Das röm. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit_ + Labeo. Das röm. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit_ (Halle, 1873-1892). @@ -2602,23 +2570,23 @@ traced by remains of pavement and buildings along its course. -LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN (1815-1888), French dramatist, was born on the 5th +LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN (1815-1888), French dramatist, was born on the 5th of May 1815, of _bourgeois_ parentage. He read for the bar, but literature had more powerful attractions, and he was hardly twenty when -he gave to the _Chérubin_--an impertinent little magazine, long vanished +he gave to the _Chérubin_--an impertinent little magazine, long vanished and forgotten--a short story, entitled, in the cavalier style of the period, _Les plus belles sont les plus fausses_. A few others followed much in the same strain, but failed to catch the attention of the public. He tried his hand at dramatic criticism in the _Revue des -théâtres_, and in 1838 made a double venture on the stage. The small -Théâtre du Panthéon produced, amid some signs of popular favour, a drama +théâtres_, and in 1838 made a double venture on the stage. The small +Théâtre du Panthéon produced, amid some signs of popular favour, a drama of his, _L'Avocat Loubet_, while a vaudeville, _Monsieur de Coislin ou l'homme infiniment poli_, written in collaboration with Marc Michel, and given at the Palais Royal, introduced for the first time to the Parisians a provincial actor who was to become and to remain a great favourite with them, Grassot, the famous low comedian. In the same year Labiche, still doubtful about his true vocation, published a romance -called _La Clé des champs_. M. Léon Halévy, his successor at the Academy +called _La Clé des champs_. M. Léon Halévy, his successor at the Academy and his panegyrist, informs us that the publisher became a bankrupt soon after the novel was out. "A lucky misadventure, for," the biographer concludes, "this timely warning of Destiny sent him back to the stage, @@ -2648,18 +2616,18 @@ hero and the scoundrel, between the saint and the profligate." During the second period of his career Labiche had the collaboration of Delacour,[5] Choler,[6] and others. When it is asked what share in the authorship and success of the plays may be claimed for those men, we -shall answer in Émile Augier's words: "The distinctive qualities which +shall answer in Émile Augier's words: "The distinctive qualities which secured a lasting vogue for the plays of Labiche are to be found in all the comedies written by him with different collaborators, and are conspicuously absent from those which they wrote without him." A more useful and more important collaborator he found in Jean Marie Michel -Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a _débutant_ in his younger +Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a _débutant_ in his younger days, and who remained his faithful interpreter to the last. Geoffroy impersonated the _bourgeois_ not only to the public, but to the author himself; and it may be assumed that Labiche, when writing, could see and hear Geoffroy acting the character and uttering, in his pompous, fussy -way, the words that he had just committed to paper. _Célimare le -bien-aimé_ (1863), _Le Voyage de M. Perrichon_ (1860), _La Grammaire_, +way, the words that he had just committed to paper. _Célimare le +bien-aimé_ (1863), _Le Voyage de M. Perrichon_ (1860), _La Grammaire_, _Un Pied dans le crime_, _La Cagnotte_ (1864), may be quoted as the happiest productions of Labiche. @@ -2691,7 +2659,7 @@ his sterling qualities. But when the honour was bestowed upon him, he enjoyed it with his usual good sense and quiet modesty. He died in Paris on the 23rd of January 1888. -Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Molière, but it +Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Molière, but it will be enough to say that he was something better than a public _amuseur_. Many of his plays have been transferred to the English stage. They are, on the whole, as sound as they are entertaining. Love is @@ -2705,23 +2673,23 @@ never coarse, never suggestive. After he died the French farce, which he had raised to something akin to literature, relapsed into its former grossness and unmeaning complexity. (A. Fi.) - His _Théâtre complet_ (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by - Émile Augier. + His _Théâtre complet_ (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by + Émile Augier. FOOTNOTES: [1] Victor Varin, pseudonym of Charles Voirin (1798-1869). - [2] Marc Antoine Amédée Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist. + [2] Marc Antoine Amédée Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist. - [3] Louis François Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879), + [3] Louis François Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879), part-author of the famous _Fille de Mme Angot_ (1872). - [4] Philippe François Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865). + [4] Philippe François Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865). [5] Alfred Charlemagne Lartigue, called Delacour (1815-1885). For a - list of this author's pieces see O. Lorenz, _Catalogue Général_ (vol. + list of this author's pieces see O. Lorenz, _Catalogue Général_ (vol. ii., 1868). [6] Adolphe Joseph Choler (1822-1889). @@ -2761,7 +2729,7 @@ the _Mo'allakat_ (q.v.). Twenty of his poems were edited by Chalidi (Vienna, 1880); another thirty-five, with fragments and a German translation of the whole, were edited (partly from the remains of A. Huber) by C. Brockelmann - (Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, _Über die Gedichte des Lebyd_ + (Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, _Ãœber die Gedichte des Lebyd_ (Vienna, 1881). Stories of Labid are contained in the _Kitabul-Aghani_, xiv. 93 ff. and xv. 137 ff. (G. W. T.) @@ -2813,12 +2781,12 @@ was one of the thirty-two torch-bearers chosen to surround the coffin at Beethoven's funeral in 1827. He died at Naples on the 23rd of January 1858 and was buried at Maison Lafitte, Paris. Lablache's Leporello in _Don Giovanni_ was perhaps his most famous impersonation; among his -principal other rôles were Dandini in _Cenerentola_ (Rossini), Assur in +principal other rôles were Dandini in _Cenerentola_ (Rossini), Assur in _Semiramide_ (Rossini), Geronimo in _La Gazza Ladra_ (Rossini), Henry VIII. in _Anna Bolena_ (Donizetti), the Doge in _Marino Faliero_ -(Donizetti), the title-rôle in _Don Pasquale_ (Donizetti), Geronimo in -_Il Matrimonio Segreto_ (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in _L'Étoile du Nord_ -(Meyerbeer), Caliban in _The Tempest_ (Halévy). +(Donizetti), the title-rôle in _Don Pasquale_ (Donizetti), Geronimo in +_Il Matrimonio Segreto_ (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in _L'Étoile du Nord_ +(Meyerbeer), Caliban in _The Tempest_ (Halévy). @@ -2839,7 +2807,7 @@ each may be proclaimed as such in any year by the governor. LA BOURBOULE, a watering-place of central France, in the department of -Puy-de-Dôme, 4½ m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore by road. Pop. (1906) 1401. La +Puy-de-Dôme, 4½ m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore by road. Pop. (1906) 1401. La Bourboule is situated on the right bank of the Dordogne at a height of 2790 ft. Its waters, of which arsenic is the characteristic constituent, are used in cases of diseases of the skin and respiratory organs, @@ -2876,21 +2844,21 @@ March. At the conference of 1909, held in Ashton-under-Lyne, the name -LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS, COUNT MAHÉ de (1699-1753), French +LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS, COUNT MAHÉ de (1699-1753), French naval commander, was born at Saint Malo on the 11th of February 1699. He went to sea when a boy, and in 1718 entered the service of the French India Company as a lieutenant. In 1724 he was promoted captain, and -displayed such bravery in the capture of Mahé of the Malabar coast that +displayed such bravery in the capture of Mahé of the Malabar coast that the name of the town was added to his own. For two years he was in the service of the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, but in 1735 he returned to -French service as governor of the Île de France and the Île de Bourbon. +French service as governor of the ÃŽle de France and the ÃŽle de Bourbon. His five years' administration of the islands was vigorous and successful. A visit to France in 1740 was interrupted by the outbreak of hostilities with Great Britain, and La Bourdonnais was put at the head -of a fleet in Indian waters. He saved Mahé, relieved General Dupleix at +of a fleet in Indian waters. He saved Mahé, relieved General Dupleix at Pondicherry, defeated Lord Peyton, and in 1746 participated in the siege of Madras. He quarrelled with Dupleix over the conduct of affairs in -India, and his anger was increased on his return to the Île de France at +India, and his anger was increased on his return to the ÃŽle de France at finding a successor to himself installed there by his rival. He set sail on a Dutch vessel to present his case at court, and was captured by the British, but allowed to return to France on parole. Instead of securing @@ -2902,29 +2870,29 @@ at the loss of his property. To the last he made unjust accusations against Dupleix. He died at Paris on the 10th of November 1753. The French government gave his widow a pension of 2400 livres. -La Bourdonnais wrote _Traité de la mâture des vaisseaux_ (Paris 1723), +La Bourdonnais wrote _Traité de la mâture des vaisseaux_ (Paris 1723), and left valuable memoirs which were published by his grandson, a -celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahé de la Bourdonnais (1795-1840) +celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahé de la Bourdonnais (1795-1840) (latest edition, Paris, 1890). His quarrel with Dupleix has given rise to much debate; for a long while the fault was generally laid to the arrogance and jealousy of Dupleix, but W. Cartwright and Colonel Malleson have pointed out that La Bourdonnais was proud, suspicious and over-ambitious. - See P. de Gennes, _Mémoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais, avec les - pièces justificatives_ (Paris, 1750); _The Case of Mde la Bourdonnais, + See P. de Gennes, _Mémoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais, avec les + pièces justificatives_ (Paris, 1750); _The Case of Mde la Bourdonnais, in a Letter to a Friend_ (London, 1748); Fantin des Odoards, - _Révolutions de l'Inde_ (Paris, 1796); Collin de Bar, _Histoire de - l'Inde ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoën, - _Histoire de la conquête et de la fondation de l'empire anglais dans + _Révolutions de l'Inde_ (Paris, 1796); Collin de Bar, _Histoire de + l'Inde ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoën, + _Histoire de la conquête et de la fondation de l'empire anglais dans l'Inde_ (Paris, 1840); Margry, "Les Isles de France et de Bourbon sous le gouvernement de La Bourdonnais," in _La Revue maritime et - coloniale_ (1862); W. Cartwright, "Dupleix et l'Inde française," in + coloniale_ (1862); W. Cartwright, "Dupleix et l'Inde française," in _La Revue britannique_ (1882); G. B. Malleson, _Dupleix_ (Oxford, - 1895); Anandaranga Pillai, _Les Français dans l'Inde_, _Dupleix et - Labourdonnais, extraits du journal d'Anandaran-gappoullé 1736-1748_, - trans. in French by Vinsor in _École spéciale des langues orientales - vivantes_, séries 3, vol. xv. (Paris, 1894). + 1895); Anandaranga Pillai, _Les Français dans l'Inde_, _Dupleix et + Labourdonnais, extraits du journal d'Anandaran-gappoullé 1736-1748_, + trans. in French by Vinsor in _École spéciale des langues orientales + vivantes_, séries 3, vol. xv. (Paris, 1894). @@ -3257,7 +3225,7 @@ amount or engaged in art, science or letters, or being a "gentleman." Persons leaving a service were bound to obtain a testimonial, and might not be taken into fresh employment without producing such testimonial, or, if in a new district, until after showing it to the authorities of -the place. A master might be fined £5, and a labourer imprisoned, and if +the place. A master might be fined £5, and a labourer imprisoned, and if contumacious, whipped, for breach of this rule. The carefully devised scheme for technical training of apprentices embodied to a considerable extent the methods and experiences of the craft gilds. Hours of labour @@ -3400,7 +3368,7 @@ than twenty persons. "Visitors" were to be appointed by county justices for repression of contraventions, and were empowered to "direct the adoption of such sanitary regulations as they might on advice think proper." The mills were to be registered by the clerk of the peace, and -justices had power to inflict fines of from £2 to £5 for contraventions. +justices had power to inflict fines of from £2 to £5 for contraventions. Although enforcement of the very limited provisions of the act was in many cases poor or non-existent, in some districts excellent work was done by justices, and in 1803 the West Riding of Yorkshire justices @@ -4069,7 +4037,7 @@ December 1901:-- and gauge must be maintained in proper condition. Examination by a competent person must take place at least once in every fourteen months. The occupier of any factory or workshop may be liable for - penal compensation not exceeding £100 in case of injury or death due + penal compensation not exceeding £100 in case of injury or death due to neglect of any provision or special rule, the whole or any part of which may be applied for the benefit of the injured person or his family, as the secretary of state determines. When a death has @@ -4739,8 +4707,8 @@ Health Act 1875. not apply to such wages as are paid by the resident, owner or occupier of the public-house, beer-shop and other places included in the prohibition to any workman _bona fide_ employed by him. The penalty - for an offence against this act is one not exceeding £10 (compare the - limit of £20 for the corresponding offence under the Coal Mines Act), + for an offence against this act is one not exceeding £10 (compare the + limit of £20 for the corresponding offence under the Coal Mines Act), and all offences may be prosecuted and penalties recovered in England and Scotland under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts. The act does not apply to Ireland, and no special inspectorate is charged with the duty @@ -4796,10 +4764,10 @@ empowered by the act of 1892 to appoint; the latter providing a penalty of 40s. for failure of an employer to keep exhibited the notice of the provisions of the acts, which in the absence of a penalty it had been impossible to enforce. The penalty for employment contrary to the acts -is a fine not exceeding £1 for each person so employed, and for failure -to comply with the requirements as to seats, a fine not exceeding £3 for +is a fine not exceeding £1 for each person so employed, and for failure +to comply with the requirements as to seats, a fine not exceeding £3 for a first offence, and for any subsequent offence a fine of not less than -£1 and not exceeding £5. +£1 and not exceeding £5. Meaning of "shop." @@ -4855,7 +4823,7 @@ a first offence, and for any subsequent offence a fine of not less than clerical labour, come under the provisions of the Truck Acts 1831 to 1887, and in all circumstances they fall within the sections directed against unfair and unreasonable fines in the Truck Act of 1896; but, - unlike employés in factories, workshops, laundries and mines, they are + unlike employés in factories, workshops, laundries and mines, they are left to apply these provisions so far as they can themselves, since neither Home Office inspectors nor officers of the local authority have any specially assigned powers to administer the Truck Acts in @@ -5058,10 +5026,10 @@ on in the decision was that in the case of _Ingram_ v. _Barnes_. convictions obtained on prosecutions is not so high as under the Factory Acts, though the average penalty imposed is higher. In 1904, 61 cases were taken into court resulting in 34 convictions with an - average penalty of £1, 10s. In 1905, 38 cases resulting in 34 - convictions were taken with an average penalty of £1, 3s. In 1906, 37 + average penalty of £1, 10s. In 1905, 38 cases resulting in 34 + convictions were taken with an average penalty of £1, 3s. In 1906, 37 cases resulting in 25 convictions were taken with an average penalty - of £1, 10s. + of £1, 10s. Reference should here be made to the Shop Clubs Act of 1902 as closely allied with some of the provisions of the Truck Acts by its provision @@ -5125,7 +5093,7 @@ to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. and any work for the government in the interests of national defence or security. The limit of 12 hours was reduced, as regards works in which women or young workers are employed, in 1900 to 11, and was to - be successively reduced to 10½ hours and to 10 hours at intervals of + be successively reduced to 10½ hours and to 10 hours at intervals of two years from April 1900. This labour law for adults was preceded in 1841 by one for children, which prevented their employment in factories before 8 years of age and prohibited night labour for any @@ -5137,7 +5105,7 @@ to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. if qualified by the prescribed educational certificate and medical certificate of fitness. The limit of daily hours of employment is the same as for adult labour, and, similarly, from the 1st of April 1902 - was 10½, and two years later became 10 hours in the 24. Notice of the + was 10½, and two years later became 10 hours in the 24. Notice of the hours must be affixed, and meal-times or pauses with absolute cessation of work of at least one hour must be specified. By the act of 1892 one day in the week, not necessarily Sunday, had to be given @@ -5223,17 +5191,17 @@ to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. exceptions may be applied, generally, only to workers over 14 years, but in mines, by royal decree, boys over 12 years may be employed from 4 A.M. The law of 1889 fixes only a maximum of 12 hours of effective - work, to be interrupted by pauses for rest of not less than 1½ hours, + work, to be interrupted by pauses for rest of not less than 1½ hours, empowering the king by decree to formulate more precise limits suited to the special circumstances of individual industries. Royal decrees have accordingly laid down the conditions for many groups, including textile trades, manufacture of paper, pottery, glass, clothing, mines, quarries, engineering and printing works. In some the daily limit is - 10 hours, but in more 10½ or 11 hours. In a few exceptionally + 10 hours, but in more 10½ or 11 hours. In a few exceptionally unhealthy trades, such as the manufacture of lucifer matches, vulcanization of india-rubber by means of carbon bi-sulphide, the age of exclusion from employment has been raised, and in the last-named - process hours have been reduced to 5, broken into two spells of 2½ + process hours have been reduced to 5, broken into two spells of 2½ hours each. As a rule the conditions of health and safeguarding of employments in exceptionally injurious trades have been sought by a series of decrees under the law of 1863 relating to public health in @@ -5318,7 +5286,7 @@ to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. Federal, but in the latter there is only amplification or interpretation of the principles contained in the law of 1877, whereas cantonal legislation covers industries not included under the Federal - law, e.g. single workers employed in a trade (_métier_) and employment + law, e.g. single workers employed in a trade (_métier_) and employment in shops, offices and hotels. The Federal law is applied to factories, workshops employing young persons under 18 or more than 10 workers, and workshops in which unhealthy or dangerous processes are carried @@ -5341,9 +5309,9 @@ to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. exceptions are permitted conditionally. Night work is defined as 8 P.M. to 5 A.M. in summer, 8 P.M. to 6 A.M. in winter. Children are excluded from employment in workplaces under the law until 14 years of - age, and until 16 must attend continuation schools. Zürich canton has + age, and until 16 must attend continuation schools. Zürich canton has fixed the working day for women at 10 hours generally, and 9 hours on - Saturdays and eves of holidays. Bâle-Ville canton has the same limits + Saturdays and eves of holidays. Bâle-Ville canton has the same limits and provides that the very limited Sunday employment permitted shall be compensated by double time off on another day. In the German-speaking cantons girls under 18 are not permitted to work @@ -5371,7 +5339,7 @@ to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. Law 1877 generally prohibits payment of wages otherwise than in current coin, and provides that no deduction shall be made without an express contract. Some of the cantonal laws go much farther than the - British act of 1896 in forbidding certain deductions; e.g. Zürich + British act of 1896 in forbidding certain deductions; e.g. Zürich prohibits any charge for cleaning, warming or lighting workrooms or for hire of machinery. By the Federal law fines may not exceed half a day's wage. Administration of the Labour laws is divided between @@ -5406,7 +5374,7 @@ to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. working day for adult male workers, but since 1891 full powers were given to the Imperial government to limit hours for any classes of workers in industries where excessive length of the working day - endangers the health of the worker (R.G.O. § 120e). Previously + endangers the health of the worker (R.G.O. § 120e). Previously application had been made of powers to reduce the working day in such unhealthy industries as silvering of mirrors by mercury and the manufacture of white-lead. Separate states had, under mining laws, @@ -5493,14 +5461,14 @@ to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. are covered. Control of fines and deductions from wages applies only in factory industries and shops employing at least 20 workers. Shop hours are regulated by requiring shops to be closed generally between - 9 P.M. and 5 A.M., by requiring a fixed mid-day rest of 1½ hours and + 9 P.M. and 5 A.M., by requiring a fixed mid-day rest of 1½ hours and at least 10 hours' rest in the 24 for assistants. These limits can be modified by administrative authority. Notice of hours and working rules must be affixed. During the hours of compulsory closing sale of goods on the streets or from house to house is forbidden. Under the Commercial Code, as under the Civil Code, every employer is bound to adopt every possible measure for maintaining the safety, health and - good conduct of his employés. By an order of the Imperial Chancellor + good conduct of his employés. By an order of the Imperial Chancellor under the Commercial Code seats must be provided for commercial assistants and apprentices. @@ -5588,7 +5556,7 @@ to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. 18 years) to 10, with pauses. Night work between 8 P.M. and 6 A.M. is prohibited. All workers are entitled to a copy of a code of factory rules containing the terms of the contract of work drawn up by - representatives of employés with the employers and sanctioned by the + representatives of employés with the employers and sanctioned by the inspector. Health and safety in working are provided for in detail in the same law of 1892. Special rules may be made for dangerous trades, and in 1899 such rules were established for match factories, similar @@ -5601,7 +5569,7 @@ to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. Copenhagen by an order of the 23rd of May 1903. In Sweden the 12 years' limit had for some time held in the larger factories; the scope has been extended so that it corresponds with the Norwegian law. The - hours of children are, in Denmark, 6½ for those under 14 years; in + hours of children are, in Denmark, 6½ for those under 14 years; in Sweden 6 for those under 13 years. Young persons may not in either country work more than 10 hours daily, and night work, which is forbidden for persons under 18 years, is now defined as in Norway. @@ -5685,7 +5653,7 @@ IV. UNITED STATES Under the general head of Labour Legislation all American statute laws regulating labour, its conditions, and the relation of employer and -employé must be classed. It includes what is properly known as factory +employé must be classed. It includes what is properly known as factory legislation. Labour legislation belongs to the latter half of the 19th century, so far as the United States is concerned. Like England in the far past, the Americans in colonial days undertook to regulate wages and @@ -5854,7 +5822,7 @@ found it wise to follow them. labour legislation, or laws for the aid of workers who, on account of their economic dependence, are not in a position fully to protect themselves; (B) legislation having for its purpose the fixing of the - legal status of the worker as an employé, such as laws relating to the + legal status of the worker as an employé, such as laws relating to the making and breaking of the labour contract, the right to form organizations and to assemble peaceably, the settlement of labour disputes, the licensing of occupations, &c. @@ -5864,12 +5832,12 @@ found it wise to follow them. (A) The first class includes factory and workshop acts, laws relating to hours of labour, work on Sundays and holidays, the payment of - wages, the liability of employers for injuries to their employés, &c. + wages, the liability of employers for injuries to their employés, &c. Factory acts have been passed by nearly all the states of the Union. These may be considered in two groups--first, laws which relate to conditions of employment and affect only children, young persons and women; and second, laws which relate to the sanitary condition of - factories and workshops and to the safety of employés generally. The + factories and workshops and to the safety of employés generally. The states adopting such laws have usually made provision for factory inspectors, whose duties are to enforce these laws and who have power to enter and inspect factories and workshops. The most common @@ -5906,7 +5874,7 @@ found it wise to follow them. places where intoxicants are manufactured or sold, in cleaning or operating dangerous machinery, &c. Provisions of factory acts relating to the sanitary condition of factories and workshops and the safety of - employés have been enacted in nearly all the manufacturing states of + employés have been enacted in nearly all the manufacturing states of the Union. They prohibit overcrowding, and require proper ventilation, sufficient light and heat, the lime-washing or painting of walls and ceilings, the provision of exhaust fans and blowers in places where @@ -5926,12 +5894,12 @@ found it wise to follow them. which specify the hours per day or per week during which women and children may be employed. The statutes included in the first two groups place no restrictions upon the number of hours which may be - agreed upon between employers and employés, while those in the other + agreed upon between employers and employés, while those in the other three groups usually limit the freedom of contract and provide penalties for their violation. A considerable number of states have enacted laws which fix a day's labour in the absence of any contract, some at eight and others at ten hours, so that when an employer and an - employé make a contract and they do not specify what shall constitute + employé make a contract and they do not specify what shall constitute a day's labour, eight or ten hours respectively would be ruled as the day's labour in an action which might come before the courts. In a number of the states it is optional with the citizens to liquidate @@ -5939,7 +5907,7 @@ found it wise to follow them. service. In the latter case the length of the working day is defined by law, eight hours being usually specified. The Federal government and nearly one-half of the states have laws providing that eight hours - shall constitute a day's work for employés on public works. Under the + shall constitute a day's work for employés on public works. Under the Federal Act it is unlawful for any officer of the government or of any contractor or sub-contractor for public works to permit labourers and mechanics to work longer than eight hours per day. The state laws @@ -5947,11 +5915,11 @@ found it wise to follow them. provided for cases of extraordinary emergencies, such as danger to human life or property. In many states the hours of labour have been limited by law in occupations in which, on account of their dangerous - or insanitary character, the health of the employés would be + or insanitary character, the health of the employés would be jeopardized by long hours of labour, or in which the fatigue - occasioned by long hours would endanger the lives of the employés or + occasioned by long hours would endanger the lives of the employés or of the public. The occupations for which such special legislation has - been enacted are those of employés on steam and street railways, in + been enacted are those of employés on steam and street railways, in mines and other underground workings, smelting and refining works, bakeries and cotton and woollen mills. Laws limiting the hours of labour of women and children have been considered under factory and @@ -5963,7 +5931,7 @@ found it wise to follow them. Nearly all states and Territories of the Union have laws prohibiting the employment of labour on Sunday. These laws usually make it a misdemeanour for persons either to labour themselves or to compel or - permit their apprentices, servants or other employés, to labour on the + permit their apprentices, servants or other employés, to labour on the first day of the week. Exceptions are made in the case of household duties or works of necessity or charity, and in the case of members of religious societies who observe some other than the first day of the @@ -5972,7 +5940,7 @@ found it wise to follow them. Payment of wages. - Statutes concerning the payment of wages of employés may be considered + Statutes concerning the payment of wages of employés may be considered in two groups: (1) those which relate to the employment contract, such as laws fixing the maximum period of wage payments, prohibiting the payment of wages in scrip or other evidences of indebtedness in lieu @@ -5988,25 +5956,25 @@ found it wise to follow them. Employers' liability. - Employers' liability laws have been passed to enable an employé to + Employers' liability laws have been passed to enable an employé to recover damages from his employer under certain conditions when he has been injured through accident occurring in the works of the employer. The common-law maxim that the principal is responsible for the acts of his agent does not apply where two or more persons are working - together under the same employer and one of the employés is injured - through the carelessness of his fellow-employé, although the one + together under the same employer and one of the employés is injured + through the carelessness of his fellow-employé, although the one causing the accident is the agent of the principal, who under the common law would be responsible. The old Roman law and the English and - American practice under it held that the co-employé was a party to the + American practice under it held that the co-employé was a party to the accident. The injustice of this rule is seen by a single illustration. A weaver in a cotton factory, where there are hundreds of operatives, is injured by the neglect or carelessness of the engineer in charge of the motive power. Under the common law the weaver could not recover - damages from the employer, because he was the co-employé of the - engineer. So, one of thousands of employés of a railway system, + damages from the employer, because he was the co-employé of the + engineer. So, one of thousands of employés of a railway system, sustaining injuries through the carelessness of a switchman whom he never saw, could recover no damages from the railway company, both - being co-employés of the same employer. The injustice of this + being co-employés of the same employer. The injustice of this application of the common-law rule has been recognized, but the only way to avoid the difficulty was through specific legislation providing that under such conditions as those related, and similar ones, the @@ -6018,22 +5986,22 @@ found it wise to follow them. The first agitation for legislation of this character occurred in England in 1880. A number of states in the Union have now enacted statutes fixing the liability of employers under certain conditions - and relieving the employé from the application of the common-law rule. - Where the employé himself is contributory to the injuries resulting + and relieving the employé from the application of the common-law rule. + Where the employé himself is contributory to the injuries resulting from an accident he cannot recover, nor can he recover in some cases where he knows of the danger from the defects of tools or implements employed by him. The legislation upon the subject involves many features of legislation which need not be described here, such as - those concerning the power of employés to make a contract, and those + those concerning the power of employés to make a contract, and those defining the conditions, often elaborate, which lead to the liability - of the employer and the duties of the employé, and the relations in + of the employer and the duties of the employé, and the relations in which damages for injuries sustained in employment may be recovered from the employer. (B) The statutes thus far considered may be regarded as protective labour legislation. There is, besides, a large body of statutory laws enacted in the various states for the purpose of fixing the legal - status of employers and employés and defining their rights and + status of employers and employés and defining their rights and privileges as such. @@ -6046,7 +6014,7 @@ found it wise to follow them. human life or expose valuable property to serious injury, or to make a contract of service and accept transportation or pecuniary advancements with intent to defraud, prohibiting contracts of - employment whereby employés waive the right to damages in case of + employment whereby employés waive the right to damages in case of injury, &c. A Federal statute makes it a misdemeanour for any one to prepay the transportation or in any way assist or encourage the importation of aliens under contract to perform labour or service of @@ -6066,12 +6034,12 @@ found it wise to follow them. are those of barbers, horseshoers, elevator operators, plumbers, stationary firemen, steam engineers, telegraph operators on railroads and certain classes of mine workers and steam and street railway - employés. + employés. Labour organizations. -The right of combination and peaceable assembly on the part of employés +The right of combination and peaceable assembly on the part of employés is recognized at common law throughout the United States. Organizations of working-men formed for their mutual benefit, protection and improvement, such as for endeavouring to secure higher wages, shorter @@ -6099,9 +6067,9 @@ Until recent years all legal action concerning labour disturbances was based upon the principles of the common law. Some of the states have now fairly complete statutory enactments concerning labour disturbances, while others have little or no legislation of this class. The right of -employés to strike for any cause or for no cause is sustained by the +employés to strike for any cause or for no cause is sustained by the common law everywhere in the United States. Likewise an employer has a -right to discharge any or all of his employés when they have no contract +right to discharge any or all of his employés when they have no contract with him, and he may refuse to employ any person or class of persons for any reason or for no reason. Agreements among strikers to take peaceable means to induce others to remain away from the works of an employer @@ -6118,8 +6086,8 @@ part more or less departures from or additions to the established principles. The list of such statutory enactments is a large one, and includes laws relating to blacklisting, boycotting, conspiracy against working-men, interference with employment, intimidation, picketing and -strikes of railway employés; laws requiring statements of causes of -discharge of employés and notice of strikes in advertisements for +strikes of railway employés; laws requiring statements of causes of +discharge of employés and notice of strikes in advertisements for labour; laws prohibiting deception in the employment of labour and the hiring of armed guards by employers; and laws declaring that certain labour agreements do not constitute conspiracy. Some of these laws have @@ -6130,7 +6098,7 @@ the courts. Arbitration and conciliation. The laws just treated relate almost entirely to acts either of - employers or of employés, but there is another form of law, namely, + employers or of employés, but there is another form of law, namely, that providing for action to be taken by others in the effort to prevent working people from losing employment, either by their own acts or by those of their employers, or to settle any differences @@ -6143,7 +6111,7 @@ the courts. boards only. A number of states provide for local or special boards in addition to the regular state boards. In some states it is required that a member of a labour organization must be a member of the board, - and, in general, both employers and employés must be represented. + and, in general, both employers and employés must be represented. Nearly all state boards are required to attempt to mediate between the parties to a dispute when information is received of an actual or threatened labour trouble. Arbitration may be undertaken in some @@ -6157,7 +6125,7 @@ the courts. court. The Federal statute applies only to common carriers engaged in interstate commerce, and provides for an attempt to be made at mediation by two designated government officials in controversies - between common carriers and their employés, and, in case of the + between common carriers and their employés, and, in case of the failure of such an attempt, for the formation of a board of arbitration consisting of the same officials together with certain other parties to be selected. Such arbitration boards are to be formed @@ -6186,7 +6154,7 @@ laws is so hindered by reason of such events that any portion or class of the people are deprived thereby of their rights and privileges under the constitution and laws of the country. Under this general power the United States forces have been used for the protection of both employers -and employés indirectly, the purpose being to protect mails and, as in +and employés indirectly, the purpose being to protect mails and, as in the states, to see that the laws are carried out. The power of the courts to interfere in labour disputes is through the @@ -6200,7 +6168,7 @@ which writ gives the court which issued it the power to punish for contempt. The doctrine is that something is necessary to be done to stop at once the destruction of property and the obstruction of business, and the injunction is immediate in its action. This writ has been resorted -to frequently for the indirect protection of employés and of employers. +to frequently for the indirect protection of employés and of employers. (C. D. W.) AUTHORITIES.--ENGLISH: (a) Factory Legislation: Abraham and Davies, @@ -6239,14 +6207,14 @@ to frequently for the indirect protection of employés and of employers. Clauses of the Coal Mines Acts 1896, Memorandum relating to the Truck Acts, by Sir Kenelm Digby, with text of Acts (1897). - CONTINENTAL EUROPE: _Annuaire de la législation du travail_ - (Bruxelles, 1898-1905); _Hygiène et sécurité des travailleurs dans les + CONTINENTAL EUROPE: _Annuaire de la législation du travail_ + (Bruxelles, 1898-1905); _Hygiène et sécurité des travailleurs dans les ateliers industriels_ (Paris, 1895); _Bulletin de l'inspection du travail_ (Paris, 1895-1902); _Bulletin de l'office international du - travail_ (Paris, 1902-1906); _Congrès international de législation du - travail_ (1898); _Die Gewerbeordnung für das deutsche Reich_. (1) + travail_ (Paris, 1902-1906); _Congrès international de législation du + travail_ (1898); _Die Gewerbeordnung für das deutsche Reich_. (1) Landmann (1897); (2) Neukamp (1901); _Gesetz betr. Kinderarbeit in - gewerblichen Betrieben_, 30. _März 1903_; Konrad Agahd, _Manz'sche + gewerblichen Betrieben_, 30. _März 1903_; Konrad Agahd, _Manz'sche Gesetzausgabe_, erster Band und siebenter Band (Wien, 1897-1898); _Legge sugli infortunii del lavoro_ (Milan, 1900). @@ -6255,12 +6223,12 @@ to frequently for the indirect protection of employés and of employers. United States in 1907, with annotations of decisions of courts; bimonthly _Bulletins_ of the U.S. Bureau of Labor, containing laws passed since those published in the foregoing, and decisions of courts - relating to employers and employés; also special articles in these - _Bulletins_ on "Employer and Employé under the Common Law" (No. 1), + relating to employers and employés; also special articles in these + _Bulletins_ on "Employer and Employé under the Common Law" (No. 1), "Protection of Workmen in their Employment" (No. 26), "Government Industrial Arbitration" (No. 60), "Laws relating to the Employment of Women and Children, and to Factory Inspection and the Health and - Safety of Employés" (No. 74), "Wages and Hours of Labor in + Safety of Employés" (No. 74), "Wages and Hours of Labor in Manufacturing Industries, 1890 to 1907" (No. 77), "Review of Labor Legislation of 1908 and 1909" (No. 85); also "Report of the Industrial Commission on Labor Legislation" (vol. v., _U.S. Commission's @@ -6339,9 +6307,9 @@ parliament. LABRADOR,[1] a great peninsula in British North America, bounded E. by the North Atlantic, N. by Hudson Strait, W. by Hudson and James Bays, and S. by an arbitrary line extending eastwards from the south-east -corner of Hudson Bay, near 51° N., to the mouth of the Moisie river, on -the Gulf of St Lawrence, in 50° N., and thence eastwards by the Gulf of -St Lawrence. It extends from 50° to 63° N., and from 55° to 80° W., and +corner of Hudson Bay, near 51° N., to the mouth of the Moisie river, on +the Gulf of St Lawrence, in 50° N., and thence eastwards by the Gulf of +St Lawrence. It extends from 50° to 63° N., and from 55° to 80° W., and embraces an approximate area of 511,000 sq. m. Recent explorations and surveys have added greatly to the knowledge of this vast region, and have shown that much of the peninsula is not a land of "awful @@ -6353,7 +6321,7 @@ value in its forests, fisheries and minerals. the highest parts of that area. Along some portions of the coasts of Hudson and also of Ungava Bay there is a fringe of lowland, but most of the interior is a plateau rising toward the south and east. The - highest portion extends east and west between 52° and 54° N., where an + highest portion extends east and west between 52° and 54° N., where an immense granite area lies between the headwaters of the larger rivers of the four principal drainage basins; the lowest area is between Hudson Bay and Ungava Bay in the north-west, where the general level @@ -6427,14 +6395,14 @@ value in its forests, fisheries and minerals. _Climate._--The climate ranges from cold temperate on the southern coasts to arctic on Hudson Strait, and is generally so rigorous that - it is doubtful if the country is fit for agriculture north of 51°, + it is doubtful if the country is fit for agriculture north of 51°, except on the low grounds near the coast. On James Bay good crops of - potatoes and other roots are grown at Fort George, 54° N., while about + potatoes and other roots are grown at Fort George, 54° N., while about the head of Hamilton Inlet, on the east coast, and in nearly the same latitude, similar crops are easily cultivated. On the outer coasts the climate is more rigorous, being affected by the floating ice borne - southwards on the Arctic current. In the interior at Mistassini, 50° - 30´ N, a crop of potatoes is raised annually, but they rarely mature. + southwards on the Arctic current. In the interior at Mistassini, 50° + 30´ N, a crop of potatoes is raised annually, but they rarely mature. No attempts at agriculture have been made elsewhere inland. Owing to the absence of grass plains, there is little likelihood that it will ever be a grazing district. There are only two seasons in the @@ -6442,8 +6410,8 @@ value in its forests, fisheries and minerals. small lakes, and lasts until the middle of June, when the ice on rivers and lakes melts and summer suddenly bursts forth. From unconnected observations the lowest temperatures of the interior range - from -50° F. to -60° F., and are slightly higher along the coast. The - mean summer temperature of the interior is about 55° F., with frosts + from -50° F. to -60° F., and are slightly higher along the coast. The + mean summer temperature of the interior is about 55° F., with frosts during every month in the northern portion. On the Atlantic coast and in Hudson Bay the larger bays freeze solid between the 1st and 15th of December, and these coasts remain ice-bound until late in June. Hudson @@ -6454,11 +6422,11 @@ value in its forests, fisheries and minerals. belt, and nine species of trees constitute the whole arborescent flora of this region; these species are the white birch, poplar, aspen, cedar. Banksian pine, white and black spruce, balsam fir and larch. - The forest is continuous over the southern portion to 53° N., the only + The forest is continuous over the southern portion to 53° N., the only exceptions being the summits of rocky hills and the outer islands of the Atlantic and Hudson Bay, while the low margins and river valleys contain much valuable timber. To the northward the size and number of - barren areas rapidly increase, so that in 55° N. more than half the + barren areas rapidly increase, so that in 55° N. more than half the country is treeless, and two degrees farther north the limit of trees is reached, leaving, to the northward, only barrens covered with low Arctic flowering plants, sedges and lichens. @@ -6537,7 +6505,7 @@ government of Newfoundland, under Letters Patent of the 28th of March 1876, exercises jurisdiction along the Atlantic coast; the boundary between its territory and that of Canada is a line running due north and south from Anse Sablon, on the north shore of the Strait of Belle Isle, -to 52° N., the remainder of the boundary being as yet undetermined. The +to 52° N., the remainder of the boundary being as yet undetermined. The northern boundary of the province of Quebec follows the East Main river to its source in Patamisk lake, thence by a line due east to the Ashuanipi branch of the Hamilton river; it then follows that river and @@ -6588,7 +6556,7 @@ play of colours--blue, green, orange, purple or red; the colour in some specimens changing when the stone is viewed in different directions. This optical effect, known sometimes as "labradorescence," seems due in some cases to the presence of minute laminae of certain minerals, like -göthite or haematite, arranged parallel to the surface which reflects +göthite or haematite, arranged parallel to the surface which reflects the colour; but in other cases it may be caused not so much by inclusions as by a delicate lamellar structure in the felspar. An aventurine effect is produced by the presence of microscopic enclosures. @@ -6603,7 +6571,7 @@ known in several localities in the United States, as at Keeseville, in Essex county, New York. The ornamental stone from south Norway, now largely used as a decorative material in architecture, owes its beauty to a felspar with a blue opalescence, often called labradorite, but -really a kind of orthoclase which Professor W. C. Brögger has termed +really a kind of orthoclase which Professor W. C. Brögger has termed cryptoperthite, whilst the rock in which it occurs is an augite-syenite called by him laurvigite, from its chief locality, Laurvik in Norway. Common labradorite, without play of colour, is an important constituent @@ -6612,7 +6580,7 @@ PLAGIOCLASE.) Ejected crystals of labradorite are found on Monti Rossi, a double parasitic cone on Etna. The term labradorite is unfortunately used also as a rock-name, having -been applied by Fouqué and Lévy to a group of basic rocks rich in augite +been applied by Fouqué and Lévy to a group of basic rocks rich in augite and poor in olivine. (F. W. R.*) @@ -6638,51 +6606,51 @@ the upper lip of an insect, the lower lip being termed _labium_. -LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE (1643-1696), French essayist and moralist, was born +LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE (1643-1696), French essayist and moralist, was born in Paris on the 16th of August 1645, and not as was once the common statement, at Dourdan (Seine-et-Oise) in 1639. His family was of the -middle class, and his reference to a certain Geoffroy de la Bruyère, a +middle class, and his reference to a certain Geoffroy de la Bruyère, a crusader, is only a satirical illustration of a method of self-ennoblement common in France as in some other countries. Indeed he -himself always signed the name Delabruyère in one word, thus avowing his +himself always signed the name Delabruyère in one word, thus avowing his _roture_. His progenitors, however, were of respectable position, and he could trace them back at least as far as his great-grandfather, who had -been a strong Leaguer. La Bruyère's own father was controller-general of -finance to the Hôtel de Ville. The son was educated by the Oratorians +been a strong Leaguer. La Bruyère's own father was controller-general of +finance to the Hôtel de Ville. The son was educated by the Oratorians and at the university of Orleans; he was called to the bar, and in 1673 bought a post in the revenue department at Caen, which gave the status of noblesse and a certain income. In 1687 he sold this office. His predecessor in it was a relation of Bossuet, and it is thought that the -transaction was the cause of La Bruyère's introduction to the great +transaction was the cause of La Bruyère's introduction to the great orator. Bossuet, who from the date of his own preceptorship of the dauphin, was a kind of agent-general for tutorships in the royal family, -introduced him in 1684 to the household of the great Condé, to whose +introduced him in 1684 to the household of the great Condé, to whose grandson Henri Jules de Bourbon as well as to that prince's girl-bride -Mlle de Nantes, one of Louis XIV.'s natural children, La Bruyère became +Mlle de Nantes, one of Louis XIV.'s natural children, La Bruyère became tutor. The rest of his life was passed in the household of the prince or else at court, and he seems to have profited by the inclination which -all the Condé family had for the society of men of letters. Very little +all the Condé family had for the society of men of letters. Very little is known of the events of this part--or, indeed, of any part--of his life. The impression derived from the few notices of him is of a silent, observant, but somewhat awkward man, resembling in manners Joseph -Addison, whose master in literature La Bruyère undoubtedly was. Yet +Addison, whose master in literature La Bruyère undoubtedly was. Yet despite the numerous enemies which his book raised up for him, most of these notices are favourable--notably that of Saint-Simon, an acute judge and one bitterly prejudiced against _roturiers_ generally. There is, however, a curious passage in a letter from Boileau to Racine in -which he regrets that "nature has not made La Bruyère as agreeable as he -would like to be." His _Caractères_ appeared in 1688, and at once, as +which he regrets that "nature has not made La Bruyère as agreeable as he +would like to be." His _Caractères_ appeared in 1688, and at once, as Nicolas de Malezieu had predicted, brought him "bien des lecteurs et bien des ennemis." At the head of these were Thomas Corneille, Fontenelle and Benserade, who were pretty clearly aimed at in the book, as well as innumerable other persons, men and women of letters as well -as of society, on whom the cap of La Bruyère's fancy-portraits was +as of society, on whom the cap of La Bruyère's fancy-portraits was fitted by manuscript "keys" compiled by the scribblers of the day. The -friendship of Bossuet and still more the protection of the Condés +friendship of Bossuet and still more the protection of the Condés sufficiently defended the author, and he continued to insert fresh portraits of his contemporaries in each new edition of his book, especially in the 4th (1689). Those, however, whom he had attacked were -powerful in the Academy, and numerous defeats awaited La Bruyère before +powerful in the Academy, and numerous defeats awaited La Bruyère before he could make his way into that guarded hold. He was defeated thrice in 1691, and on one memorable occasion he had but seven votes, five of which were those of Bossuet, Boileau, Racine, Pellisson and @@ -6690,60 +6658,60 @@ Bussy-Rabutin. It was not till 1693 that he was elected, and even then an epigram, which, considering his admitted insignificance in conversation, was not of the worst, _haesit lateri_:-- - "Quand la Bruyère se présente + "Quand la Bruyère se présente Pourquoi faut il crier haro? Pour faire un nombre de quarante - Ne falloit il pas un zéro?" + Ne falloit il pas un zéro?" His unpopularity was, however, chiefly confined to the subjects of his sarcastic portraiture, and to the hack writers of the time, of whom he was wont to speak with a disdain only surpassed by that of Pope. His -description of the _Mercure galant_ as "_immédiatement au dessous de +description of the _Mercure galant_ as "_immédiatement au dessous de rien_" is the best-remembered specimen of these unwise attacks; and would of itself account for the enmity of the editors, Fontenelle and -the younger Corneille. La Bruyère's discourse of admission at the +the younger Corneille. La Bruyère's discourse of admission at the Academy, one of the best of its kind, was, like his admission itself, severely criticized, especially by the partisans of the "Moderns" in the -"Ancient and Modern" quarrel. With the _Caractères_, the translation of +"Ancient and Modern" quarrel. With the _Caractères_, the translation of Theophrastus, and a few letters, most of them addressed to the prince de -Condé, it completes the list of his literary work, with the exception of -a curious and much-disputed posthumous treatise. La Bruyère died very +Condé, it completes the list of his literary work, with the exception of +a curious and much-disputed posthumous treatise. La Bruyère died very suddenly, and not long after his admission to the Academy. He is said to have been struck with dumbness in an assembly of his friends, and, being -carried home to the Hôtel de Condé, to have expired of apoplexy a day or +carried home to the Hôtel de Condé, to have expired of apoplexy a day or two afterwards, on the 10th of May 1696. It is not surprising that, considering the recent panic about poisoning, the bitter personal enmities which he had excited and the peculiar circumstances of his death, suspicions of foul play should have been entertained, but there was apparently no foundation for them. Two years after his death -appeared certain _Dialogues sur le Quiétisme_, alleged to have been +appeared certain _Dialogues sur le Quiétisme_, alleged to have been found among his papers incomplete, and to have been completed by the editor. As these dialogues are far inferior in literary merit to La -Bruyère's other works, their genuineness has been denied. But the +Bruyère's other works, their genuineness has been denied. But the straightforward and circumstantial account of their appearance given by -this editor, the Abbé du Pin, a man of acknowledged probity, the -intimacy of La Bruyère with Bossuet, whose views in his contest with -Fénelon these dialogues are designed to further, and the entire absence, +this editor, the Abbé du Pin, a man of acknowledged probity, the +intimacy of La Bruyère with Bossuet, whose views in his contest with +Fénelon these dialogues are designed to further, and the entire absence, at so short a time after the alleged author's death, of the least protest on the part of his friends and representatives, seem to be decisive in their favour. Although it is permissible to doubt whether the value of the -_Caractères_ has not been somewhat exaggerated by traditional French +_Caractères_ has not been somewhat exaggerated by traditional French criticism, they deserve beyond all question a high place. The plan of the book is thoroughly original, if that term may be accorded to a novel and skilful combination of existing elements. The treatise of Theophrastus may have furnished the first idea, but it gave little more. With the ethical generalizations and social Dutch painting of his -original La Bruyère combined the peculiarities of the Montaigne essay, -of the _Pensées_ and _Maximes_ of which Pascal and La Rochefoucauld are +original La Bruyère combined the peculiarities of the Montaigne essay, +of the _Pensées_ and _Maximes_ of which Pascal and La Rochefoucauld are the masters respectively, and lastly of that peculiar 17th-century product, the "portrait" or elaborate literary picture of the personal and mental characteristics of an individual. The result was quite unlike anything that had been before seen, and it has not been exactly reproduced since, though the essay of Addison and Steele resembles it very closely, especially in the introduction of fancy portraits. In the -titles of his work, and in its extreme desultoriness, La Bruyère reminds +titles of his work, and in its extreme desultoriness, La Bruyère reminds the reader of Montaigne, but he aimed too much at sententiousness to attempt even the apparent continuity of the great essayist. The short paragraphs of which his chapters consist are made up of maxims proper, @@ -6757,10 +6725,10 @@ the originals, who were in many cases unmistakable and in most recognizable. But there is something wanting in them. The criticism of Charpentier, -who received La Bruyère at the Academy, and who was of the opposite -faction, is in fact fully justified as far as it goes. La Bruyère +who received La Bruyère at the Academy, and who was of the opposite +faction, is in fact fully justified as far as it goes. La Bruyère literally "est [trop] descendu dans le particulier." He has neither, -like Molière, embodied abstract peculiarities in a single life-like +like Molière, embodied abstract peculiarities in a single life-like type, nor has he, like Shakespeare, made the individual pass _sub speciem aeternitatis_, and serve as a type while retaining his individuality. He is a photographer rather than an artist in his @@ -6768,8 +6736,8 @@ portraiture. So, too, his maxims, admirably as they are expressed, and exact as their truth often is, are on a lower level than those of La Rochefoucauld. Beside the sculpturesque precision, the Roman brevity, the profoundness of ethical intuition "piercing to the accepted hells -beneath," of the great Frondeur, La Bruyère has the air of a literary -_petit-maître_ dressing up superficial observation in the finery of +beneath," of the great Frondeur, La Bruyère has the air of a literary +_petit-maître_ dressing up superficial observation in the finery of _esprit_. It is indeed only by comparison that he loses, but then it is by comparison that he is usually praised. His abundant wit and his personal "malice" have done much to give him his rank in French @@ -6783,14 +6751,14 @@ in his avowed design of attracting readers by form, now that, in point of matter, "tout est dit." It ought to be added to his credit that he was sensible of the folly of impoverishing French by ejecting old words. His chapter on "Les ouvrages de l'esprit" contains much good criticism, -though it shows that, like most of his contemporaries except Fénelon, he +though it shows that, like most of his contemporaries except Fénelon, he was lamentably ignorant of the literature of his own tongue. - The editions of La Bruyère, both partial and complete, have been - extremely numerous. _Les Caractères de Théophraste traduits du Grec, - avec les caractères et les moeurs de ce siècle_, appeared for the + The editions of La Bruyère, both partial and complete, have been + extremely numerous. _Les Caractères de Théophraste traduits du Grec, + avec les caractères et les moeurs de ce siècle_, appeared for the first time in 1688, being published by Michallet, to whose little - daughter, according to tradition, La Bruyère gave the profits of the + daughter, according to tradition, La Bruyère gave the profits of the book as a dowry. Two other editions, little altered, were published in the same year. In the following year, and in each year until 1694, with the exception of 1693, a fresh edition appeared, and, in all @@ -6798,25 +6766,25 @@ was lamentably ignorant of the literature of his own tongue. ninth edition, not much altered, was put forth in the year of the author's death. The Academy speech appeared in the eighth edition. The Quietist dialogues were published in 1699; most of the letters, - including those addressed to Condé, not till 1867. In recent times + including those addressed to Condé, not till 1867. In recent times numerous editions of the complete works have appeared, notably those of Walckenaer (1845), Servois (1867, in the series of _Grands - écrivains de la France_), Asselineau (a scholarly reprint of the last + écrivains de la France_), Asselineau (a scholarly reprint of the last original edition, 1872) and finally Chassang (1876); the last is one of the most generally useful, as the editor has collected almost everything of value in his predecessors. The literature of "keys" to - La Bruyère is extensive and apocryphal. Almost everything that can be + La Bruyère is extensive and apocryphal. Almost everything that can be done in this direction and in that of general illustration was done by - Edouard Fournier in his learned and amusing _Comédie de La Bruyère_ - (1866); M. Paul Morillot contributed a monograph on La Bruyère to the - series of _Grands écrivains français_ in 1904. (G. Sa.) + Edouard Fournier in his learned and amusing _Comédie de La Bruyère_ + (1866); M. Paul Morillot contributed a monograph on La Bruyère to the + series of _Grands écrivains français_ in 1904. (G. Sa.) LABUAN (a corruption of the Malay word _labuh-an_, signifying an "anchorage"), an island of the Malay Archipelago, off the north-west -coast of Borneo in 5° 16´ N., 115° 15´ E. Its area is 30.23 sq. m.; it +coast of Borneo in 5° 16´ N., 115° 15´ E. Its area is 30.23 sq. m.; it is distant about 6 m. from the mainland of Borneo at the nearest point, and lies opposite to the northern end of the great Brunei Bay. The island is covered with low hills rising from flats near the shore to an @@ -6846,7 +6814,7 @@ Labuan & Borneo Ltd., liquidated in 1902 after the collapse of a shaft upon which large sums had been expended. It was succeeded by the Labuan Coalfields Ltd. The harbour is a fine one, and the above-named company possesses three wharves capable of berthing the largest Eastern-going -ocean steamers. To-day Labuan chiefly exists as a trading depôt for the +ocean steamers. To-day Labuan chiefly exists as a trading depôt for the natives of the neighbouring coast of Borneo, who sell their produce--beeswax, edible birds-nests, camphor, gutta, trepang, &c.,--to Chinese shopkeepers, who resell it in Singapore. There is also a @@ -6901,7 +6869,7 @@ laburnum or beane trefoyle (_Herball_, p. 1239), but the date of its introduction into England appears to be unknown. In France it is called _l'aubour_--a corruption from laburnum according to Du Hamel--as also _arbois_, i.e. _arc-bois_, "the wood having been used by the ancient -Gauls for bows. It is still so employed in some parts of the Mâconnois, +Gauls for bows. It is still so employed in some parts of the Mâconnois, where the bows are found to preserve their strength and elasticity for half a century" (Loudon, _Arboretum_, ii. 590). @@ -6960,7 +6928,7 @@ famous labyrinths of antiquity. 1. The Egyptian: of which a description is given by Herodotus (ii. 148) and Strabo (xvii. 811). It was situated to the east of Lake Moeris, -opposite the ancient site of Arsinoë or Crocodilopolis. According to +opposite the ancient site of Arsinoë or Crocodilopolis. According to Egyptologists, the word means "the temple at the entrance of the lake." According to Herodotus, the entire building, surrounded by a single wall, contained twelve courts and 3000 chambers, 1500 above and 1500 @@ -6978,7 +6946,7 @@ the Fayum, and (in 1888) Flinders Petrie discovered its foundation, the extent of which is about 1000 ft. long by 800 ft. wide. Immediately to the north of it is the pyramid of Hawara, in which the mummies of the king and his daughter have been found (see W. M. Flinders Petrie, -_Hawara, Biahmu, and Arsinoë_, 1889). +_Hawara, Biahmu, and Arsinoë_, 1889). 2. The Cretan: said to have been built by Daedalus on the plan of the Egyptian, and famous for its connexion with the legend of the Minotaur. @@ -7009,12 +6977,12 @@ Lastly, Pliny (xxxvi. 19) applies the word to a rude drawing on the ground or pavement, to some extent anticipating the modern or garden maze. - On the Egyptian labyrinth see A. Wiedemann, _Ägyptische Geschichte_ + On the Egyptian labyrinth see A. Wiedemann, _Ägyptische Geschichte_ (1884), p. 258, and his edition of the second book of Herodotus - (1890); on the Cretan, C. Höck, _Kreta_ (1823-1829), and A. J. Evans + (1890); on the Cretan, C. Höck, _Kreta_ (1823-1829), and A. J. Evans in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_; on the subject generally, articles in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ and Daremberg and Saglio's - _Dictionnaire des antiquités_. + _Dictionnaire des antiquités_. [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Labyrinth of Batty Langley.] @@ -7092,7 +7060,7 @@ noblest of its kind in the world." The maze in the gardens at Somerleyton Hall, near Lowestoft (fig. 5), was designed by Mr John Thomas. The hedges are of English yew, are - about 6½ ft. high, and have been planted about sixty years. In the + about 6½ ft. high, and have been planted about sixty years. In the centre is a grass mound, raised to the height of the hedges, and on this mound is a pagoda, approached by a curved grass path. At the two corners on the western side are banks of laurels 15 or 16 ft. high. On @@ -7148,7 +7116,7 @@ this. 3 A portion of the network of _Labyrinthula vitellina_, Cienk., more highly magnified. p, Protoplasmic mass apparently produced by fusion - of several filaments. p´, Fusion of several cells which have lost + of several filaments. p´, Fusion of several cells which have lost their definite spindle-shaped contour. s, Corpuscles which have become spherical and are no longer moving (perhaps about to be encysted). @@ -7184,10 +7152,10 @@ its affinities seem to such social naked Foraminifera as _Mikrogromia_. See Cienkowsky, _Archiv f. Microscopische Anatomie_, iii. 274 (1867), xii. 44 (1876); W. Archer, _Quart. Jour. Microscopic Science_, xv. 107 (1875); E. R. Lankester, _Ibid._, xxxix., 233 (1896); Hieronymus and - Jenkinson, _Ibid._, xiii. 89 (1899); W. Zopf, _Beiträge zur + Jenkinson, _Ibid._, xiii. 89 (1899); W. Zopf, _Beiträge zur Physiologie und Morphologie niederer Organismen_, ii. 36 (1892), iv. - 60 (1894); Pènard, _Archiv für Protistenkunde_, iv. 296 (1904); F. - Schaudinn and Leyden, _Sitzungsberichte der Königlich preussischen + 60 (1894); Pènard, _Archiv für Protistenkunde_, iv. 296 (1904); F. + Schaudinn and Leyden, _Sitzungsberichte der Königlich preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaft_, vi. (1896). @@ -7248,7 +7216,7 @@ with, cochineal. LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE (1713-1762), French astronomer, was born at Rumigny, in the Ardennes, on the 15th of March 1713. Left destitute by the death of his father, who held a post in the household of the duchess -of Vendôme, his theological studies at the Collège de Lisieux in Paris +of Vendôme, his theological studies at the Collège de Lisieux in Paris were prosecuted at the expense of the duke of Bourbon. After he had taken deacon's orders, however, he devoted himself exclusively to science, and, through the patronage of J. Cassini, obtained employment, @@ -7279,27 +7247,27 @@ universal respect. Astr. Society_, v. 93); Tabulae Solares (1758); _Coelum australe stelliferum_ (1763) (edited by J. D. Maraldi), giving zone-observations of 10,000 stars, and describing fourteen new - constellations; "Observations sur 515 étoiles du Zodiaque" (published - in t. vi. of his _Éphémérides_, 1763); _Leçons élémentaires de - Mathématiques_ (1741), frequently reprinted; ditto _de Mécanique_ + constellations; "Observations sur 515 étoiles du Zodiaque" (published + in t. vi. of his _Éphémérides_, 1763); _Leçons élémentaires de + Mathématiques_ (1741), frequently reprinted; ditto _de Mécanique_ (1743), &c.; ditto _d'Astronomie_ (1746), 4th edition augmented by Lalande (1779); ditto _d'Optique_ (1750), &c. Calculations by him of eclipses for eighteen hundred years were inserted in _L'Art de - vérifier les dates_ (1750); he communicated to the Academy in 1755 a + vérifier les dates_ (1750); he communicated to the Academy in 1755 a classed catalogue of forty-two southern nebulae, and gave in t. ii. of - his _Éphémérides_ (1755) practical rules for the employment of the + his _Éphémérides_ (1755) practical rules for the employment of the lunar method of longitudes, proposing in his additions to Pierre - Bouguer's _Traité de Navigation_ (1760) the model of a nautical + Bouguer's _Traité de Navigation_ (1760) the model of a nautical almanac. - See G. de Fouchy, "Éloge de Lacaille," _Hist. de l'Acad. des + See G. de Fouchy, "Éloge de Lacaille," _Hist. de l'Acad. des Sciences_, p. 197 (1762); G. Brotier, Preface to Lacaille's _Coelum australe_; Claude Carlier, _Discours historique_, prefixed to Lacaille's _Journal historique du voyage fait au Cap_ (1763); J. J. Lalande, _Connoissance des temps_, p. 185 (1767); _Bibl. astr._ pp. - 422, 456, 461, 482; J. Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siècle_, + 422, 456, 461, 482; J. Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siècle_, pp. 457-542; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. moderne_, tomes ii., - iii., _passim_; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch_; R. + iii., _passim_; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch_; R. Grant, _Hist. of Physical Astronomy_, pp. 486, &c.; R. Wolf, _Geschichte der Astronomie_. A catalogue of 9766 stars, reduced from Lacaille's observations by T. Henderson, under the supervision of F. @@ -7377,7 +7345,7 @@ exist of this town. In 1677 they moved their headquarters to La Calle. The company--_Compagnie d'Afrique_--who owned the concession for the fishery was suppressed in 1798 on the outbreak of war between France and Algeria. In 1806 the British consul-general at Algiers obtained the -right to occupy Bona and La Calle for an annual rent of £11,000; but +right to occupy Bona and La Calle for an annual rent of £11,000; but though the money was paid for several years no practical effect was given to the agreement. The French regained possession in 1817, were expelled during the wars of 1827, when La Calle was burnt, but returned @@ -7387,21 +7355,21 @@ century, of heavy taxes on all save French boats drove the foreign vessels away. For some years the industry was abandoned, but was restarted on a small scale in 1903. - See Abbé Poiret, _Voyage en Barbarie_ ... (Paris, 1789); E. Broughton, + See Abbé Poiret, _Voyage en Barbarie_ ... (Paris, 1789); E. Broughton, _Six Years' Residence in Algiers_ (London, 1839) and Sir R. L. Playfair, _Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce_ (London, 1877). -LA CALPRENÈDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES, SEIGNEUR DE (_c._ 1610-1663), French -novelist and dramatist, was born at the Château of Tolgou, near Sarlat +LA CALPRENÈDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES, SEIGNEUR DE (_c._ 1610-1663), French +novelist and dramatist, was born at the Château of Tolgou, near Sarlat (Dordogne), in 1609 or 1610. After studying at Toulouse, he came to Paris and entered the regiment of the guards, becoming in 1650 gentleman-in-ordinary of the royal household. He died in 1663 in consequence of a kick from his horse. He was the author of several long heroic romances ridiculed by Boileau. They are: _Cassandre_ (10 vols., -1642-1650); _Cléopatre_ (1648); _Faramond_ (1661); and _Les Nouvelles, +1642-1650); _Cléopatre_ (1648); _Faramond_ (1661); and _Les Nouvelles, ou les Divertissements de la princesse Alcidiane_ (1661) published under his wife's name, but generally attributed to him. His plays lack the spirit and force that occasionally redeem the novels. The best is _Le @@ -7427,7 +7395,7 @@ known as "Government Farm." LACCADIVE ISLANDS, a group of coral reefs and islands in the Indian -Ocean, lying between 10° and 12° 20´ N. and 71° 40´ and 74° E. The name +Ocean, lying between 10° and 12° 20´ N. and 71° 40´ and 74° E. The name Laccadives (_laksha dwipa_, the "hundred thousand isles") is that given by the people of the Malabar coast, and was probably meant to include the Maldives; they are called by the natives simply _Divi_, "islands," @@ -7471,12 +7439,12 @@ writing are common accomplishments among the men. The chief industry is the manufacture of coir. The various processes are entrusted to the women. The men employ themselves with boatbuilding and in conveying the island produce to the coast. The exports from the Laccadives are of the -annual value of about £17,000. +annual value of about £17,000. _History._--No data exist for determining at what period the Laccadives were first colonized. The earliest mention of them as - distinguished from the Maldives seems to be by Albírúní (c. 1030), who - divides the whole archipelago (Díbaját) into the _Dívah Kúzah_ or + distinguished from the Maldives seems to be by AlbÃrúnà (c. 1030), who + divides the whole archipelago (DÃbaját) into the _DÃvah Kúzah_ or Cowrie Islands (the Maldives), and the _Divah Kanbar_ or Coir Islands (the Laccadives). (See _Journ. Asiat. Soc._, September 1844, p. 265). The islanders were converted to Islam by an Arab apostle named Mumba @@ -7689,7 +7657,7 @@ sorts of ornamental needlework already mentioned clearly postulated such special labour as was capable of being converted into lace-making. And from the 16th century onwards the stimulus to the industry in Europe was afforded by regular trade demand, coupled with the exertions of those -who encouraged their dependents or protegés to give their spare time to +who encouraged their dependents or protegés to give their spare time to remunerative home occupations. Thus the origin and perpetuation of the industry have come to be associated with the women folk of peasants and fishermen in circumstances which present little dissimilarity whether in @@ -7697,7 +7665,7 @@ regard to needle lace workers now making lace in whitewashed cottages and cabins at Youghal and Kenmare in the south of Ireland, or those who produced their "punti in aria" during the 16th century about the lagoons of Venice, or Frenchwomen who made the sumptuous "Points de France" at -Alençon and elsewhere in the 17th and 18th centuries; or pillow lace +Alençon and elsewhere in the 17th and 18th centuries; or pillow lace workers to be seen at the present day at little seaside villages tucked away in Devonshire dells, or those who were engaged more than four hundred years ago in "merletti a piombini" in Italian villages or on @@ -7799,7 +7767,7 @@ and other Italian lace-makers. [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Portion of a Flounce of Needlepoint Lace, French, early 18th century, "Point de France." The honeycomb ground is considered to be a peculiarity of "Point d'Argentan": some of the -fillings are made in the manner of the "Point d'Alençon" _réseau_.] +fillings are made in the manner of the "Point d'Alençon" _réseau_.] France and England were not far behind Venice and Flanders in making needle and pillow lace. Henry III. of France (1574-1589) appointed a @@ -7811,8 +7779,8 @@ higher development of the French art of lace-making was the aid officially given it in the following century by Louis XIV., acting on the advice of his minister Colbert. Intrigue and diplomacy were put into action to secure the services of Venetian lace-workers; and by an edict -dated 1665 the lace-making centres at Alençon, Quesnoy, Arras, Reims, -Sedan, Château Thierry, Loudun and elsewhere were selected for the +dated 1665 the lace-making centres at Alençon, Quesnoy, Arras, Reims, +Sedan, Château Thierry, Loudun and elsewhere were selected for the operations of a company in aid of which the state made a contribution of 36,000 francs; at the same time the importation of Venetian, Flemish and other laces was strictly forbidden.[5] The edict contained instructions @@ -7824,7 +7792,7 @@ ambassador at Paris writes, "Gallantly is the minister Colbert on his way to bring the 'lavori d'aria' to perfection." Six years later an Italian, Domenigo Contarini, alludes to the "punto in aria," "which the French can now do to admiration." The styles of design which emanated -from the chief of the French lace centre, Alençon, were more fanciful +from the chief of the French lace centre, Alençon, were more fanciful and less severe than the Venetian, and it is evident that the Flemish lace-makers later on adopted many of these French patterns for their own use. The provision of French designs (fig. 24) which owes so much to the @@ -7869,7 +7837,7 @@ fig. 14). The industry is not alluded to in Spanish ordinances of the to the Moors or Saracens are still current in Seville and its neighbourhood, where a twisted and knotted arrangement of fine cords is often worked[6] under the name of "Morisco" fringe, elsewhere called -macramé lace. Black and white silk pillow laces, or "blondes," date from +macramé lace. Black and white silk pillow laces, or "blondes," date from the 18th century. They were made in considerable quantity in the neighbourhood of Chantilly, and imported for mantillas by Spain, where corresponding silk lace making was started. Although after the 18th @@ -7915,7 +7883,7 @@ lace-making at a sufficiently remunerative rate of wages. The production of hand-made laces in Belgium was in 1900 greater than that of France. The principal modern needle-made lace of Belgium is the "Point de Gaze"; "Duchesse" and Bruges laces are the chief pillow-made laces; whilst -"Point Appliqué" and "Plat Appliqué" are frequently the results not only +"Point Appliqué" and "Plat Appliqué" are frequently the results not only of combining needle-made and pillow work, but also of using them in conjunction with machine-made net. Ireland is the best producer of that substantial looped-thread work known as crochet (see figs. 25, 26, 27), @@ -7967,7 +7935,7 @@ crochet in figs. 25, 26 and 27 indicate. [Illustration: PLATE IV. - FIG. 13.--MME VERBIEST, WEARING PILLOW-MADE LACE _À RÉSEAU_. + FIG. 13.--MME VERBIEST, WEARING PILLOW-MADE LACE _À RÉSEAU_. From the family group by GONZALES COQUER. Buckingham Palace. About 1664. @@ -7976,7 +7944,7 @@ crochet in figs. 25, 26 and 27 indicate. Paris_.) FIG. 14.--PIECE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE USUALLY KNOWN AS "POINT DE - FLANDRES À BRIDES." + FLANDRES À BRIDES." Of the middle of the 17th century, the designs for which were often adaptations from those made for such needlepoint lace as that of the @@ -7988,7 +7956,7 @@ crochet in figs. 25, 26 and 27 indicate. From a group by LARGILLIERE. National Portrait Gallery. (_Photo by Emery Walker_.) - FIG. 16.--FLOUNCE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE _À RÉSEAU_. + FIG. 16.--FLOUNCE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE _À RÉSEAU_. Flemish, of the middle of the 17th century. This lace is usually thought to be the earliest type of "Point d'Angleterre" in @@ -8043,9 +8011,9 @@ machines in use at the present time were developed. But it was the application of the celebrated Jacquard apparatus to such machines that enabled manufacturers to produce all sorts of patterns in thread-work in imitation of the patterns for hand-made lace. A French machine called -the "dentellière" was devised (see La Nature for the 3rd of March 1881), +the "dentellière" was devised (see La Nature for the 3rd of March 1881), and the patterns produced by it were of plaited threads. The expense, -however, attending the production of plaited lace by the "dentellière" +however, attending the production of plaited lace by the "dentellière" is as great as that of pillow lace made by the hand, and so the machine has not succeeded for ordinary trade purposes. More successful results have been secured by the new patent circular lace machine of Messrs. @@ -8071,9 +8039,9 @@ portions are often decorated with clusters of small loops. For the most part all this elaboration was brought to a high pitch of variety and finish by French designers and workers; and French terms are more usual in speaking of details in laces. Thus the solid part of the pattern is -called the _toilé_ or clothing, the links or ties are called _brides_, -the meshed grounds are called _réseaux_, the outline to the edges of a -pattern is called _cordonnet_ or _brodé_, the insertions of fanciful +called the _toilé_ or clothing, the links or ties are called _brides_, +the meshed grounds are called _réseaux_, the outline to the edges of a +pattern is called _cordonnet_ or _brodé_, the insertions of fanciful devices _modes_, the little loops _picots_. These terms are applicable to the various portions of laces made with the needle, on the pillow or by the machine. @@ -8082,12 +8050,12 @@ The sequence of patterns in lace (which may be verified upon referring to figs. 1 to 23) is roughly as follows. From about 1540 to 1590 they were composed of geometric forms set within squares, or of crossed and radiating line devices, resulting in a very open fabric, stiff and -almost wiry in effect, without _brides_ or _réseaux_. From 1590 may be +almost wiry in effect, without _brides_ or _réseaux_. From 1590 may be dated the introduction into patterns of very conventional floral and even human and animal forms and slender scrolls, rendered in a tape-like texture, held together by _brides_. To the period from 1620 to 1670 belongs the development of long continuous scroll patterns with -_réseaux_ and _brides_, accompanied in the case of needle-made laces +_réseaux_ and _brides_, accompanied in the case of needle-made laces with an elaboration of details, e.g. _cordonnet_ with massings of _picots_. Much of these laces enriched with fillings or _modes_ was made at this time. From 1650 to 1700 the scroll patterns gave way to @@ -8096,7 +8064,7 @@ about 1700 to 1760 more important schemes or designs were made (as in Pl. fig. 19, and in fig. 24 in text), into which were introduced naturalistic renderings of garlands, flowers, birds, trophies, architectural ornament and human figures. Grounds composed entirely of -varieties of _modes_ as in the case of the _réseau rosacé_ (Pl. V. fig. +varieties of _modes_ as in the case of the _réseau rosacé_ (Pl. V. fig. 21) were sometimes made then. From 1760 to 1800 small details consisting of bouquets, sprays of flowers, single flowers, leaves, buds, spots and such like were adopted, and sprinkled over meshed grounds, and the @@ -8116,10 +8084,10 @@ then stitched to two pieces of linen. Upon the leading lines drawn on the parchment a thread is laid, and fastened through to the parchment and linen by means of stitches, thus constructing a skeleton thread pattern (see left-hand part of fig. 30). Those portions which are to be -represented as the "clothing" or _toilé_ are usually worked as indicated +represented as the "clothing" or _toilé_ are usually worked as indicated in the enlarged diagram (fig. 29), and then edged as a rule with -buttonhole stitching (fig. 28). Between these _toilé_ portions of the -pattern are worked ties (_brides_) or meshes (_réseaux_), and thus the +buttonhole stitching (fig. 28). Between these _toilé_ portions of the +pattern are worked ties (_brides_) or meshes (_réseaux_), and thus the various parts united into one fabric are wrought on to the face of the parchment pattern and reproducing it (see right-hand part of fig. 30). A knife is passed between the two pieces of linen at the back of the @@ -8157,39 +8125,39 @@ which the buttonhole stitch appears capable of being put in making ornaments. But about 1660 came laces with _brides_ or ties arranged in a honeycomb reticulation or regular ground. To them succeeded lace in which the compact relief gave place to daintier and lighter material -combined with a ground of meshes or _réseau_. The needle-made meshes +combined with a ground of meshes or _réseau_. The needle-made meshes were sometimes of single and sometimes of double threads. A diagram is given of an ordinary method of making such meshes (fig. 31). At the end of the 17th century the lightest of the Venetian needlepoint laces were made; and this class which was of the filmiest texture is usually known -as "point de Venise à réseau" (Pl. V. fig. 20a). It was contemporary -with the needle-made French laces of Alençon and Argentan[8] that became +as "point de Venise à réseau" (Pl. V. fig. 20a). It was contemporary +with the needle-made French laces of Alençon and Argentan[8] that became famous towards the latter part of the 17th century (Pl. V. fig. 20b). "Point d'Argentan" has been thought to be especially distinguished on account of its delicate honeycomb ground of hexagonally arranged _brides_ (fig. 32), a peculiarity already referred to in certain antecedent Venetian point laces. Often intermixed with this hexagonal -_brides_ ground is the fine-meshed ground or _réseau_ (fig. 20b), which -has been held to be distinctive of "point d'Alençon." But the styles of +_brides_ ground is the fine-meshed ground or _réseau_ (fig. 20b), which +has been held to be distinctive of "point d'Alençon." But the styles of patterns and the methods of working them, with rich variety of -insertions or _modes_, with the _brodé_ or _cordonnet_ of raised -buttonhole stitched edging, are alike in Argentan and Alençon +insertions or _modes_, with the _brodé_ or _cordonnet_ of raised +buttonhole stitched edging, are alike in Argentan and Alençon needle-made laces (Pl. V. fig. 20b and fig. 32). Besides the hexagonal _brides_ ground and the ground of meshes another variety of grounding -(_réseau rosacé_) was used in certain Alençon designs. This ground +(_réseau rosacé_) was used in certain Alençon designs. This ground consisted of buttonhole-stitched skeleton hexagons within each of which -was worked a small hexagon of _toilé_ connected with the outer +was worked a small hexagon of _toilé_ connected with the outer surrounding hexagon by means of six little ties or _brides_ (Pl. V. fig. 21). Lace with this particular ground has been called "Argentella," and some writers have thought that it was a specialty of Genoese or Venetian work. But the character of the work and the style of the floral patterns -are those of Alençon laces. The industry at Argentan was virtually an -offshoot of that nurtured at Alençon, where "lacis," "cut work" and -"vélin" (work on parchment) had been made for years before the -well-developed needle-made "point d'Alençon" came into vogue under the +are those of Alençon laces. The industry at Argentan was virtually an +offshoot of that nurtured at Alençon, where "lacis," "cut work" and +"vélin" (work on parchment) had been made for years before the +well-developed needle-made "point d'Alençon" came into vogue under the favouring patronage of the state-aided lace company mentioned as having been formed in 1665. Madame Despierre in her _Histoire du point -d'Alençon_ gives an interesting and trustworthy account of the industry. +d'Alençon_ gives an interesting and trustworthy account of the industry. [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Border of Needlepoint Lace made in France about 1740-1750, the clear hexagonal mesh ground, which is compactly stitched, @@ -8197,8 +8165,8 @@ being usually regarded as characteristic of the point de France made at Argentan.] In Belgium, Brussels has acquired some celebrity for needle-made laces. -These, however, are chiefly in imitation of those made at Alençon, but -the _toilé_ is of less compact texture and sharpness in definition of +These, however, are chiefly in imitation of those made at Alençon, but +the _toilé_ is of less compact texture and sharpness in definition of pattern. Brussels needlepoint lace is often worked with meshed grounds made on a pillow, and a plain thread is used as a _cordonnet_ for their patterns instead of a thread overcast with buttonhole stitches as in the @@ -8214,8 +8182,8 @@ Needlepoint Lace. (English, 17th century. Victoria and Albert Museum.)] SIMILAR IN STYLE OF DESIGN SHOWN IN FIG. 19. About 1730. FIG. 19.--PORTION OF FLOUNCE, NEEDLEPOINT LACE COPIED AT THE BURANO - LACE SCHOOL FROM THE ORIGINAL OF THE SO-CALLED "POINT DE VENISE À - BRIDES PICOTÉES." + LACE SCHOOL FROM THE ORIGINAL OF THE SO-CALLED "POINT DE VENISE À + BRIDES PICOTÉES." 17th century. Formerly belonging to Pope Clement XIII., but now the property of the queen of Italy. The design and work, however, are @@ -8224,24 +8192,24 @@ Needlepoint Lace. (English, 17th century. Victoria and Albert Museum.)] vertically-arranged groups of fantastic pine-apples and vases with flowers, intermixed with bold rococo bands and large leaf devices. The hexagonal meshes of the ground, although similar to the Venetian - "brides picotées," are much akin to the buttonhole stitched ground of + "brides picotées," are much akin to the buttonhole stitched ground of "Point d'Argentan." (Victoria and Albert Museum.) FIG. 20. - A.--A LAPPET OF "POINT DE VENISE À RÉSEAU." + A.--A LAPPET OF "POINT DE VENISE À RÉSEAU." The conventional character of the pseudo-leaf and floral forms contrasts with that of the realistic designs of contemporary French laces. Italian. Early 18th century. - B.--A LAPPET OF FINE "POINT D'ALENÇON." Louis XV. period. The variety + B.--A LAPPET OF FINE "POINT D'ALENÇON." Louis XV. period. The variety of the fillings of geometric design is particularly remarkable in this specimen, as is the buttonhole stitched cordonnat or outline to the various ornamental forms. - FIG. 21.--BORDER OF FRENCH NEEDLEPOINT LACE, WITH GROUND OF "RÉSEAU - ROSACÉ." 18th century.] + FIG. 21.--BORDER OF FRENCH NEEDLEPOINT LACE, WITH GROUND OF "RÉSEAU + ROSACÉ." 18th century.] [Illustration: PLATE VI. @@ -8266,8 +8234,8 @@ New Ross in Ireland, where of late years attention has been given to the study of designs for it. The lace-making school at Burano near Venice produces hand-made laces which are, to a great extent, careful reproductions of the more celebrated classes of point laces, such as -"punto in aria," "rose point de Venise," "point de Venise à réseau," -"point d'Alençon," "point d'Argentan" and others. Some good needlepoint +"punto in aria," "rose point de Venise," "point de Venise à réseau," +"point d'Alençon," "point d'Argentan" and others. Some good needlepoint lace is made in Bohemia and elsewhere in the Austrian empire. _Pillow-made Lace._--Pillow-made lace is built upon no substructure @@ -8343,12 +8311,12 @@ the 17th century, patterns and particular plaitings came to be identified with certain localities. Mechlin, for instance, enjoyed a high reputation for her productions. The chief technical features of this pillow lace lie in the plaiting of the meshes, and the outlining of -the clothing or _toilé_ with a thread _cordonnet_. The ordinary Mechlin +the clothing or _toilé_ with a thread _cordonnet_. The ordinary Mechlin mesh is hexagonal in shape. Four of the sides are of double twisted threads, two are of four threads plaited three times (fig. 39). [Illustration: FIG. 38--Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, from a -design similar to such as was used for point d'Alençon of the Louis XV. +design similar to such as was used for point d'Alençon of the Louis XV. period.] [Illustration: FIG. 39.--Mechlin Mesh.] @@ -8359,7 +8327,7 @@ its sides are of double-twisted threads the other two are of four threads plaited four times (fig. 41). The finer specimens of Brussels lace are remarkable for the fidelity and grace with which the botanical forms in many of its patterns are rendered (Pl. VI. fig. 23). These are -mainly reproductions or adaptations of designs for point d'Alençon, and +mainly reproductions or adaptations of designs for point d'Alençon, and the soft quality imparted to them in the texture of pillow-made lace contrasts with the harder and more crisp appearance in needlepoint lace. An example of dainty Brussels pillow lace is given in fig. 42. In @@ -8374,21 +8342,21 @@ plaited work. [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Enlargement of Brussels Mesh.] -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Portion of a Wedding Veil, 7 ft. 6 in. × 6 ft. +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Portion of a Wedding Veil, 7 ft. 6 in. × 6 ft. 6 in., of Pillow-made Lace, Brussels, late 18th century. The design consists of light leafy garlands of orange blossoms and other flowers daintily festooned. Little feathery spirals and stars are powdered over -the ground, which is of Brussels _vrai réseau_. In the centre upon a +the ground, which is of Brussels _vrai réseau_. In the centre upon a more open ground of pillow-made hexagonal _brides_ is a group of two birds, one flying towards the other which appears ready to take wing from its nest; an oval frame containing two hearts pierced by an arrow, and a hymeneal torch. Throughout this veil is a profusion of pillow -renderings of various _modes_, the _réseau rosacé_, star devices, &c. +renderings of various _modes_, the _réseau rosacé_, star devices, &c. The ornamental devices are partly applied and partly worked into the ground (Victoria and Albert Museum).] Honiton pillow lace resembles Brussels lace, but in most of the English -pillow laces (Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire) the _réseau_ is +pillow laces (Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire) the _réseau_ is of a simple character (fig. 43). As a rule, English lace is made with a rather coarser thread than that used in the older Flemish laces. In real Flemish Valenciennes lace there are no twisted sides to the mesh; all @@ -8416,7 +8384,7 @@ lower edge of fig. 46). Valenciennes, about 1750. The peculiarity of Valenciennes lace is the filmy cambric-like texture and the absence of any cordonnet to define the separate parts of the ornament such as is used in needlepoint lace -of Alençon, and in pillow Mechlin and Brussels lace.] +of Alençon, and in pillow Mechlin and Brussels lace.] _Guipure._--This name is often applied to needlepoint and pillow laces in which the ground consists of ties or _brides_, but it more properly @@ -8503,7 +8471,7 @@ pass like pendulums between the warp threads the latter are made to oscillate, thus causing them to become twisted with the bobbin threads. As the twistings take place, combs passing through both warp and weft threads compress the twistings. Thus the texture of the clothing or -_toilé_ in machine-made lace may generally be detected by its ribbed +_toilé_ in machine-made lace may generally be detected by its ribbed appearance, due to the compressed twisted threads. Figs. 47 and 48 are intended to show effects obtained by varying the tensions of weft and warp threads. For instance, if the weft, as threads b, b, b, b in fig. @@ -8535,7 +8503,7 @@ thread. Fig. 54 displays a piece of hand-made Valenciennes (Ypres) lace and fig. 55 a corresponding piece woven by the machine. The latter shows the advantage that can be gained by using very fine gauge machines, thus enabling a very close imitation of the real lace to be made by securing -a very open and clear _réseau_ or net, such as would be made on a coarse +a very open and clear _réseau_ or net, such as would be made on a coarse machine, and at the same time to keep the pattern fine and solid and standing out well from the net, as is the case with the real lace, which cannot be done by using a coarse gauge machine. In this example the @@ -8580,7 +8548,7 @@ Needlepoint Lace, "Gros point de Venise."] Collections of hand-made lace chiefly exist in museums and technical institutions, as for instance the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, -the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris, and museums at Lyons, Nuremberg, +the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris, and museums at Lyons, Nuremberg, Berlin, Turin and elsewhere. In such places the opportunity is presented of tracing in chronological sequence the stages of pattern and texture development. @@ -8600,8 +8568,8 @@ development. wrote a pamphlet (with illustrations) entitled _Origine ed uso delle trine a filo di rete_; Mons F. de Fertiault compiled a brief and rather fanciful _Histoire de la dentelle_ in 1843, in which he - reproduced statements to be found in Diderot's _Encyclopédie_, - subsequently quoted by Roland de la Platière. The first _Report of the + reproduced statements to be found in Diderot's _Encyclopédie_, + subsequently quoted by Roland de la Platière. The first _Report of the Department of Practical Art_ (1853) contains a "Report on Cotton Print Works and Lace-Making" by Octavius Hudson, and in the first _Report of the Department of Science and Art_ are some "Observations @@ -8645,27 +8613,27 @@ development. Hosiery and Lace Manufacture_ (London, 1867), by Felkin, has already been referred to. There is also a technological essay upon lace made by machinery, with diagrams of lace stitches and patterns - (_Technologische Studien im sächsischen Erzgebirge_, Leipzig, 1878), + (_Technologische Studien im sächsischen Erzgebirge_, Leipzig, 1878), by Hugo Fischer. In 1886 the Libraire Renouard, Paris, published a - _History of Point d'Alençon_, written by Madame G. Despierres, which + _History of Point d'Alençon_, written by Madame G. Despierres, which gives a close and interesting account of the industry, together with a list, compiled from local records, of makers and dealers from 1602 onwards.--_Embroidery and Lace: their manufacture and history from the remotest antiquity to the present day_, by Ernest Lefebure, lace-maker - and administrator of the École des Arts Décoratifs, translated and + and administrator of the École des Arts Décoratifs, translated and enlarged with notes by Alan S. Cole, was published in London in 1888. It is a well-illustrated handbook for amateurs, collectors and general readers.--Irish laces made from modern designs are illustrated in a _Renascence of the Irish Art of Lace-making_, published in 1888 (London).--_Anciennes Dentelles belges formant la collection de feue - madame Augusta Baronne Liedts et données au Musée de Grunthuis à + madame Augusta Baronne Liedts et données au Musée de Grunthuis à Bruges_, published at Antwerp in 1889, consists of a folio volume containing upwards of 181 phototypes--many full size--of fine specimens of lace. The ascriptions of country and date of origin are occasionally inaccurate, on account of a too obvious desire to credit Bruges with being the birthplace of all sorts of lace-work, much of which shown in this work is distinctly Italian in style.--The - _Encyclopaedia of Needlework_, by Thérèse de Dillmont-Dornach (Alsace, + _Encyclopaedia of Needlework_, by Thérèse de Dillmont-Dornach (Alsace, 1891), is a detailed guide to several kinds of embroidery, knitting, crochet, tatting, netting and most of the essential stitches for needlepoint lace. It is well illustrated with wood-cuts and process @@ -8680,8 +8648,8 @@ development. specimens of Italian, Flemish, French and English laces, as well as with magnified details of lace, enabling any one to identify the plaits, the twists and loops of threads in the actual making of the - fabric.--_L'Industrie des tulles et dentelles mécaniques dans le - Pas de Calais_, 1815-1900, by Henri Hénon (Paris, 1900), is an + fabric.--_L'Industrie des tulles et dentelles mécaniques dans le + Pas de Calais_, 1815-1900, by Henri Hénon (Paris, 1900), is an important volume of over 600 pages of letterpress, interspersed with abundant process blocks of the several kinds of machine nets and laces made at Calais since 1815. It opens with a short account of the Arras @@ -8691,18 +8659,18 @@ development. apparatus by means of which all figured textile fabrics are manufactured. It is of some interest to note that machine net and lace-making at Calais owe their origin to Englishmen, amongst whom "le - sieur R. Webster arrivé à St Pierre-les-Calais en Décembre, 1816, - venant d'Angleterre, est l'un des premiers qui ont établi dans la - communauté une fabrique de tulles," &c. _Lace-making in the Midlands: + sieur R. Webster arrivé à St Pierre-les-Calais en Décembre, 1816, + venant d'Angleterre, est l'un des premiers qui ont établi dans la + communauté une fabrique de tulles," &c. _Lace-making in the Midlands: Past and Present_, by C. C. Channer and M. E. Roberts (London, 1900) upon the lace-making industry in Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire contains many illustrations of laces made in these - counties from the 17th century to the present time. _Musée - rétrospectif. Dentelles à l'exposition universelle internationale de - 1900 à Paris. Rapport de Mons. E. Lefebvre_ contains several good + counties from the 17th century to the present time. _Musée + rétrospectif. Dentelles à l'exposition universelle internationale de + 1900 à Paris. Rapport de Mons. E. Lefebvre_ contains several good illustrations, especially of important specimens of Point de France of the 17th and 18th centuries. _Le Point de France et les autres - dentelliers au XVII^e et au XVIII^e siècles_, by Madame Laurence de + dentelliers au XVII^e et au XVIII^e siècles_, by Madame Laurence de Laprade (Paris, 1905), brings together much hitherto scattered information throwing light upon operations in many localities in France where the industry has been carried on for considerable @@ -8726,7 +8694,7 @@ FOOTNOTES: issued by Alessandro Pagannino in 1527; another of a similar nature, printed by Pierre Quinty, appeared in the same year at Cologne; and La _Fleur de la science de pourtraicture et patrons de broderie, - façon arabicque et ytalique_, was published at Paris in 1530. From + façon arabicque et ytalique_, was published at Paris in 1530. From these early dates until the beginning of the 17th century pattern-books for embroidery in Italy, France, Germany and England were published in great abundance. The designs contained in many of @@ -8739,18 +8707,18 @@ FOOTNOTES: undertake. [2] A very complete account of how these conditions began and - developed at Alençon, for instance, is given in Madame Despierre's - _Histoire du Point d'Alençon_ (1886) to which is appended an + developed at Alençon, for instance, is given in Madame Despierre's + _Histoire du Point d'Alençon_ (1886) to which is appended an interesting and annotated list of merchants, designers and makers of - Point d'Alençon. + Point d'Alençon. - [3] _E.g._ The family of Camusat at Alençon from 1602 until 1795. + [3] _E.g._ The family of Camusat at Alençon from 1602 until 1795. [4] The picture, however, as Seguin has pointed out, was probably painted some thirty years later, and by Jean Matsys. - [5] See the poetical skit _Révolte des passements et broderies_, - written by Mademoiselle de la Tousse, cousin of Madame de Sévigné, in + [5] See the poetical skit _Révolte des passements et broderies_, + written by Mademoiselle de la Tousse, cousin of Madame de Sévigné, in the middle of the 17th century, which marks the favour which foreign laces at that time commanded amongst the leaders of French fashion. It is fairly evident too that the French laces themselves, known as @@ -8762,11 +8730,11 @@ FOOTNOTES: [7] See Felkin's _Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures_. - [8] After 1650 the lace-workers at Alençon and its neighbourhood + [8] After 1650 the lace-workers at Alençon and its neighbourhood produced work of a daintier kind than that which was being made by - the Venetians. As a rule the hexagonal _bride_ grounds of Alençon + the Venetians. As a rule the hexagonal _bride_ grounds of Alençon laces are smaller than similar details in Venetian laces. The average - size of a diagonal taken from angle to angle in an Alençon (or + size of a diagonal taken from angle to angle in an Alençon (or so-called Argentan) hexagon was about one-sixth of an inch, and each side of the hexagon was about one-tenth of an inch. An idea of the minuteness of the work can be formed from the fact that a side of a @@ -8790,8 +8758,8 @@ LACEDAEMON, in historical times an alternative name of LACONIA (q.v.). Homer uses only the former, and in some passages seems to denote by it the Achaean citadel, the Therapnae of later times, in contrast to the lower town Sparta (G. Gilbert, _Studien zur altspartanischen -Geschichte_, Göttingen, 1872, p. 34 foll.). It is described by the -epithets [Greek: koilê] (hollow) and [Greek: kêtôessa] (spacious or +Geschichte_, Göttingen, 1872, p. 34 foll.). It is described by the +epithets [Greek: koilê] (hollow) and [Greek: kêtôessa] (spacious or hollow), and is probably connected etymologically with [Greek: lakkos], _lacus_, any hollow place. Lacedaemon is now the name of a separate department, which had in 1907 a population of 87,106. @@ -8799,7 +8767,7 @@ department, which had in 1907 a population of 87,106. -LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ÉTIENNE DE LA VILLE, COMTE DE (1756-1825), +LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ÉTIENNE DE LA VILLE, COMTE DE (1756-1825), French naturalist, was born at Agen in Guienne on the 26th of December 1756. His education was carefully conducted by his father, and the early perusal of Buffon's _Natural History_ awakened his interest in that @@ -8807,28 +8775,28 @@ branch of study, which absorbed his chief attention. His leisure he devoted to music, in which, besides becoming a good performer on the piano and organ, he acquired considerable mastery of composition, two of his operas (which were never published) meeting with the high approval -of Gluck; in 1781-1785 he also brought out in two volumes his _Poétique +of Gluck; in 1781-1785 he also brought out in two volumes his _Poétique de la musique_. Meantime he wrote two treaties, _Essai sur -l'électricité_ (1781) and _Physique générale et particulière_ +l'électricité_ (1781) and _Physique générale et particulière_ (1782-1784), which gained him the friendship of Buffon, who in 1785 appointed him subdemonstrator in the Jardin du Roi, and proposed to him to become the continuator of his _Histoire naturelle_. This continuation -was published under the titles _Histoire des quadrupèdes ovipares et des +was published under the titles _Histoire des quadrupèdes ovipares et des serpents_ (2 vols., 1788-1789) and _Histoire naturelle des reptiles_ -(1789). After the Revolution Lacépède became a member of the legislative +(1789). After the Revolution Lacépède became a member of the legislative assembly, but during the Reign of Terror he left Paris, his life having become endangered by his disapproval of the massacres. When the Jardin -du Roi was reorganized as the Jardin des Plantes, Lacépède was appointed +du Roi was reorganized as the Jardin des Plantes, Lacépède was appointed to the chair allocated to the study of reptiles and fishes. In 1798 he published the first volume of _Histoire naturelle des poissons_, the fifth volume appearing in 1803; and in 1804 appeared his _Histoire des -cétacés_. From this period till his death the part he took in politics +cétacés_. From this period till his death the part he took in politics prevented him making any further contribution of importance to science. In 1799 he became a senator, in 1801 president of the senate, in 1803 grand chancellor of the legion of honour, in 1804 minister of state, and at the Restoration in 1819 he was created a peer of France. He died at -Épinay on the 6th of October 1825. During the latter part of his life he -wrote _Histoire générale physique et civile de l'Europe_, published +Épinay on the 6th of October 1825. During the latter part of his life he +wrote _Histoire générale physique et civile de l'Europe_, published posthumously in 18 vols., 1826. A collected edition of his works on natural history was published in @@ -8849,15 +8817,15 @@ flies. -LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE (1624-1709), father confessor of Louis XIV., was -born at the château of Aix in Forey on the 25th of August 1624, being -the son of Georges d'Aix, seigneur de la Chaise, and of Renée de -Rochefort. On his mother's side he was a grandnephew of Père Coton, the +LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE (1624-1709), father confessor of Louis XIV., was +born at the château of Aix in Forey on the 25th of August 1624, being +the son of Georges d'Aix, seigneur de la Chaise, and of Renée de +Rochefort. On his mother's side he was a grandnephew of Père Coton, the confessor of Henry IV. He became a novice of the Society of Jesus before completing his studies at the university of Lyons, where, after taking the final vows, he lectured on philosophy to students attracted by his fame from all parts of France. Through the influence of Camille de -Villeroy, archbishop of Lyons, Père de la Chaise was nominated in 1674 +Villeroy, archbishop of Lyons, Père de la Chaise was nominated in 1674 confessor of Louis XIV., who intrusted him during the lifetime of Harlay de Champvallon, archbishop of Paris, with the administration of the ecclesiastical patronage of the crown. The confessor united his @@ -8871,22 +8839,22 @@ his presence at Versailles, but there is no reason for supposing that the subsequent coolness between him and Madame de Maintenon arose from his insistence on secrecy in this matter. During the long strife over the temporalities of the Gallican Church between Louis XIV. and Innocent -XI. Père de la Chaise supported the royal prerogative, though he used +XI. Père de la Chaise supported the royal prerogative, though he used his influence at Rome to conciliate the papal authorities. He must be held largely responsible for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but not for the brutal measures applied against the Protestants. He exercised a moderating influence on Louis XIV.'s zeal against the Jansenists, and Saint-Simon, who was opposed to him in most matters, -does full justice to his humane and honourable character. Père de la -Chaise had a lasting and unalterable affection for Fénelon, which +does full justice to his humane and honourable character. Père de la +Chaise had a lasting and unalterable affection for Fénelon, which remained unchanged by the papal condemnation of the _Maximes_. In spite of failing faculties he continued his duties as confessor to Louis XIV. to the end of his long life. He died on the 20th of January 1709. The -cemetery of Père-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired by the +cemetery of Père-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired by the Jesuits in 1826, and not, as is often stated, on property personally granted to him. - See R. Chantelauze, _Le Père de la Chaize. Études d'histoire + See R. Chantelauze, _Le Père de la Chaize. Études d'histoire religieuse_ (Paris and Lyons, 1859). @@ -8898,7 +8866,7 @@ is situated among fir and pine woods, 3500 ft. above the sea, preserves remains of its ramparts and some houses of the 14th and 15th centuries, but owes its celebrity to a church, which, after the cathedral of Clermont-Ferrand, is the most remarkable Gothic building in Auvergne. -The west façade, approached by a flight of steps, is flanked by two +The west façade, approached by a flight of steps, is flanked by two massive towers. The nave and aisles are of equal height and are separated from the choir by a stone rood screen. The choir, terminating in an apse with radiating chapel, contains the fine tomb and statue of @@ -8915,9 +8883,9 @@ town. -LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENÉ DE CARADEUC DE (1701-1785), French jurist, was +LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENÉ DE CARADEUC DE (1701-1785), French jurist, was born at Rennes, on the 6th of March 1701. He was for 60 years procureur -général at the parliament of Brittany. He was an ardent opponent of the +général at the parliament of Brittany. He was an ardent opponent of the Jesuits; drew up in 1761 for the parliament a memoir on the constitutions of the Order, which did much to secure its suppression in France; and in 1763 published a remarkable "Essay on National @@ -8934,19 +8902,19 @@ consented. The king annulling these decrees, all the members of the parliament but twelve resigned (October 1764 to May 1765). The government considered La Chalotais one of the authors of this affair. At this time the secretary of state who administered the affairs of the -province, Louis Philypeaux, duc de la Vrillière, comte de +province, Louis Philypeaux, duc de la Vrillière, comte de Saint-Florentin (1705-1777), received two anonymous and abusive letters. La Chalotais was suspected of having written them, and three experts in handwriting declared that they were by him. The government therefore arrested him, his son and four other members of the parliament. The arrest made a great sensation. There was much talk of "despotism." -Voltaire stated that the procureur général, in his prison of Saint Malo, +Voltaire stated that the procureur général, in his prison of Saint Malo, was reduced, for lack of ink, to write his defence with a toothpick dipped in vinegar--which was apparently pure legend; but public opinion all over France was strongly aroused against the government. On the 16th of November 1765 a commission of judges was named to take charge of the trial. La Chalotais maintained that the trial was illegal; being -procureur général he claimed the right to be judged by the parliament of +procureur général he claimed the right to be judged by the parliament of Rennes, or failing this by the parliament of Bordeaux, according to the custom of the province. The judges did not dare to pronounce a condemnation on the evidence of experts in handwriting, and at the end @@ -8968,8 +8936,8 @@ to the revolution of 1789. La Chalotais, who was personally a violent, haughty and unsympathetic character, died at Rennes on the 12th of July 1785. - See, besides the _Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jésuites_ and - the _Essai d'éducation nationale_, the _Mémoires de la Chalotais_ (3 + See, besides the _Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jésuites_ and + the _Essai d'éducation nationale_, the _Mémoires de la Chalotais_ (3 vols., 1766-1767). Two works containing detailed bibliographies are Marion, _La Bretagne et le duc d'Aiguillon_ (Paris, 1893), and B. Pocquet, _Le Duc d'Aiguillon et La Chalotais_ (Paris, 1901). See also @@ -8979,9 +8947,9 @@ haughty and unsympathetic character, died at Rennes on the 12th of July -LA CHARITÉ, a town of central France in the department of Nièvre, on the +LA CHARITÉ, a town of central France in the department of Nièvre, on the right bank of the Loire, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nevers on the -Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906) 3990. La Charité possesses +Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906) 3990. La Charité possesses the remains of a fine Romanesque basilica, the church of Sainte-Croix, dating from the 11th and early 12th centuries. The plan consists of a nave, rebuilt at the end of the 17th century, transept and choir with @@ -8992,7 +8960,7 @@ the main portal. There are ruins of the ramparts, which date from the iron goods, lime and cement and woollen and other fabrics are among the industries; trade is chiefly in wood and iron. - La Charité owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in the + La Charité owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in the 8th century and reorganized as a dependency of the abbey of Cluny in 1052. It became the parent of many priories and monasteries, some of them in England and Italy. The possession of the town was hotly @@ -9002,47 +8970,47 @@ industries; trade is chiefly in wood and iron. -LA CHAUSSÉE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE (1692-1754), French dramatist, was -born in Paris in 1692. In 1731 he published an _Épître à Clio_, a -didactic poem in defence of Lériget de la Faye in his dispute with +LA CHAUSSÉE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE (1692-1754), French dramatist, was +born in Paris in 1692. In 1731 he published an _Épître à Clio_, a +didactic poem in defence of Lériget de la Faye in his dispute with Antoine Houdart de la Motte, who had maintained that verse was useless -in tragedy. La Chaussée was forty years old before he produced his first -play, _La Fausse Antipathie_ (1734). His second play, _Le Préjugé à la +in tragedy. La Chaussée was forty years old before he produced his first +play, _La Fausse Antipathie_ (1734). His second play, _Le Préjugé à la mode_ (1735) turns on the fear of incurring ridicule felt by a man in love with his own wife, a prejudice dispelled in France, according to La -Harpe, by La Chaussée's comedy. _L'École des amis_ (1737) followed, and, +Harpe, by La Chaussée's comedy. _L'École des amis_ (1737) followed, and, after an unsuccessful attempt at tragedy in _Maximinien_, he returned to -comedy in _Mélanide_ (1741). In _Mélanide_ the type known as _comédie +comedy in _Mélanide_ (1741). In _Mélanide_ the type known as _comédie larmoyante_ is fully developed. Comedy was no longer to provoke laughter, but tears. The innovation consisted in destroying the sharp distinction then existing between tragedy and comedy in French literature. Indications of this change had been already offered in the -work of Marivaux, and La Chaussée's plays led naturally to the domestic +work of Marivaux, and La Chaussée's plays led naturally to the domestic drama of Diderot and of Sedaine. The new method found bitter enemies. -Alexis Piron nicknames the author "_le Révérend Père Chaussée_," and +Alexis Piron nicknames the author "_le Révérend Père Chaussée_," and ridiculed him in one of his most famous epigrams. Voltaire maintained -that the _comédie larmoyante_ was a proof of the inability of the author +that the _comédie larmoyante_ was a proof of the inability of the author to produce either of the recognized kinds of drama, though he himself produced a play of similar character in _L'Enfant prodigue_. The hostility of the critics did not prevent the public from shedding tears -nightly over the sorrows of La Chaussée's heroine. _L'École des mères_ +nightly over the sorrows of La Chaussée's heroine. _L'École des mères_ (1744) and _La Gouvernante_ (1747) form, with those already mentioned, -the best of his work. The strict moral aims pursued by La Chaussée in +the best of his work. The strict moral aims pursued by La Chaussée in his plays seem hardly consistent with his private preferences. He frequented the same gay society as did the comte de Caylus and -contributed to the _Recueils de ces messieurs_. La Chaussée died on the +contributed to the _Recueils de ces messieurs_. La Chaussée died on the 14th of May 1754. Villemain said of his style that he wrote prosaic verses with purity, while Voltaire, usually an adverse critic of his -work, said he was "_un des premiers après ceux qui ont du génie_." +work, said he was "_un des premiers après ceux qui ont du génie_." - For the _comédie larmoyante_ see G. Lanson, _Nivelle de la Chaussée et - la comédie larmoyante_ (1887). + For the _comédie larmoyante_ see G. Lanson, _Nivelle de la Chaussée et + la comédie larmoyante_ (1887). LACHES (from Anglo-French _lachesse_, negligence, from _lasche_, modern -_lâche_, unloosed, slack), a term for slackness or negligence, used +_lâche_, unloosed, slack), a term for slackness or negligence, used particularly in law to signify negligence on the part of a person in doing that which he is by law bound to do, or unreasonable lapse of time in asserting a right, seeking relief, or claiming a privilege. Laches is @@ -9097,18 +9065,18 @@ city. LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1793-1851), German philologist and critic, was born at Brunswick on the 4th of March 1793. He studied at -Leipzig and Göttingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies. +Leipzig and Göttingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies. In 1815 he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer _chasseur_ and accompanied his detachment to Paris, but did not encounter the enemy. In 1816 he became an assistant master in the Friedrich Werder gymnasium at Berlin, and a _privat-docent_ at the university. The same summer he became one of the principal masters in the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of -Königsberg, where he assisted his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl -Köpke (1785-1865) with his edition of Rudolf von Ems' _Barlaam und +Königsberg, where he assisted his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl +Köpke (1785-1865) with his edition of Rudolf von Ems' _Barlaam und Josaphat_ (1818), and also assisted his friend in a contemplated edition of the works of Walther von der Vogelweide. In January 1818 he became professor extraordinarius of classical philology in the university of -Königsberg, and at the same time began to lecture on Old German grammar +Königsberg, and at the same time began to lecture on Old German grammar and the Middle High German poets. He devoted himself during the following seven years to an extraordinarily minute study of those subjects, and in 1824 obtained leave of absence in order that he might search the @@ -9119,11 +9087,11 @@ philology in the university of Berlin (ordinary professor 1827); and in of his laborious and fruitful life as an author and a teacher was uneventful. He died on the 13th of March 1851. - Lachmann, who was the translator of the first volume of P. E. Müller's + Lachmann, who was the translator of the first volume of P. E. Müller's _Sagabibliothek des skandinavischen Altertums_ (1816), is a figure of considerable importance in the history of German philology (see Rudolf von Raumer, _Geschichte der germanischen Philologie_, 1870). In his - "Habilitationsschrift" _Über die ursprüngliche Gestalt des Gedichts + "Habilitationsschrift" _Ãœber die ursprüngliche Gestalt des Gedichts der Nibelunge Not_ (1816), and still more in his review of Hagen's _Nibelungen_ and Benecke's _Bonerius_, contributed in 1817 to the _Jenaische Literaturzeitung_ he had already laid down the rules of @@ -9134,12 +9102,12 @@ uneventful. He died on the 13th of March 1851. hochdeutschen Dichtern des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts_ (1820), in the edition of Hartmann's _Iwein_ (1827), in those of Walther von der Vogelweide (1827) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (1833), in the papers - "Über das Hildebrandslied," "Über althochdeutsche Betonung und - Verskunst," "Über den Eingang des Parzivals," and "Über drei - Bruchstücke niederrheinischer Gedichte" published in the + "Ãœber das Hildebrandslied," "Ãœber althochdeutsche Betonung und + Verskunst," "Ãœber den Eingang des Parzivals," and "Ãœber drei + Bruchstücke niederrheinischer Gedichte" published in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Berlin Academy, and in _Der Nibelunge Not und die Klage_ (1826, 11th ed., 1892), which was followed by a critical - commentary in 1836. Lachmann's _Betrachtungen über Homer's Ilias_, + commentary in 1836. Lachmann's _Betrachtungen über Homer's Ilias_, first published in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841, in which he sought to show that the _Iliad_ consists of sixteen independent "lays" variously enlarged and interpolated, have @@ -9164,7 +9132,7 @@ uneventful. He died on the 13th of March 1851. Shakespeare's sonnets (1820) and _Macbeth_ (1829). See M. Hertz, _Karl Lachmann, eine Biographie_ (1851), where a full - list of Lachmann's works is given; F. Leo, _Rede zur Säcularfeier K. + list of Lachmann's works is given; F. Leo, _Rede zur Säcularfeier K. Lachmanns_ (1893); J. Grimm, biography in _Kleine Schriften_; W. Scherer in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xvii., and J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. (1908), pp. 127-131. @@ -9194,7 +9162,7 @@ not recorded by any ancient writer. LA CIOTAT, a coast town of south-eastern France in the department of -Bouches-du-Rhône, on the west shore of the Bay of La Ciotat, 26 m. S.E. +Bouches-du-Rhône, on the west shore of the Bay of La Ciotat, 26 m. S.E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,562. The port is easily accessible and well sheltered. The large shipbuilding yards and repairing docks of the Messageries Maritimes Company give employment to between 2000 and @@ -9267,7 +9235,7 @@ whom he was to pick up in France on his return to England. Charles says that James is to communicate certain matters to Oliva, and come back at once. Oliva is to give James all the money he needs, and Charles will later make an ample donation to the Jesuits. He acknowledges a debt to -Oliva of £800, to be paid in six months. The reader will remark that the +Oliva of £800, to be paid in six months. The reader will remark that the king has never paid a penny to James or to Oliva, and that Oliva has never communicated directly with Charles. The truth is that all of Charles's letters are forgeries. This is certain because in all he @@ -9329,7 +9297,7 @@ beset by many difficulties, and finally La Condamine separated from the rest and made his way from Quito down the Amazon, ultimately reaching Cayenne. His was the first scientific exploration of the Amazon. He returned to Paris in 1744 and published the results of his measurements -and travels with a map of the Amazon in _Mém. de l'académie des +and travels with a map of the Amazon in _Mém. de l'académie des sciences_, 1745 (English translation 1745-1747). On a visit to Rome La Condamine made careful measurements of the ancient buildings with a view to a precise determination of the length of the Roman foot. The journal @@ -9341,7 +9309,7 @@ February 1774. -LACONIA (Gr. [Greek: Lakônikê]), the ancient name of the south-eastern +LACONIA (Gr. [Greek: Lakônikê]), the ancient name of the south-eastern district of the Peloponnese, of which Sparta was the capital. It has an area of some 1,048,000 acres, slightly greater than that of Somersetshire, and consists of three well-marked zones running N. and S. @@ -9359,7 +9327,7 @@ are the slopes of Parnon, consisting for the most part of barren limestone uplands scantily watered. The Eurotas valley, however, is fertile, and produces at the present day maize, olives, oranges and mulberries in great abundance. Laconia has no rivers of importance -except the Eurotas and its largest tributary the Oenus (mod. Kelefína). +except the Eurotas and its largest tributary the Oenus (mod. KelefÃna). The coast, especially on the east, is rugged and dangerous. Laconia has few good harbours, nor are there any islands lying off its shores with the exception of Cythera (Cerigo), S. of Cape Malea. The most important @@ -9388,9 +9356,9 @@ classical period the history of Laconia is that of its capital Sparta rule by the Roman general T. Quinctius Flamininus, and became members of the Achaean League. When this was dissolved in 146 B.C., they remained independent under the title of the "Confederation of the Lacedaemonians" -or "of the Free-Laconians" ([Greek: koinon tôn Lakedaimoniôn] or [Greek: -Eleutherolakônôn]), the supreme officer of which was a [Greek: -stratêgos] (general) assisted by a [Greek: tamias] (treasurer). Augustus +or "of the Free-Laconians" ([Greek: koinon tôn Lakedaimoniôn] or [Greek: +Eleutherolakônôn]), the supreme officer of which was a [Greek: +stratêgos] (general) assisted by a [Greek: tamias] (treasurer). Augustus seems to have reorganized the league in some way, for Pausanias (iii. 21, 6) speaks of him as its founder. Of the twenty-four cities which originally composed the league, only eighteen remained as members by the @@ -9399,7 +9367,7 @@ Alaric devastated Laconia, and subsequently it was overrun by large bands of Slavic immigrants. Throughout the middle ages it was the scene of vigorous struggles between Slavs, Byzantines, Franks, Turks and Venetians, the chief memorials of which are the ruined strongholds of -Mistra near Sparta, Geráki (anc. Geronthrae) and Monemvasia, "the +Mistra near Sparta, Geráki (anc. Geronthrae) and Monemvasia, "the Gibraltar of Greece," on the east coast, and Passava near Gythium. A prominent part in the War of Independence was played by the Maniates or Mainotes, the inhabitants of the rugged peninsula formed by the southern @@ -9415,12 +9383,12 @@ _Archaeology._--Until 1904 archaeological research in Laconia was carried on only sporadically. Besides the excavations undertaken at Sparta, Gythium and Vaphio (q.v.), the most important were those at the Apollo sanctuary of Amyclae carried out by C. Tsountas in 1890 ([Greek: -Ephêm. archaiol.] 1892, 1 ff.) and in 1904 by A. Furtwängler. At Kampos, +Ephêm. archaiol.] 1892, 1 ff.) and in 1904 by A. Furtwängler. At Kampos, on the western side of Taygetus, a small domed tomb of the "Mycenean" age was excavated in 1890 and yielded two leaden statuettes of great interest, while at Arkina a similar tomb of poor construction was unearthed in the previous year. Important inscriptions were found at -Geronthrae (Geráki), notably five long fragments of the _Edictum +Geronthrae (Geráki), notably five long fragments of the _Edictum Diocletiani_, and elsewhere. In 1904 the British Archaeological school at Athens undertook a systematic investigation of the ancient and medieval remains in Laconia. The results, of which the most important @@ -9436,20 +9404,20 @@ Ino-Pasiphae at Thalamae have also been investigated. (Leipzig, 1868), ii. 102 ff.; Strabo viii. 5; Pausanias iii. and the commentary in J. G. Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_ (London, 1898), vol. iii.; W. G. Clark, _Peloponnesus_ (London, 1858), - 155 ff.; E. P. Boblaye, _Recherches géographiques sur les ruines de la - Morée_ (Paris, 1835), 65 ff.; L. Ross, _Reisen im Peloponnes_ (Berlin, - 1841), 158 ff.; W. Vischer, _Erinnerungen u. Eindrücke aus + 155 ff.; E. P. Boblaye, _Recherches géographiques sur les ruines de la + Morée_ (Paris, 1835), 65 ff.; L. Ross, _Reisen im Peloponnes_ (Berlin, + 1841), 158 ff.; W. Vischer, _Erinnerungen u. Eindrücke aus Griechenland_ (Basel, 1857), 360 ff.; J. B. G. M. Bory de - Saint-Vincent, _Relation du voyage de l'expédition scientifique de - Morée_ (Paris, 1836), cc. 9, 10; G. A. Blouet, _Expédition - scientifique de Morée_ (Paris, 1831-1838), ii. 58 ff.; A. Philippson, + Saint-Vincent, _Relation du voyage de l'expédition scientifique de + Morée_ (Paris, 1836), cc. 9, 10; G. A. Blouet, _Expédition + scientifique de Morée_ (Paris, 1831-1838), ii. 58 ff.; A. Philippson, _Der Peloponnes_ (Berlin, 1892), 155 ff.; _Annual_ of British School at Athens, 1907-8. - _Inscriptions_: Le Bas-Foucart, _Voyage archéologique: Inscriptions_, + _Inscriptions_: Le Bas-Foucart, _Voyage archéologique: Inscriptions_, Nos. 160-290; _Inscriptiones Graecae_, v.; _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_ (Berlin, 1828), Nos. 1237-1510; Collitz-Bechtel, _Sammlung - der griech. Dialektinschriften_, iii. 2 (Göttingen, 1898), Nos. + der griech. Dialektinschriften_, iii. 2 (Göttingen, 1898), Nos. 4400-4613. _Coins: Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum: Peloponnesus_ (London, 1887), xlvi. ff., 121 ff.; B. V. Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), 363 ff. _Cults_: S. Wide, @@ -9524,16 +9492,16 @@ portions of which still exist in the so-called Arco di Giambella. LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI (1802-1861), French ecclesiastic and -orator, was born at Recey-sur-Ource, Côte d'Or, on the 12th of March +orator, was born at Recey-sur-Ource, Côte d'Or, on the 12th of March 1802. He was the second of a family of four, the eldest of whom, Jean -Théodore (1801-1870), travelled a great deal in his youth, and was -afterwards professor of comparative anatomy at Liége. For several years +Théodore (1801-1870), travelled a great deal in his youth, and was +afterwards professor of comparative anatomy at Liége. For several years Lacordaire studied at Dijon, showing a marked talent for rhetoric; this led him to the pursuit of law, and in the local debates of the advocates he attained a high celebrity. At Paris he thought of going on the stage, but was induced to finish his legal training and began to practise as an advocate (1817-1824). Meanwhile Lamennais had published his _Essai sur -l'Indifférence_,--a passionate plea for Christianity and in particular +l'Indifférence_,--a passionate plea for Christianity and in particular for Roman Catholicism as necessary for the social progress of mankind. Lacordaire read, and his ardent and believing nature, weary of the theological negations of the Encyclopaedists, was convinced. In 1823 he @@ -9550,9 +9518,9 @@ of 1830, they were entitled to liberty of instruction, opened an independent free school. It was closed in two days, and the teachers fined before the court of peers. These reverses Lacordaire accepted with quiet dignity; but they brought his relationship with Lamennais to a -close. He now began the course of Christian _conférences_ at the Collége +close. He now began the course of Christian _conférences_ at the Collége Stanislas, which attracted the art and intellect of Paris; thence he -went to Nôtre Dame, and for two years his sermons were the delight of +went to Nôtre Dame, and for two years his sermons were the delight of the capital. His presence was dignified, his voice capable of indefinite modulation, and his gestures animated and attractive. He still preached the gospel of the people's sovereignty in civil life and the pope's @@ -9563,11 +9531,11 @@ to edit the _Univers_, and to take a chair in the university of Louvain, but he declined both appointments, and in 1838 set out for Rome, revolving a great scheme for christianizing France by restoring the old order of St Dominic. At Rome he donned the habit of the preaching friar -and joined the monastery of Minerva. His _Mémoire pour le rétablissement -en France de l'ordre des frères prêcheurs_ was then prepared and +and joined the monastery of Minerva. His _Mémoire pour le rétablissement +en France de l'ordre des frères prêcheurs_ was then prepared and dedicated to his country; at the same time he collected the materials for the life of St Dominic. When he returned to France in 1841 he -resumed his preaching at Nôtre Dame, but he had small success in +resumed his preaching at Nôtre Dame, but he had small success in re-establishing the order of which he ever afterwards called himself monk. His funeral orations are the most notable in their kind of any delivered during his time, those devoted to Marshal Drouet and Daniel @@ -9577,34 +9545,34 @@ his cause; but being rebuked by his ecclesiastical superiors for declaring himself a republican, he resigned his seat ten days after his election. In 1850 he went back to Rome and was made provincial of the order, and for four years laboured to make the Dominicans a religious -power. In 1854 he retired to Sorrèze to become director of a private +power. In 1854 he retired to Sorrèze to become director of a private lyceum, and remained there until he died on the 22nd of November 1861. He had been elected to the Academy in the preceding year. - The best edition of Lacordaire's works is the _Oeuvres complètes_ (6 + The best edition of Lacordaire's works is the _Oeuvres complètes_ (6 vols., Paris, 1872-1873), published by C. Poussielgue, which contains, - besides the _Conférences_, the exquisitely written, but uncritical, - Vie de Saint Dominique and the beautiful _Lettres à un jeune homme sur - la vie chrétienne_. For a complete list of his published + besides the _Conférences_, the exquisitely written, but uncritical, + Vie de Saint Dominique and the beautiful _Lettres à un jeune homme sur + la vie chrétienne_. For a complete list of his published correspondence see L. Petit de Julleville's _Histoire de la langue et - de la littérature française_, vii. 598. + de la littérature française_, vii. 598. The authoritative biography is by Ch. Foisset (2 vols., Paris, 1870). - The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Père B. - Chocarne's _Vie du Père Lacordaire_ (2 vols., Paris, 1866--English + The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Père B. + Chocarne's _Vie du Père Lacordaire_ (2 vols., Paris, 1866--English translation by A. Th. Drane, London, 1868); see also Count C. F. R. de - Montalembert's _Un Moine au XIX^(ème) siècle_ (Paris, 1862--English + Montalembert's _Un Moine au XIX^(ème) siècle_ (Paris, 1862--English translation by F. Aylward, London, 1867). There are lives by Mrs H. L. - Lear (London, 1882); by A. Ricard (1 vol. of _L'École menaisienne_, + Lear (London, 1882); by A. Ricard (1 vol. of _L'École menaisienne_, Paris, 1883); by Comte O. d'Haussonville (1 vol., _Les Grands - écrivains Français_ series, Paris, 1897); by Gabriel Ledos (Paris, + écrivains Français_ series, Paris, 1897); by Gabriel Ledos (Paris, 1901); by Dora Greenwell (1867); and by the duc de Broglie (Paris, - 1889). The _Correspondance inédite du Père Lacordaire_, edited by H. + 1889). The _Correspondance inédite du Père Lacordaire_, edited by H. Villard (Paris, 1870), may also be consulted. See also Saint-Beuve in - _Causeries de Lundi_. Several of Lacordaire's _Conférences_ have been + _Causeries de Lundi_. Several of Lacordaire's _Conférences_ have been translated into English, among these being, _Jesus Christ_ (1869); _God_ (1870); _God and Man_ (1872); _Life_ (1875). For a theological - study of the _Conférences de Nôtre Dame_, see an article by Bishop J. + study of the _Conférences de Nôtre Dame_, see an article by Bishop J. C. Hedley in _Dublin Review_ (October 1870). @@ -9619,28 +9587,28 @@ as brass, pewter and tin, with prepared varnishes which will give them a golden, bronze-like or other lustre as desired. Throughout the East Indies the lacquering of wooden surfaces is universally practised, large articles of household furniture, as well as small boxes, trays, toys and -papier-mâché objects, being decorated with bright-coloured and +papier-mâché objects, being decorated with bright-coloured and variegated lacquer. The lacquer used in the East is, in general, variously coloured sealing-wax, applied, smoothed and polished in a heated condition; and by various devices intricate marbled, streaked and mottled designs are produced. Quite distinct from these, and from all other forms of lacquer, is the lacquer work of Japan, for which see -JAPAN, § _Art_. +JAPAN, § _Art_. LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE (1751-1824), French politician and writer, was born at Metz on the 9th of October 1751. He practised as a barrister -in Paris; and under the Revolution was elected as a _député suppléant_ +in Paris; and under the Revolution was elected as a _député suppléant_ in the Constituent Assembly, and later as deputy in the Legislative Assembly. He belonged to the moderate party known as the "Feuillants," but after the 10th of August 1792 he ceased to take part in public life. In 1803 he became a member of the Institute, taking the place of La Harpe. Under the Restoration he was one of the chief editors of the -_Minerve française_; he wrote also an essay, _Sur le 18 Brumaire_ -(1799), some _Fragments politiques et littéraires_ (1817), and a -treatise _Des partis politiques et des factions de la prétendue +_Minerve française_; he wrote also an essay, _Sur le 18 Brumaire_ +(1799), some _Fragments politiques et littéraires_ (1817), and a +treatise _Des partis politiques et des factions de la prétendue aristocratie d'aujourd'hui_ (1819). His younger brother, JEAN CHARLES DOMINIQUE DE LACRETELLE, called @@ -9650,22 +9618,22 @@ brother in 1787, and during the Revolution belonged, like him, to the party of the _Feuillants_. He was for some time secretary to the duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, the celebrated philanthropist, and afterwards joined the staff of the _Journal de Paris_, then managed by -Suard, and where he had as colleagues André Chénier and Antoine Roucher. +Suard, and where he had as colleagues André Chénier and Antoine Roucher. He made no attempt to hide his monarchist sympathies, and this, together with the way in which he reported the trial and death of Louis XVI., brought him in peril of his life; to avoid this danger he enlisted in the army, but after Thermidor he returned to Paris and to his newspaper -work. He was involved in the royalist movement of the 13th Vendémiaire, +work. He was involved in the royalist movement of the 13th Vendémiaire, and condemned to deportation after the 18th Fructidor; but, thanks to powerful influence, he was left "forgotten" in prison till after the -18th Brumaire, when he was set at liberty by Fouché. Under the Empire he -was appointed a professor of history in the _Faculté des lettres_ of -Paris (1809), and elected as a member of the Académie française (1811). +18th Brumaire, when he was set at liberty by Fouché. Under the Empire he +was appointed a professor of history in the _Faculté des lettres_ of +Paris (1809), and elected as a member of the Académie française (1811). In 1827 he was prime mover in the protest made by the French Academy against the minister Peyronnet's law on the press, which led to the failure of that measure, but this step cost him, as it did Villemain, his post as _censeur royal_. Under Louis Philippe he devoted himself -entirely to his teaching and literary work. In 1848 he retired to Mâcon; +entirely to his teaching and literary work. In 1848 he retired to Mâcon; but there, as in Paris, he was the centre of a brilliant circle, for he was a wonderful causeur, and an equally good listener, and had many interesting experiences to recall. He died on the 26th of March 1855. @@ -9673,12 +9641,12 @@ His son Pierre Henri (1815-1899) was a humorous writer and politician of purely contemporary interest. J. C. Lacretelle's chief work is a series of histories of the 18th - century, the Revolution and its sequel: _Précis historique de la - Révolution française_, appended to the history of Rabaud St Étienne, + century, the Revolution and its sequel: _Précis historique de la + Révolution française_, appended to the history of Rabaud St Étienne, and partly written in the prison of La Force (5 vols., 1801-1806); - _Histoire de France pendant le XVIII^e siècle_ (6 vols., 1808); - _Histoire de l'Assemblée Constituante_ (2 vols., 1821); _L'Assemblée - Législative_ (1822); _La Convention Nationale_ (3 vols., 1824-1825); + _Histoire de France pendant le XVIII^e siècle_ (6 vols., 1808); + _Histoire de l'Assemblée Constituante_ (2 vols., 1821); _L'Assemblée + Législative_ (1822); _La Convention Nationale_ (3 vols., 1824-1825); _Histoire de France depuis la restauration_ (1829-1835); _Histoire du consulat et de l'empire_ (4 vols., 1846). The author was a moderate and fair-minded man, but possessed neither great powers of style, nor @@ -9692,21 +9660,21 @@ purely contemporary interest. -LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED (1863- ), French mineralogist and -geologist, was born at Mâcon, Saône et Loire, on the 4th of February -1863. He took the degree of D. ès Sc. in Paris, 1889. In 1893 he was +LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED (1863- ), French mineralogist and +geologist, was born at Mâcon, Saône et Loire, on the 4th of February +1863. He took the degree of D. ès Sc. in Paris, 1889. In 1893 he was appointed professor of mineralogy at the _Jardin des Plantes_, Paris, -and in 1896 director of the mineralogical laboratory in the _École des -Hautes Études_. He paid especial attention to minerals connected with +and in 1896 director of the mineralogical laboratory in the _École des +Hautes Études_. He paid especial attention to minerals connected with volcanic phenomena and igneous rocks, to the effects of metamorphism, and to mineral veins, in various parts of the world, notably in the Pyrenees. In his numerous contributions to scientific journals he dealt with the mineralogy and petrology of Madagascar, and published an elaborate and exhaustive volume on the eruptions in Martinique, _La -Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions_ (1904). He also issued an important +Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions_ (1904). He also issued an important work entitled _Mineralogie de la France et de ses Colonies_ (1893-1898), -and other works in conjunction with A. Michel Lévy. He was elected -member of the Académie des sciences in 1904. +and other works in conjunction with A. Michel Lévy. He was elected +member of the Académie des sciences in 1904. @@ -9719,8 +9687,8 @@ and books generally. Lacroix was an extremely prolific and varied writer. Over twenty historical romances alone came from his pen, and he also wrote a variety of serious historical works, including a history of Napoleon III., and the life and times of the Tsar Nicholas I. of Russia. -He was the joint author with Ferdinand Séré of a five-volume work, _Le -Moyen Âge et La Renaissance_ (1847), a standard work on the manners, +He was the joint author with Ferdinand Séré of a five-volume work, _Le +Moyen Âge et La Renaissance_ (1847), a standard work on the manners, customs and dress of those times, the chief merit of which lies in the great number of illustrations it contains. He also wrote many monographs on phases of the history of culture. Over the signature Pierre Dufour @@ -9734,17 +9702,17 @@ Arsenal Library, Paris. He died in Paris on the 16th of October 1884. LACROMA (Serbo-Croatian _Lokrum_), a small island in the Adriatic Sea, forming part of the Austrian kingdom of Dalmatia, and lying less than -half a mile south of Ragusa. Though barely 1¼ m. in length, Lacroma is +half a mile south of Ragusa. Though barely 1¼ m. in length, Lacroma is remarkable for the beauty of its subtropical vegetation. It was a favourite resort of the archduke Maximilian, afterwards emperor of -Mexico (1832-1867), who restored the château and park; and of the +Mexico (1832-1867), who restored the château and park; and of the Austrian crown prince Rudolph (1857-1889). It contains an 11th-century Benedictine monastery; and the remains of a church, said by a very doubtful local tradition to have been founded by Richard I. of England -(1157-1199), form part of the imperial château. +(1157-1199), form part of the imperial château. See _Lacroma_, an illustrated descriptive work by the crown princess - Stéphanie (afterwards Countess Lónyay) (Vienna, 1892). + Stéphanie (afterwards Countess Lónyay) (Vienna, 1892). @@ -9762,7 +9730,7 @@ Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the La Crosse & South Eastern, and the Green Bay & Western railways, and by river steamboat lines on the Mississippi. The river is crossed here by a railway bridge (C.M. & St P.) and wagon bridge. The city is situated on -a prairie, extending back from the river about 2½ m. to bluffs, from +a prairie, extending back from the river about 2½ m. to bluffs, from which fine views may be obtained. Among the city's buildings and institutions are the Federal Building (1886-1887), the County Court House (1902-1903), the Public Library (with more than 20,000 volumes), @@ -9787,7 +9755,7 @@ foundry and machine-shop products, copper and iron products, cooperage, pearl buttons, brooms and brushes. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $8,139,432, as against $7,676,581 in 1900. The city owns and operates its water-works system, the wagon bridge (1890-1891) -across the Mississippi, and a toll road (2½ m. long) to the village of +across the Mississippi, and a toll road (2½ m. long) to the village of La Crescent, Minn. Father Hennepin and du Lhut visited or passed the site of La Crosse as @@ -9804,7 +9772,7 @@ resemblance of its chief implement used, the curved netted stick, to a bishop's crozier. It was borrowed from the Indian tribes of North America. In the old days, according to Catlin, the warriors of two tribes in their war-paint would form the sides, often 800 or 1000 -strong. The goals were placed from 500 yds. to ½ m. apart with +strong. The goals were placed from 500 yds. to ½ m. apart with practically no side boundaries. A solemn dance preceded the game, after which the ball was tossed into the air and the two sides rushed to catch it on "crosses," similar to those now in use. The medicine-men acted as @@ -9843,7 +9811,7 @@ annually from 1881 to 1904. [Illustration: The Crosse.] _Implements of the Game._--The ball is made of india-rubber sponge, - weighs between 4¼ and 4½ oz., and measures 8 to 8½ in. in + weighs between 4¼ and 4½ oz., and measures 8 to 8½ in. in circumference. The "crosse" is formed of a light staff of hickory wood, the top being bent to form a kind of hook, from the tip of which a thong is drawn and made fast to the shaft about 2 ft. from the other @@ -9906,7 +9874,7 @@ annually from 1881 to 1904. -LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE (1731-1794), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on +LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE (1731-1794), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on the 28th of March 1731. He was a clerk in the ministry of finance, and is the author of three hundred _sainetes_, little farcical sketches of city life, written to be played between the acts of a longer play. He @@ -9914,8 +9882,8 @@ published a selection in ten volumes (Madrid, 1786-1791), and died on the 5th of March 1794. The best of his pieces, such as _Las Tertulias de Madrid_, are delightful specimens of satiric observation. - See E. Cotardo y Mori, _Don Ramón de la Cruz y sus obras_ (Madrid, - 1899); C. Cambronero, _Sainetes inédites existentes en la Biblioteca + See E. Cotardo y Mori, _Don Ramón de la Cruz y sus obras_ (Madrid, + 1899); C. Cambronero, _Sainetes inédites existentes en la Biblioteca Municipal de Madrid_ (Madrid, 1900). @@ -9941,7 +9909,7 @@ knowledge of the Scriptures was equally slight. About 290 he went to Nicomedia in Bithynia while Diocletian was emperor, to teach rhetoric, but found little work to do in that Greek-speaking city. In middle age he became a convert to Christianity, and about 306 he went to Gaul -(Trèves) on the invitation of Constantine the Great, and became tutor to +(Trèves) on the invitation of Constantine the Great, and became tutor to his eldest son, Crispus. He probably died about 340. Lactantius' chief work, _Divinarum Institutionum Libri Septem_, is an @@ -10008,9 +9976,9 @@ Fortunatus in the 6th century. LACTIC ACID (hydroxypropionic acid), C3H6O3. Two lactic acids are known, differing from each other in the position occupied by the hydroxyl group in the molecule; they are known respectively as [alpha]-hydroxypropionic -acid (fermentation or inactive lactic acid), CH3·CH(OH)·CO2H, and +acid (fermentation or inactive lactic acid), CH3·CH(OH)·CO2H, and [beta]-hydroxypropionic acid (hydracrylic acid), (q.v.), -CH2(OH)·CH2·CO2H. Although on structural grounds there should be only +CH2(OH)·CH2·CO2H. Although on structural grounds there should be only two hydroxypropionic acids, as a matter of fact four lactic acids are known. The third isomer (sarcolactic acid) is found in meat extract (J. v. Liebig), and may be prepared by the action of _Penicillium glaucum_ @@ -10044,14 +10012,14 @@ STEREOISOMERISM). amalgam; or from acetaldehyde by the cyanhydrin reaction (J. Wislicenus, _Ann._, 1863, 128, p. 13) - CH3·CHO --> CH3·CH(OH)·CN --> CH3·CH(OH)·CO2H. + CH3·CHO --> CH3·CH(OH)·CN --> CH3·CH(OH)·CO2H. - It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1.2485 (15°/4°), and + It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1.2485 (15°/4°), and decomposes on distillation under ordinary atmospheric pressure; but at - very low pressures (about 1 mm.) it distils at about 85° C., and then - sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about 18° C. It possesses + very low pressures (about 1 mm.) it distils at about 85° C., and then + sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about 18° C. It possesses the properties both of an acid and of an alcohol. When heated with - dilute sulphuric acid to 130° C., under pressure, it is resolved into + dilute sulphuric acid to 130° C., under pressure, it is resolved into formic acid and acetaldehyde. Chromic acid oxidizes it to acetic acid and carbon dioxide; potassium permanganate oxidizes it to pyruvic acid; nitric acid to oxalic acid, and a mixture of manganese dioxide @@ -10059,13 +10027,13 @@ STEREOISOMERISM). acid converts it into [alpha]-brompropionic acid, and hydriodic acid into propionic acid. - CH(CH3)·CO + CH(CH3)·CO / \ _Lactide_, O O, \ / - CO·CH(CH3) + CO·CH(CH3) - a crystalline solid, of melting-point 124° C., is one of the products + a crystalline solid, of melting-point 124° C., is one of the products obtained by the distillation of lactic acid. @@ -10077,11 +10045,11 @@ this reaction taking place when the hydroxy acid is liberated from its salts by a mineral acid. The [alpha] and [beta]-hydroxy acids do not form lactones, the tendency for lactone formation appearing first with the [gamma]-hydroxy acids, thus [gamma]-hydroxybutyric acid, -CH2OH·CH2·CH2·CO2H, yields [gamma]-butyrolactone, +CH2OH·CH2·CH2·CO2H, yields [gamma]-butyrolactone, +--------------+ | | - CH2·CH2·CH2·CO·O. + CH2·CH2·CH2·CO·O. These compounds may also be prepared by the distillation of the [gamma]-halogen fatty acids, or by the action of alkaline carbonates on @@ -10097,15 +10065,15 @@ the hydroxy acids. They are easily saponified by the caustic alkalis. Gattermann, _Ber._, 1899, 32, p. 1133, E. Fischer, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 1889. - [gamma]-_Butyrolactone_ is a liquid which boils at 206° C. It is + [gamma]-_Butyrolactone_ is a liquid which boils at 206° C. It is miscible with water in all proportions and is volatile in steam, [gamma]-_valerolactone_, +-----------------+ | | - CH3·CH·CH2·CH2·CO·O, + CH3·CH·CH2·CH2·CO·O, - is a liquid which boils at 207-208° C. [delta]-_lactones_ are also + is a liquid which boils at 207-208° C. [delta]-_lactones_ are also known, and may be prepared by distilling the [delta]-chlor acids. @@ -10123,20 +10091,20 @@ of metres, prepared the way for the Spanish romantic drama of the 17th century. A peculiar interest attaches to _El Infamador_, a play in which the character of Leucino anticipates the classic type of Don Juan. As an initiative force, Cueva is a figure of great historical importance; his -epic poem, _La Conquista de Bética_ (1603), shows his weakness as an +epic poem, _La Conquista de Bética_ (1603), shows his weakness as an artist. The last work to which his name is attached is the _Ejemplar -poético_ (1609), and he is believed to have died shortly after its +poético_ (1609), and he is believed to have died shortly after its publication. See the editions of _Saco de Roma_ and _El Infamador_, by E. de Ochoa, - in the _Tesoro del teatro español_ (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285; - and of _Ejemplar poético_, by J. J. López de Sedano, in the _Parnaso - español_, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, "Juan de la Cueva et - son Ejemplar poético" in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_ (Lund, - 1904), vol. xxix.; "Poèmes inédits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de + in the _Tesoro del teatro español_ (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285; + and of _Ejemplar poético_, by J. J. López de Sedano, in the _Parnaso + español_, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, "Juan de la Cueva et + son Ejemplar poético" in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_ (Lund, + 1904), vol. xxix.; "Poèmes inédits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de Sannio,)" edited by F. A. Wulff, in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_ (Lund, 1886-1887), vol. xxiii.; F. A. Wulff, "De la rimas de Juan de - la Cueva, Primera Parte" in the _Homenaje á Menéndez y Pelayo_ + la Cueva, Primera Parte" in the _Homenaje á Menéndez y Pelayo_ (Madrid, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 143-148. (J. F.-K.) @@ -10157,7 +10125,7 @@ his first military experience when the French invaded Burgundy in 1636, harrying the French troops from the castles of Montaigu and St Laurent-la-Roche, and devastating the frontier districts of Bresse and Bugey with fire and sword (1640-1642). In the first invasion of -Franche-Comté by Louis XIV. in 1668 Lacuzon was unable to make any +Franche-Comté by Louis XIV. in 1668 Lacuzon was unable to make any effective resistance, but he played an important part in Louis's second invasion. In 1673 he defended Salins for some time; after the capitulation of the town he took refuge in Italy. He died at Milan on @@ -10281,7 +10249,7 @@ voluntarily resigned his position to his pupils, Euander and Telecles. Apart from a number of anecdotes distinguished rather for sarcastic humour than for probability, Lacydes exists for us as a man of refined character, a hard worker and an accomplished orator. According to -Athenaeus (x. 438) and Diogenes Laërtius (iv. 60) he died from excessive +Athenaeus (x. 438) and Diogenes Laërtius (iv. 60) he died from excessive drinking, but the story is discredited by the eulogy of Eusebius (_Praep. Ev._ xiv. 7), that he was in all things moderate. @@ -10295,8 +10263,8 @@ LADAKH AND BALTISTAN, a province of Kashmir, India. The name Ladak, commonly but less correctly spelt Ladakh, and sometimes Ladag, belongs primarily to the broad valley of the upper Indus in West Tibet, but includes several surrounding districts in political connexion with it; -the present limits are between 75° 40´ and 80° 30´ E., and between 32° -25´ and 36° N. It is bounded N. by the Kuenlun range and the slopes of +the present limits are between 75° 40´ and 80° 30´ E., and between 32° +25´ and 36° N. It is bounded N. by the Kuenlun range and the slopes of the Karakoram, N.W. and W. by the dependency of Baltistan or Little Tibet, S.W. by Kashmir proper, S. by British Himalayan territory, and E. by the Tibetan provinces of Ngari and Rudok. The whole region lies very @@ -10315,7 +10283,7 @@ contrary condition prevails. The former predominates in the east, diminishing gradually westwards. There, although the vast alluvial deposits which once filled the valley to a remarkably uniform height of about 15,000 ft. have left their traces on the mountain sides, they have -undergone immense denudation, and their débris now forms secondary +undergone immense denudation, and their débris now forms secondary deposits, flat bottoms or shelving slopes, the only spots available for cultivation or pasture. These masses of alluvium are often either metamorphosed to a subcrystalline rock still showing the composition of @@ -10372,18 +10340,18 @@ Manasarowar. The observatory at Leh is the most elevated observatory in Asia. "The atmosphere of the Indus valley is remarkably clear and transparent, and the heat of the sun is very great. There is generally a difference of -more than 60° between the reading of the exposed sun thermometer _in +more than 60° between the reading of the exposed sun thermometer _in vacuo_ and the air temperature in the shade, and this difference has -occasionally exceeded 90°.... The mean annual temperature at Leh is 40°, -that of the coldest months (January and February) only 18° and 19°, but -it rises rapidly from February to July, in which month it reaches 62° -with a mean diurnal maximum of 80° both in that month and August, and an -average difference of 29° or 30° between the early morning and -afternoon. The mean highest temperature of the year is 90°, varying -between 84° and 93° in the twelve years previous to 1893. On the other -hand, in the winter the minimum thermometer falls occasionally below 0°, -and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme range of -recorded temperature is therefore not less than 110°. The air is as dry +occasionally exceeded 90°.... The mean annual temperature at Leh is 40°, +that of the coldest months (January and February) only 18° and 19°, but +it rises rapidly from February to July, in which month it reaches 62° +with a mean diurnal maximum of 80° both in that month and August, and an +average difference of 29° or 30° between the early morning and +afternoon. The mean highest temperature of the year is 90°, varying +between 84° and 93° in the twelve years previous to 1893. On the other +hand, in the winter the minimum thermometer falls occasionally below 0°, +and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme range of +recorded temperature is therefore not less than 110°. The air is as dry as Quetta, and rather more uniformly so.... The amount of rain and snow is insignificant. The average rain (and snow) fall is only 2.7 in. in the year."[1] The winds are generally light, and depend on the local @@ -10430,7 +10398,7 @@ months of the year. The adjoining territory of Baltistan forms the west extremity of Tibet, whose natural limits here are the Indus from its abrupt - southward bend in 74° 45´ E., and the mountains to the north and west, + southward bend in 74° 45´ E., and the mountains to the north and west, separating a comparatively peaceful Tibetan population from the fiercer Aryan tribes beyond. Mahommedan writers about the 16th century speak of Baltistan as "Little Tibet," and of Ladakh as "Great Tibet," @@ -10564,7 +10532,7 @@ delivery to the consignee. (See AFFREIGHTMENT.) -LADISLAUS I, Saint (1040-1095), king of Hungary, the son of Béla I., +LADISLAUS I, Saint (1040-1095), king of Hungary, the son of Béla I., king of Hungary, and the Polish princess Richeza, was born in Poland, whither his father had sought refuge, but was recalled by his elder brother Andrew I. to Hungary (1047) and brought up there. He succeeded @@ -10587,9 +10555,9 @@ races which swept over her during the 11th century. Ladislaus himself had fought valiantly in his youth against the Pechenegs, and to defend the land against the Kumanians, who now occupied Moldavia and Wallachia as far as the Alt, he built the fortresses of Turnu-Severin and Gyula -Féhervár. He also planted in Transylvania the Szeklers, the supposed +Féhervár. He also planted in Transylvania the Szeklers, the supposed remnant of the ancient Magyars from beyond the Dnieper, and founded the -bishoprics of Nagy-Várad, or Gross-Wardein, and of Agram, as fresh foci +bishoprics of Nagy-Várad, or Gross-Wardein, and of Agram, as fresh foci of Catholicism in south Hungary and the hitherto uncultivated districts between the Drave and the Save. He subsequently conquered Croatia, though here his authority was questioned by the pope, the Venetian @@ -10599,8 +10567,8 @@ generally beloved. The whole nation mourned for him for three years, and regarded him as a saint long before his canonization. A whole cycle of legends is associated with his name. - See J. Babik, _Life of St Ladislaus_ (Hung.) (Eger, 1892); György - Pray, _Dissertatio de St Ladislao_ (Pressburg, 1774); Antál Gánóczy, + See J. Babik, _Life of St Ladislaus_ (Hung.) (Eger, 1892); György + Pray, _Dissertatio de St Ladislao_ (Pressburg, 1774); Antál Gánóczy, _Diss. hist. crit. de St Ladislao_ (Vienna, 1775). (R. N. B.) @@ -10625,13 +10593,13 @@ direction of the Neapolitan court in foreign affairs. In Hungary itself a large party was in favour of the Germans, but the civil wars which raged between the two factions from 1276 to 1278 did not prevent Ladislaus, at the head of 20,000 Magyars and Kumanians, from -co-operating with Rudolph of Habsburg in the great battle of Durnkrüt +co-operating with Rudolph of Habsburg in the great battle of Durnkrüt (August 26th, 1278), which destroyed, once for all, the empire of the Premyslidae. A month later a papal legate arrived in Hungary to inquire into the conduct of the king, who was accused by his neighbours, and many of his own subjects, of adopting the ways of his Kumanian kinsfolk and thereby undermining Christianity. Ladislaus was not really a pagan, -or he would not have devoted his share of the spoil of Durnkrüt to the +or he would not have devoted his share of the spoil of Durnkrüt to the building of the Franciscan church at Pressburg, nor would he have venerated as he did his aunt St Margaret. Political enmity was largely responsible for the movement against him, yet the result of a very @@ -10641,7 +10609,7 @@ preferred the society of the semi-heathen Kumanians to that of the Christians; wore, and made his court wear, Kumanian dress; surrounded himself with Kumanian concubines, and neglected and ill-used his ill-favoured Neapolitan consort. He was finally compelled to take up -arms against his Kumanian friends, whom he routed at Hodmézö (May 1282) +arms against his Kumanian friends, whom he routed at Hodmézö (May 1282) with fearful loss; but, previously to this, he had arrested the legate, whom he subsequently attempted to starve into submission, and his conduct generally was regarded as so unsatisfactory that, after repeated @@ -10657,8 +10625,8 @@ them to continue the struggle against the magnates and their foreign supporters; but on the 10th of July 1290 he was murdered in his camp at Korosszeg by the Kumanians, who never forgave him for deserting them. - See Karoly Szabó, _Ladislaus the Cumanian_ (Hung.), (Budapest, 1886); - and Acsády, _History of the Hungarian Realm_, i. 2 (Budapest, 1903). + See Karoly Szabó, _Ladislaus the Cumanian_ (Hung.), (Budapest, 1886); + and Acsády, _History of the Hungarian Realm_, i. 2 (Budapest, 1903). The latter is, however, too favourable to Ladislaus. (R. N. B.) @@ -10666,12 +10634,12 @@ Korosszeg by the Kumanians, who never forgave him for deserting them. LADISLAUS V. (1440-1457), king of Hungary and Bohemia, the only son of Albert, king of Hungary, and Elizabeth, daughter of the emperor -Sigismund, was born at Komárom on the 22nd of February 1440, four months +Sigismund, was born at Komárom on the 22nd of February 1440, four months after his father's death, and was hence called Ladislaus Posthumus. The estates of Hungary had already elected Wladislaus III. of Poland their king, but Ladislaus's mother caused the holy crown to be stolen from its guardians at Visegrad, and compelled the primate to crown the infant -king at Székesfejérvár on the 15th of May 1440; whereupon, for safety's +king at Székesfejérvár on the 15th of May 1440; whereupon, for safety's sake, she placed the child beneath the guardianship of his uncle the emperor Frederick III. On the death of Wladislaus III. (Nov. 10th, 1444), Ladislaus V. was elected king by the Hungarian estates, though @@ -10688,15 +10656,15 @@ the defensive preparations of the great Hunyadi, and fled from the country on the tidings of the siege of Belgrade. On the death of Hunyadi he made Cillei governor of Hungary at the diet of Futtak (October 1456), and when that traitor paid with his life for his murderous attempt on -Laszló Hunyadi at Belgrade, Ladislaus procured the decapitation of young +Laszló Hunyadi at Belgrade, Ladislaus procured the decapitation of young Hunyadi (16th of March 1457), after a mock trial which raised such a storm in Hungary that the king fled to Prague, where he died suddenly (Nov. 23rd, 1457), while making preparations for his marriage with Magdalena, daughter of Charles VII. of France. He is supposed to have been poisoned by his political opponents in Bohemia. - See F. Palacky, _Zeugenverhör über den Tod König Ladislaus von Ungarn - u. Böhmen_ (Prague, 1856); Ignacz Acsády, _History of the Hungarian + See F. Palacky, _Zeugenverhör über den Tod König Ladislaus von Ungarn + u. Böhmen_ (Prague, 1856); Ignacz Acsády, _History of the Hungarian State_ (Hung.), vol. i. (Budapest, 1903). @@ -10706,10 +10674,10 @@ LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE (c. 1730-1791), French man of letters, was born at Lamothe (Haute-Marne). While still young he removed to Paris, where the rest of his life was spent in literary activity. He died on the 26th of November 1791. His numerous works include _Contes -philosophiques et moraux_ (1765), _Les Deux Âges du goût et du génie +philosophiques et moraux_ (1765), _Les Deux Âges du goût et du génie sous Louis XIV. et sous Louis XV._ (1769), a parallel and contrast, in which the decision is given in favour of the latter; _L'Espagne -littéraire_ (1774); _Éloge de Voltaire_ (1779) and _Éloge de Montaigne_ +littéraire_ (1774); _Éloge de Voltaire_ (1779) and _Éloge de Montaigne_ (1781). @@ -10722,8 +10690,8 @@ It has an area of about 15,000 sq. m., and a population estimated at The enclave is bounded S.E. by the north-west shores of Albert Nyanza--as far south as the port of Mahagi--E. by the western bank of the Nile (Bahr-el-Jebel) to the point where the river is intersected by -5° 30´ N., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the Nile -westward to 30° E. This meridian forms the west frontier to 4° N., the +5° 30´ N., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the Nile +westward to 30° E. This meridian forms the west frontier to 4° N., the frontier thence being the Nile-Congo watershed to the point nearest to Mahagi and from that point direct to Albert Nyanza. @@ -10735,12 +10703,12 @@ general north to south direction. One chain, the Kuku Mountains (average height 2000 ft.), approaches close to the Nile and presents, as seen from the river, several apparently isolated peaks. At other places these mountains form precipices which stretch in a continuous line like a huge -wall. From Dufile in 3° 34´ N. to below the Bedden Rapids in 4° 40´ N. +wall. From Dufile in 3° 34´ N. to below the Bedden Rapids in 4° 40´ N. the bed of the Nile is much obstructed and the river throughout this reach is unnavigable (see Nile). Below the Bedden Rapids rises the conical hill of Rejaf, and north of that point the Nile valley becomes flat. Ranges of hill, however, are visible farther westwards, and a -little north of 5° N. is Jebel Lado, a conspicuous mountain 2500 ft. +little north of 5° N. is Jebel Lado, a conspicuous mountain 2500 ft. high and some 12 m. distant from the Nile. It has given its name to the district, being the first hill seen from the Nile in the ascent of some 1000 m. from Khartum. On the river at Rejaf, at Lado, and at Kiro, 28 m. @@ -10780,7 +10748,7 @@ hoisted at Wadelai, while in May of the same year Great Britain granted to Leopold II., as sovereign of the Congo State, a lease of large areas lying west of the upper Nile inclusive of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Fashoda. Pressed however by France, Leopold II. agreed to occupy only -that part of the leased area east of 30° E. and south of 5° 30´ N., and +that part of the leased area east of 30° E. and south of 5° 30´ N., and in this manner the actual limits of the Lado Enclave, as it was thereafter called, were fixed. Congo State forces had penetrated to the Nile valley as early as 1891, but it was not until 1897, when on the @@ -10789,19 +10757,19 @@ Mahdists at Rejaf, that their occupation of the Lado Enclave was assured. After the withdrawal of the French from Fashoda, Leopold II. revived (1899) his claim to the whole of the area, leased to him in 1894. In this claim he was unsuccessful, and the lease, by a new -agreement made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see AFRICA, § +agreement made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see AFRICA, § 5). The king however retained the enclave, with the stipulation that six months after the termination of his reign it should be handed over to the Anglo-Sudanese government (see _Treaty Series_, No. 4, 1906). - See _Le Mouvement géographique_ (Brussels) _passim_, and especially + See _Le Mouvement géographique_ (Brussels) _passim_, and especially articles in the 1910 issues. -LADOGA (formerly NEVO), a lake of northern Russia, between 59° 56´ and -61° 46´ N., and 29° 53´ and 32° 50´ E., surrounded by the governments of +LADOGA (formerly NEVO), a lake of northern Russia, between 59° 56´ and +61° 46´ N., and 29° 53´ and 32° 50´ E., surrounded by the governments of St Petersburg and Olonets, and of Viborg in Finland. It has the form of a quadrilateral, elongated from N.W. to S.E. Its eastern and southern shores are flat and marshy, the north-western craggy and fringed by @@ -10823,7 +10791,7 @@ connexion with this. system, whilst Valamo island is made up of a rock which Russian geologists describe as orthoclastic hypersthenite. The granite and marble of Serdobol, and the sandstone of Putilovo, are much used for - buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkäranta mine + buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkäranta mine are exported. No fewer than seventy rivers enter Ladoga, pouring into it the waters @@ -10837,9 +10805,9 @@ connexion with this. rolling down its broad channel 104,000 cubic ft. of water per second. The water of Ladoga is very pure and cold; in May the surface - temperature does not exceed 36° Fahr., and even in August it reaches - only 50° and 53°, the average yearly temperature of the air at Valamo - being 36.8°. The lake begins to freeze in October, but it is only + temperature does not exceed 36° Fahr., and even in August it reaches + only 50° and 53°, the average yearly temperature of the air at Valamo + being 36.8°. The lake begins to freeze in October, but it is only about the end of December that it is frozen in its deeper parts; and it remains ice-bound until the end of March, though broad icefields continue to float in the middle of the lake until broken up by gales. @@ -10868,17 +10836,17 @@ connexion with this. Valamo, and to the mouth of the Svir, whence they go up that river to Lake Onega and Petrozavodsk; and small vessels transport timber, firewood, planks, iron, kaolin, granite, marble, fish, hay and various - small wares from the northern shore to Schlüsselburg, and thence to St + small wares from the northern shore to Schlüsselburg, and thence to St Petersburg. Navigation on the lake being too dangerous for small craft, canals with an aggregate length of 104 m. were dug in 1718-1731, and others in 1861-1886 having an aggregate length of 101 - m. along its southern shore, uniting with the Neva at Schlüsselburg + m. along its southern shore, uniting with the Neva at Schlüsselburg the mouths of the rivers Volkhov, Syas and Svir, all links in the elaborate system of canals which connect the upper Volga with the Gulf of Finland. The population (35,000) on the shores of the lake is sparse, and the - towns--Schlüsselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga (4144); + towns--Schlüsselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga (4144); Kexholm (1325) and Serdobol--are small. The monasteries of Valamo, founded in 992, on the island of the same name, and Konnevskiy, on Konnevitz island, founded in 1393, are visited every year by many @@ -10887,8 +10855,8 @@ connexion with this. -LADY (O. Eng. _hlaéfdige_, Mid. Eng. _láfdi_, _lavedi_; the first part -of the word is _hláf_, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding _hláford_, +LADY (O. Eng. _hlaéfdige_, Mid. Eng. _láfdi_, _lavedi_; the first part +of the word is _hláf_, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding _hláford_, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in "dough"; the sense development from bread-kneader, bread-maker, to the ordinary meaning, though not clearly to be traced @@ -10899,7 +10867,7 @@ certain of the usages of that word, (2) as the correlative of if not obsolete, in present usage only a vulgarism. The special use of the word as a title of the Virgin Mary, usually "Our Lady," represents the Lat. _Domina Nostra_. In Lady Day and Lady Chapel the word is -properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. _hlaéfdigan_. As a title +properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. _hlaéfdigan_. As a title of nobility the uses of "lady" are mainly paralleled by those of "lord." It is thus a less formal alternative to the full title giving the specific rank, of marchioness, countess, viscountess or baroness, @@ -10932,14 +10900,14 @@ certain social position (see GENTLEMAN). -LADYBANK, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 5½ m. S.W. of Cupar by -the North British railway, ½ m. from the left bank of the Eden. Pop. +LADYBANK, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 5½ m. S.W. of Cupar by +the North British railway, ½ m. from the left bank of the Eden. Pop. (1901) 1340. Besides having a station on the main line to Dundee, it is also connected with Perth and Kinross and is a railway junction of some importance and possesses a locomotive depot. It is an industrial centre, linen weaving, coal mining and malting being the principal industries. KETTLE, a village 1 m. S., has prehistoric barrows and a fort. At -COLLESSIE, 2½ m. N. by W., a standing stone, a mound and traces of +COLLESSIE, 2½ m. N. by W., a standing stone, a mound and traces of ancient camps exist, while urns and coins have been found. Between the parishes of Collessie and Monimail the boundary line takes the form of a crescent known as the Bow of Fife. MONIMAIL contains the Mount, the @@ -11252,7 +11220,7 @@ there referred to is the same person. Definite references do not occur before the 2nd century (Fronto, _Ep. ad M. Caes._ i. 3; Aulus Gellius, _Noct. Att._ ii. 24, xii. 10, xix. 9; Apuleius, _De magia_, 30; Porphyrion, _Ad Horat. carm._ iii. 1, 2). Some sixty miscellaneous lines -are preserved (see Bährens, _Fragm. poët. rom._ pp. 287-293), from which +are preserved (see Bährens, _Fragm. poët. rom._ pp. 287-293), from which it is difficult to see how ancient critics could have regarded him as the master of Ovid or Catullus. Gellius and Ausonius state that he composed an _Erotopaegnia_, and in other sources he is credited with @@ -11261,34 +11229,34 @@ _Sirenocirca_, _Phoenix_, which may, however, be only the parts of the _Erotopaegnia_. They were not serious poems, but light and often licentious skits on the heroic myths. - See O. Ribbeck, _Geschichte der römischen Dichtung_, i.; H. de la - Ville de Mirmont, _Étude biographique et littéraire sur le poète + See O. Ribbeck, _Geschichte der römischen Dichtung_, i.; H. de la + Ville de Mirmont, _Étude biographique et littéraire sur le poète Laevius_ (Paris, 1900), with critical ed. of the fragments, and - remarks on vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, _Poëtarum latinorum - reliquiae_ (Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen + remarks on vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, _Poëtarum latinorum + reliquiae_ (Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen Litteratur_ (2nd ed.), pt. i. p. 163; W. Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman - Literature_ (Eng. tr.), § 150, 4; a convenient summary in F. Plessis, - _La Poésie latine_ (1909), pp. 139-142. + Literature_ (Eng. tr.), § 150, 4; a convenient summary in F. Plessis, + _La Poésie latine_ (1909), pp. 139-142. LAEVULINIC ACID ([beta]-acetopropionic acid), C5H8O3 or -CH3CO·CH2·CH2·CO2H, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose, inulin, +CH3CO·CH2·CH2·CO2H, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose, inulin, starch, &c., by boiling them with dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acids. It may be synthesized by condensing sodium acetoacetate with monochloracetic ester, the acetosuccinic ester produced being then hydrolysed with dilute hydrochloric acid (M. Conrad, _Ann._, 1877, 188, p. 222). - CH3·CO·CH·Na CH3·CO·CH·CH2·CO2R - | --> | -->CH3COCH2·CH2·CO2OH. + CH3·CO·CH·Na CH3·CO·CH·CH2·CO2R + | --> | -->CH3COCH2·CH2·CO2OH. CO2R CO2R It may also be prepared by heating the anhydride of [gamma]-methyloxy-glutaric acid with concentrated sulphuric acid, and by oxidation of methyl heptenone and of geraniol. It crystallizes in -plates, which melt at 32.5-33° C. and boil at 148-149° (15 mm.) (A. +plates, which melt at 32.5-33° C. and boil at 148-149° (15 mm.) (A. Michael, _Jour. prak. Chem._, 1891 [2], 44, p. 114). It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and water. The acid, when distilled slowly, is decomposed and yields [alpha]- and [beta]-angelica lactones. When heated @@ -11296,7 +11264,7 @@ with hydriodic acid and phosphorus, it yields n-valeric acid; and with iodine and caustic soda solution it gives iodoform, even in the cold. With hydroxylamine it yields an oxime, which by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid rearranges itself to N-methylsuccinimide -[CH2·CO]2N·CH3. +[CH2·CO]2N·CH3. @@ -11360,7 +11328,7 @@ published his _Storia documentata della Rivoluzione Siciliana del 1848-1849_, and in 1851-1852 his _Storia d' Italia dal 1815 al 1848_, in 6 vols. He returned to Italy in 1854 and settled at Turin, and in 1856 he founded the _Piccolo Corriere d' Italia_, an organ which had great -influence in propagating the political sentiments of the Società +influence in propagating the political sentiments of the Società Nazionale Italiana, of which he ultimately was chosen president. With Daniele Manin (q.v.), one of the founders of that society, he advocated the unity of Italy under Victor Emmanuel even before Cavour, with whom @@ -11386,7 +11354,7 @@ brought up at the court of Louis II., 3rd duke of Bourbon. He served under Marshal Boucicaut in Italy, and on his return to France after the evacuation of Genoa in 1409 became seneschal of the Bourbonnais. In the English wars he was with John I., 4th duke of Bourbon, at the capture of -Soubise in 1413, and of Compiègne in 1415. The duke then made him +Soubise in 1413, and of Compiègne in 1415. The duke then made him lieutenant-general in Languedoc and Guienne. He failed to defend Caen and Falaise in the interest of the dauphin (afterwards Charles VII.) against Henry V. in 1417 and 1418, but in the latter year he held Lyons @@ -11394,13 +11362,13 @@ for some time against Jean sans Peur, duke of Burgundy. A series of successes over the English and Burgundians on the Loire was rewarded in 1420 with the government of Dauphiny and the office of marshal of France. La Fayette commanded the Franco-Scottish troops at the battle of -Baugé (1422), though he did not, as has been sometimes stated, slay +Baugé (1422), though he did not, as has been sometimes stated, slay Thomas, duke of Clarence, with his own hand. In 1424 he was taken prisoner by the English at Verneuil, but was released shortly afterwards, and fought with Joan of Arc at Orleans and Patay in 1429. The marshal had become a member of the grand council of Charles VII., and with the exception of a short disgrace about 1430, due to the -ill-will of Georges de la Trémouille, he retained the royal favour all +ill-will of Georges de la Trémouille, he retained the royal favour all his life. He took an active part in the army reform initiated by Charles VII., and the establishment of military posts for the suppression of brigandage. His last campaign was against the English in Normandy in @@ -11431,19 +11399,19 @@ husband through the influence of Louise. At the time of her death in January 1665 Mlle de La Fayette was superior of a convent of her order which she had founded at Chaillot. - See _Mémoires de Madame de Motteville_; Victor Cousin, _Madame de - Hautefort_ (Paris, 1868); L'Abbé Sorin, _Louise-Angèle de La Fayette_ + See _Mémoires de Madame de Motteville_; Victor Cousin, _Madame de + Hautefort_ (Paris, 1868); L'Abbé Sorin, _Louise-Angèle de La Fayette_ (Paris, 1893). LA FAYETTE, MARIE JOSEPH PAUL YVES ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER. MARQUIS DE -(1757-1834), was born at the château of Chavaniac in Auvergne, France, +(1757-1834), was born at the château of Chavaniac in Auvergne, France, on the 6th of September 1757. His father[1] was killed at Minden in 1759, and his mother and his grandfather died in 1770, and thus at the age of thirteen he was left an orphan with a princely fortune. He -married at sixteen Marie Adrienne Françoise de Noailles (d. 1807), +married at sixteen Marie Adrienne Françoise de Noailles (d. 1807), daughter of the duc d'Ayen and granddaughter of the duc de Noailles, then one of the most influential families in the kingdom. La Fayette chose to follow the career of his father, and entered the Guards. @@ -11554,7 +11522,7 @@ Spanish expedition against some of the British West India Islands, of which he had been appointed chief of staff, and a formidable fleet assembled at Cadiz, but the armistice signed on the 20th of January 1783 between the belligerents put a stop to the expedition. He had been -promoted (1781) to the rank of _maréchal de camp_ (major-general) in the +promoted (1781) to the rank of _maréchal de camp_ (major-general) in the French army, and he received every token of regard from his sovereign and his countrymen. He visited the United States again in 1784, and remained some five months as the guest of the nation. @@ -11571,7 +11539,7 @@ the states-general, and took a prominent part in its proceedings. He was chosen vice-president of the National Assembly, and on the 11th of July 1789 presented a declaration of rights, modelled on Jefferson's Declaration of Independence in 1776. On the 15th of July, the second day -of the new régime, La Fayette was chosen by acclamation colonel-general +of the new régime, La Fayette was chosen by acclamation colonel-general of the new National Guard of Paris. He also proposed the combination of the colours of Paris, red and blue, and the royal white, into the famous tricolour cockade of modern France (July 17). For the succeeding three @@ -11594,16 +11562,16 @@ February 1790 he refused the supreme command of the National Guard of the kingdom. In May he founded the "Society of 1789" which afterwards became the Feuillants Club. He took a prominent part in the celebration of July 14, 1790, the first anniversary of the destruction of the -Bastille. After suppressing an _émeute_ in April 1791 he again resigned +Bastille. After suppressing an _émeute_ in April 1791 he again resigned his commission, and was again compelled to retain it. He was the friend of liberty as well as of order, and when Louis XVI. fled to Varennes he issued orders to stop him. Shortly afterwards he was made lieutenant-general in the army. He commanded the troops in the -suppression of another _émeute_, on the occasion of the proclamation of +suppression of another _émeute_, on the occasion of the proclamation of the constitution (September 18, 1791), after which, feeling that his task was done, he retired into private life. This did not prevent his friends from proposing him for the mayoralty of Paris in opposition to -Pétion. +Pétion. When, in December 1791, three armies were formed on the western frontier to attack Austria, La Fayette was placed in command of one of them. But @@ -11613,7 +11581,7 @@ more in danger, he definitely opposed himself to the further advance of the Jacobin party, intending eventually to use his army for the restoration of a limited monarchy. On the 19th of August 1792 the Assembly declared him a traitor. He was compelled to take refuge in the -neutral territory of Liége, whence as one of the prime movers in the +neutral territory of Liége, whence as one of the prime movers in the Revolution he was taken and held as a prisoner of state for five years, first in Prussian and afterwards in Austrian prisons, in spite of the intercession of America and the pleadings of his wife. Napoleon, @@ -11663,7 +11631,7 @@ Chamber of Representatives and voted consistently on the Liberal side. He was away from Paris during the revolution of July 1830, but he took an active part in the "campaign of the banquets," which led up to that of 1848. He died in December of the next year. His son, OSCAR THOMAS -GILBERT MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1815-1881), was educated at the École +GILBERT MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1815-1881), was educated at the École Polytechnique, and served as an artillery officer in Algeria. He entered the Chamber of Representatives in 1846 and voted, like his father, with the extreme Left. After the revolution of 1848 he received a post in the @@ -11675,17 +11643,17 @@ on the establishment of the third republic, becoming a life senator in political opinions. He was one of the secretaries of the Constituent Assembly, and a member of the senate from 1876 to 1888. - See _Mémoires historiques et pièces authentiques sur M. de La Fayette - pour servir à l'histoire des révolutions_ (Paris, An II., 1793-1794); - B. Sarrans, _La Fayette et la Révolution de 1830, histoire des choses - et des hommes de Juillet_ (Paris, 1834); _Mémoires, correspondances et + See _Mémoires historiques et pièces authentiques sur M. de La Fayette + pour servir à l'histoire des révolutions_ (Paris, An II., 1793-1794); + B. Sarrans, _La Fayette et la Révolution de 1830, histoire des choses + et des hommes de Juillet_ (Paris, 1834); _Mémoires, correspondances et manuscrits de La Fayette_, published by his family (6 vols., Paris, - 1837-1838); Regnault Warin, _Mémoires pour servir à la vie du général + 1837-1838); Regnault Warin, _Mémoires pour servir à la vie du général La Fayette_ (Paris, 1824); A. Bardoux, _La jeunesse de La Fayette_ - (Paris, 1892); _Les Dernières années de La Fayette_ (Paris, 1893); E. - Charavaray, _Le Général La Fayette_ (Paris, 1895); A. Levasseur, _La - Fayette en Amérique_ 1824 (Paris, 1829); J. Cloquet, _Souvenirs de la - vie privée du général La Fayette_ (Paris, 1836); Max Büdinger, _La + (Paris, 1892); _Les Dernières années de La Fayette_ (Paris, 1893); E. + Charavaray, _Le Général La Fayette_ (Paris, 1895); A. Levasseur, _La + Fayette en Amérique_ 1824 (Paris, 1829); J. Cloquet, _Souvenirs de la + vie privée du général La Fayette_ (Paris, 1836); Max Büdinger, _La Fayette in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1898); and M. M. Crawford, _The Wife of Lafayette_ (1908); Bayard Tuckerman, _Life of Lafayette_ (New York, 1889); Charlemagne Tower, _The Marquis de La Fayette in the American @@ -11706,13 +11674,13 @@ LA FAYETTE, MARIE-MADELEINE PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE, COMTESSE DE March 1634. Her father, Marc Pioche de la Vergne, commandant of Havre, died when she was sixteen, and her mother seems to have been more occupied with her own than her daughter's interests. Mme de la Vergne -married in 1651 the chevalier de Sévigné, and Marie thus became -connected with Mme de Sévigné, who was destined to be a lifelong friend. +married in 1651 the chevalier de Sévigné, and Marie thus became +connected with Mme de Sévigné, who was destined to be a lifelong friend. She studied Greek, Latin and Italian, and inspired in one of her tutors, -Gilles de Ménage, an enthusiastic admiration which he expressed in verse -in three or four languages. Marie married in 1655 François Motier, comte +Gilles de Ménage, an enthusiastic admiration which he expressed in verse +in three or four languages. Marie married in 1655 François Motier, comte de La Fayette. They lived on the count's estates in Auvergne, according -to her own account (in a letter to Ménage) quite happily; but after the +to her own account (in a letter to Ménage) quite happily; but after the birth of her two sons her husband disappeared so effectually that it was long supposed that he died about 1660, though he really lived until 1683. Mme de La Fayette had returned to Paris, and about 1665 contracted @@ -11722,12 +11690,12 @@ sides justified it in the eyes of society, and when in 1680 La Rochefoucauld died Mme de La Fayette received the sincerest sympathy. Her first novel, _La Princesse de Montpensier_, was published anonymously in 1662; _Zayde_ appeared in 1670 under the name of J. R. de -Segrais; and in 1678 her masterpiece, _La Princesse de Clèves_, also +Segrais; and in 1678 her masterpiece, _La Princesse de Clèves_, also under the name of Segrais. The history of the modern novel of sentiment -begins with the _Princesse de Clèves_. The interminable pages of Mlle de -Scudéry with the _Précieuses_ and their admirers masquerading as +begins with the _Princesse de Clèves_. The interminable pages of Mlle de +Scudéry with the _Précieuses_ and their admirers masquerading as Persians or ancient Romans had already been discredited by the -burlesques of Paul Scarron and Antoine Furetière. It remained for Mme de +burlesques of Paul Scarron and Antoine Furetière. It remained for Mme de La Fayette to achieve the more difficult task of substituting something more satisfactory than the disconnected episodes of the _roman comique_. This she accomplished in a story offering in its shortness and @@ -11737,8 +11705,8 @@ the characters of the personages. They act in a perfectly reasonable way and their motives are analysed with the finest discrimination. No doubt the semi-autobiographical character of the material partially explains Mme de La Fayette's refusal to acknowledge the book. Contemporary -critics, even Mme de Sévigné amongst them, found fault with the avowal -made by Mme de Clèves to her husband. In answer to these criticisms, +critics, even Mme de Sévigné amongst them, found fault with the avowal +made by Mme de Clèves to her husband. In answer to these criticisms, which her anonymity prevented her from answering directly, Mme de La Fayette wrote her last novel, the _Comtesse de Tende_. @@ -11756,10 +11724,10 @@ her son's carelessness. Madame de La Fayette died on the 25th of May 1692. See Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits de femmes_; the comte d'Haussonville, - _Madame de La Fayette_ (1891), in the series of _Grands écrivains - français_; M. de Lescure's notice prefixed to an edition of the - _Princesse de Clèves_ (1881); and a critical edition of the historical - memoirs by Eugène Asse (1890). See also L. Rea, _Marie Madeleine, + _Madame de La Fayette_ (1891), in the series of _Grands écrivains + français_; M. de Lescure's notice prefixed to an edition of the + _Princesse de Clèves_ (1881); and a critical edition of the historical + memoirs by Eugène Asse (1890). See also L. Rea, _Marie Madeleine, comtesse de La Fayette_ (1908). @@ -11820,31 +11788,31 @@ was incorporated. -LA FERTÉ, the name of a number of localities in France, differentiated -by agnomens. La Ferté Imbault (department of Loir-et-Cher) was in the -possession of Jacques d'Étampes (1590-1668), marshal of France and -ambassador in England, who was known as the marquis of La Ferté -Imbault. La Ferté Nabert (the modern La Ferté Saint Aubin, department of +LA FERTÉ, the name of a number of localities in France, differentiated +by agnomens. La Ferté Imbault (department of Loir-et-Cher) was in the +possession of Jacques d'Étampes (1590-1668), marshal of France and +ambassador in England, who was known as the marquis of La Ferté +Imbault. La Ferté Nabert (the modern La Ferté Saint Aubin, department of Loiret) was acquired in the 16th century by the house of Saint Nectaire (corrupted to Senneterre), and erected into a duchy in the peerage of -France (_duché-pairie_) in 1665 for Henri de Saint Nectaire, marshal of -France. It was called La Ferté Lowendal after it had been acquired by +France (_duché-pairie_) in 1665 for Henri de Saint Nectaire, marshal of +France. It was called La Ferté Lowendal after it had been acquired by Marshal Lowendal in 1748. -LA FERTÉ-BERNARD, a town of western France, in the department of Sarthe, +LA FERTÉ-BERNARD, a town of western France, in the department of Sarthe, on the Huisne, 27 m. N.E. of Le Mans, on the railway from Paris to that -town. Pop. (1906) 4358. La Ferté carries on cloth manufacture and -flour-milling and has trade in horses and cattle. Its church of Nôtre +town. Pop. (1906) 4358. La Ferté carries on cloth manufacture and +flour-milling and has trade in horses and cattle. Its church of Nôtre Dame has a choir (16th century) with graceful apse-chapels of Renaissance architecture and remarkable windows of the same period; the remainder of the church is in the Flamboyant Gothic style. The town hall occupies the superstructure and flanking towers of a fortified gateway of the 15th century. -La Ferté-Bernard owes its origin and name to a stronghold (_fermeté_) +La Ferté-Bernard owes its origin and name to a stronghold (_fermeté_) built about the 11th century and afterwards held by the family of Bernard. In 1424 it did not succumb to the English troops till after a four months' siege. It belonged in the 16th century to the family of @@ -11854,7 +11822,7 @@ Guise and supported the League, but was captured by the royal forces in -LA FERTÉ-MILON, a town of northern France in the department of Aisne on +LA FERTÉ-MILON, a town of northern France in the department of Aisne on the Ourcq, 47 m. W. by S. of Reims by rail. Pop. (1906) 1563. The town has imposing remains comprising one side flanked by four towers of an unfinished castle built about the beginning of the 15th century by Louis @@ -11899,7 +11867,7 @@ the 9th he received in this capacity Louis Philippe's oath to the new constitution. The clamour of the Paris mob for the death of the imprisoned ministers of Charles X., which in October culminated in riots, induced the more moderate members of the government--including -Guizot, the duc de Broglie and Casimir-Périer--to hand over the +Guizot, the duc de Broglie and Casimir-Périer--to hand over the administration to a ministry which, possessing the confidence of the revolutionary Parisians, should be in a better position to save the ministers from their fury. On the 5th of November, accordingly, Laffitte @@ -11933,23 +11901,23 @@ FOOTNOTE: [1] Apollinaire Antoine Maurice, comte d'Argout (1782-1858), afterwards reconciled to the July monarchy, and a member of the - Laffitte Casimir-Périer and Thiers cabinets. + Laffitte Casimir-Périer and Thiers cabinets. LAFFITTE, PIERRE (1823-1903), French Positivist, was born on the 21st of -February 1823 at Béguey (Gironde). Residing at Paris as a teacher of +February 1823 at Béguey (Gironde). Residing at Paris as a teacher of mathematics, he became a disciple of Comte, who appointed him his literary executor. On the schism of the Positivist body which followed Comte's death, he was recognized as head of the section which accepted -the full Comtian doctrine; the other section adhering to Littré, who +the full Comtian doctrine; the other section adhering to Littré, who rejected the religion of humanity as inconsistent with the materialism of Comte's earlier period. From 1853 Laffitte delivered Positivist lectures in the room formerly occupied by Comte in the rue Monsieur le -Prince. He published _Les Grands Types de l'humanité_ (1875) and _Cours -de philosophie première_ (1889). In 1893 he was appointed to the new -chair founded at the Collège de France for the exposition of the general +Prince. He published _Les Grands Types de l'humanité_ (1875) and _Cours +de philosophie première_ (1889). In 1893 he was appointed to the new +chair founded at the Collège de France for the exposition of the general history of science, and it was largely due to his inspiration that a statue to Comte was erected in the Place de la Sorbonne in 1902. He died on the 4th of January 1903. @@ -11957,52 +11925,52 @@ on the 4th of January 1903. -LA FLÈCHE, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the +LA FLÈCHE, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Sarthe on the Loire, 31 m. S.S.W. of Le Mans by rail. Pop. (1906) town 7800; commune 10,663. The chief interest of the town lies in -the Prytanée, a famous school for the sons of officers, originally a +the Prytanée, a famous school for the sons of officers, originally a college founded for the Jesuits in 1607 by Henry IV. The buildings, including a fine chapel, were erected from 1620 to 1653 and are surrounded by a park. A bronze statue of Henry IV. stands in the -marketplace. La Flèche is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of +marketplace. La Flèche is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of first instance, and carries on tanning, flour-milling, and the manufacture of paper, starch, wooden shoes and gloves. It is an agricultural market. -The lords of La Flèche became counts of Maine about 1100, but the +The lords of La Flèche became counts of Maine about 1100, but the lordship became separate from the county and passed in the 16th century to the family of Bourbon and thus to Henry IV. -LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI (1797-1873), French actor, was born at Bordeaux on +LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI (1797-1873), French actor, was born at Bordeaux on the 15th of May 1797. Abandoning his profession as assistant ship's doctor in the navy, he went to Paris to study singing and acting. He had some experience at a small theatre, and was preparing to appear at the -Opéra Comique when the director of the Vaudeville offered him an -engagement. Here he made his _début_ in 1821 in _La Somnambule_, and his +Opéra Comique when the director of the Vaudeville offered him an +engagement. Here he made his _début_ in 1821 in _La Somnambule_, and his good looks and excellent voice soon brought him into public favour. -After several years at the Nouveautés and the Vaudeville, on the burning +After several years at the Nouveautés and the Vaudeville, on the burning of the latter in 1838 he went to England, and married, at Gretna Green, Jenny Colon, from whom he was soon divorced. On his return to Paris he -joined the Variétés, where he acted for fifteen years in such plays as -_Le Chevalier de Saint Georges_, _Le Lion empaillé_, _Une dernière -conquête_, &c. Another engagement at the Vaudeville followed, and one at -the Gaiété, and he ended his brilliant career at the Gymnase in the part -of the noble father in such plays as Les _Vieux Garçons_ and _Nos bons +joined the Variétés, where he acted for fifteen years in such plays as +_Le Chevalier de Saint Georges_, _Le Lion empaillé_, _Une dernière +conquête_, &c. Another engagement at the Vaudeville followed, and one at +the Gaiété, and he ended his brilliant career at the Gymnase in the part +of the noble father in such plays as Les _Vieux Garçons_ and _Nos bons villageois_. He died in Paris on the 19th of April 1873. -LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE (1621-1695), French poet, was born at Château +LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE (1621-1695), French poet, was born at Château Thierry in Champagne, probably on the 8th of July 1621. His father was -Charles de La Fontaine, "maître des eaux et forêts"--a kind of -deputy-ranger--of the duchy of Château Thierry; his mother was Françoise +Charles de La Fontaine, "maître des eaux et forêts"--a kind of +deputy-ranger--of the duchy of Château Thierry; his mother was Françoise Pidoux. On both sides his family was of the highest provincial middle class, but was not noble; his father was also fairly wealthy. Jean, the -eldest child, was educated at the _collège_ (grammar-school) of Reims, +eldest child, was educated at the _collège_ (grammar-school) of Reims, and at the end of his school days he entered the Oratory in May 1641, and the seminary of Saint-Magloire in October of the same year; but a very short sojourn proved to him that he had mistaken his vocation. He @@ -12010,7 +11978,7 @@ then apparently studied law, and is said to have been admitted as _avocat_, though there does not seem to be actual proof of this. He was, however, settled in life, or at least might have been so, somewhat early. In 1647 his father resigned his rangership in his favour, and -arranged a marriage for him with Marie Héricart, a girl of sixteen, who +arranged a marriage for him with Marie Héricart, a girl of sixteen, who brought him twenty thousand livres, and expectations. She seems to have been both handsome and intelligent, but the two did not get on well together. There appears to be absolutely no ground for the vague scandal @@ -12020,11 +11988,11 @@ said against her is that she was a negligent housewife and an inveterate novel reader; La Fontaine himself was constantly away from home, was certainly not strict in point of conjugal fidelity, and was so bad a man of business that his affairs became involved in hopeless difficulty, and -a _séparation de biens_ had to take place in 1658. This was a perfectly +a _séparation de biens_ had to take place in 1658. This was a perfectly amicable transaction for the benefit of the family; by degrees, however, the pair, still without any actual quarrel, ceased to live together, and for the greater part of the last forty years of La Fontaine's life he -lived in Paris while his wife dwelt at Château Thierry, which, however, +lived in Paris while his wife dwelt at Château Thierry, which, however, he frequently visited. One son was born to them in 1653, and was educated and taken care of wholly by his mother. @@ -12050,7 +12018,7 @@ generous patrons, this was of small importance to him. In the same year he wrote a ballad, _Les Rieurs du Beau-Richard_, and this was followed by many small pieces of occasional poetry addressed to various personages from the king downwards. Fouquet soon incurred the royal -displeasure, but La Fontaine, like most of his literary protégés, was +displeasure, but La Fontaine, like most of his literary protégés, was not unfaithful to him, the well-known elegy _Pleurez, nymphes de Vaux_, being by no means the only proof of his devotion. Indeed it is thought not improbable that a journey to Limoges in 1663 in company with @@ -12061,7 +12029,7 @@ assumed the title of esquire, to which they were not strictly entitled, and, some old edicts on the subject having been put in force, an informer procured a sentence against the poet fining him 2000 livres. He found, however, a new protector in the duke and still more in the -duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors at Château Thierry, and +duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors at Château Thierry, and nothing more is heard of the fine. Some of La Fontaine's liveliest verses are addressed to the duchess, Anne Mancini, the youngest of Mazarin's nieces, and it is even probable that the taste of the duke and @@ -12072,7 +12040,7 @@ productions had been comparatively trivial, though much of his work was handed about in manuscript long before it was regularly published. It was about this time that the quartette of the Rue du Vieux Colombier, so famous in French literary history, was formed. It consisted of La -Fontaine, Racine, Boileau and Molière, the last of whom was almost of +Fontaine, Racine, Boileau and Molière, the last of whom was almost of the same age as La Fontaine, the other two considerably younger. Chapelle was also a kind of outsider in the coterie. There are many anecdotes, some pretty obviously apocryphal, about these meetings. The @@ -12086,7 +12054,7 @@ find friends. In 1664 he was regularly commissioned and sworn in as gentleman to the duchess dowager of Orleans, and was installed in the Luxembourg. He still retained his rangership, and in 1666 we have something like a reprimand from Colbert suggesting that he should look -into some malpractices at Château Thierry. In the same year appeared the +into some malpractices at Château Thierry. In the same year appeared the second book of the _Contes_, and in 1668 the first six books of the _Fables_, with more of both kinds in 1671. In this latter year a curious instance of the docility with which the poet lent himself to any @@ -12096,7 +12064,7 @@ prince de Conti. A year afterwards his situation, which had for some time been decidedly flourishing, showed signs of changing very much for the worse. The duchess of Orleans died, and he apparently had to give up his rangership, probably selling it to pay debts. But there was always a -providence for La Fontaine. Madame de la Sablière, a woman of great +providence for La Fontaine. Madame de la Sablière, a woman of great beauty, of considerable intellectual power and of high character, invited him to make his home in her house, where he lived for some twenty years. He seems to have had no trouble whatever about his affairs @@ -12104,7 +12072,7 @@ thenceforward; and could devote himself to his two different lines of poetry, as well as to that of theatrical composition. In 1682 he was, at more than sixty years of age, recognized as one of -the first men of letters of France. Madame de Sévigné, one of the +the first men of letters of France. Madame de Sévigné, one of the soundest literary critics of the time, and by no means given to praise mere novelties, had spoken of his second collection of _Fables_ published in the winter of 1678 as divine; and it is pretty certain that @@ -12122,12 +12090,12 @@ election but for a second ballot in case of the failure of an absolute majority, was ill-pleased, and the election was left pending. Another vacancy occurred, however, some months later, and to this Boileau was elected. The king hastened to approve the choice effusively, adding, -"Vous pouvez incessamment recevoir La Fontaine, il a promis d'être +"Vous pouvez incessamment recevoir La Fontaine, il a promis d'être sage." His admission was indirectly the cause of the only serious literary quarrel of his life. A dispute took place between the Academy -and one of its members, Antoine Furetière, on the subject of the +and one of its members, Antoine Furetière, on the subject of the latter's French dictionary, which was decided to be a breach of the -Academy's corporate privileges. Furetière, a man of no small ability, +Academy's corporate privileges. Furetière, a man of no small ability, bitterly assailed those whom he considered to be his enemies, and among them La Fontaine, whose unlucky _Contes_ made him peculiarly vulnerable, his second collection of these tales having been the subject of a police @@ -12141,8 +12109,8 @@ About the same time (1685-1687) he made the acquaintance of the last of his many hosts and protectors, Monsieur and Madame d'Hervart, and fell in love with a certain Madame Ulrich, a lady of some position but of doubtful character. This acquaintance was accompanied by a great -familiarity with Vendôme, Chaulieu and the rest of the libertine coterie -of the Temple; but, though Madame de la Sablière had long given herself +familiarity with Vendôme, Chaulieu and the rest of the libertine coterie +of the Temple; but, though Madame de la Sablière had long given herself up almost entirely to good works and religious exercises, La Fontaine continued an inmate of her house until her death in 1693. What followed is told in one of the best known of the many stories bearing on his @@ -12155,12 +12123,12 @@ had brought him, not indeed to understand, but to acknowledge the impropriety of the _Contes_, and it is said that the destruction of a new play of some merit was demanded and submitted to as a proof of repentance. A pleasant story is told of the young duke of Burgundy, -Fénelon's pupil, who was then only eleven years old, sending 50 louis to +Fénelon's pupil, who was then only eleven years old, sending 50 louis to La Fontaine as a present of his own motion. But, though La Fontaine recovered for the time, he was broken by age and infirmity, and his new hosts had to nurse rather than to entertain him, which they did very carefully and kindly. He did a little more work, completing his _Fables_ -among other things; but he did not survive Madame de la Sablière much +among other things; but he did not survive Madame de la Sablière much more than two years, dying on the 13th of April 1695, at the age of seventy-three. He was buried in the cemetery of the Holy Innocents. His wife survived him nearly fifteen years. @@ -12168,7 +12136,7 @@ wife survived him nearly fifteen years. The curious personal character of La Fontaine, like that of some other men of letters, has been enshrined in a kind of legend by literary tradition. At an early age his absence of mind and indifference to -business gave a subject to Tallemant des Réaux. His later contemporaries +business gave a subject to Tallemant des Réaux. His later contemporaries helped to swell the tale, and the 18th century finally accepted it, including the anecdotes of his meeting his son, being told who he was, and remarking, "Ah, yes, I thought I had seen him somewhere!" of his @@ -12177,14 +12145,14 @@ then imploring him to visit at his house just as before; of his going into company with his stockings wrong side out, &c., with, for a contrast, those of his awkwardness and silence, if not positive rudeness, in company. It ought to be remembered, as a comment on the -unfavourable description by La Bruyère, that La Fontaine was a special -friend and ally of Benserade, La Bruyère's chief literary enemy. But +unfavourable description by La Bruyère, that La Fontaine was a special +friend and ally of Benserade, La Bruyère's chief literary enemy. But after all deductions much will remain, especially when it is remembered that one of the chief authorities for these anecdotes is Louis Racine, a man who possessed intelligence and moral worth, and who received them from his father, La Fontaine's attached friend for more than thirty years. Perhaps the best worth recording of all these stories is one of -the Vieux Colombier quartette, which tells how Molière, while Racine and +the Vieux Colombier quartette, which tells how Molière, while Racine and Boileau were exercising their wits upon "le bonhomme" or "le bon" (by both which titles La Fontaine was familiarly known), remarked to a bystander, "Nos beaux esprits ont beau faire, ils n'effaceront pas le @@ -12203,9 +12171,9 @@ bonhomme." They have not. competent and friendly that La Fontaine attempted too many styles, and there is something in the criticism. His dramatic efforts are especially weak. The best pieces usually published under his - name--_Ragotin_, _Le Florentin_, _La Coupe enchantée_, were originally - fathered not by him but by Champmeslé, the husband of the famous - actress who captivated Racine and Charles de Sévigné. His avowed work + name--_Ragotin_, _Le Florentin_, _La Coupe enchantée_, were originally + fathered not by him but by Champmeslé, the husband of the famous + actress who captivated Racine and Charles de Sévigné. His avowed work was chiefly in the form of opera, a form of no great value at its best. _Psyche_ has all the advantages of its charming story and of La Fontaine's style, but it is perhaps principally interesting nowadays @@ -12219,7 +12187,7 @@ bonhomme." They have not. though as in this case sometimes very beautiful conceits. The elegies, the epistles, the epigrams, the ballades, contain many things which would be very creditable to a minor poet or a writer of vers de - société, but even if they be taken according to the wise rule of + société, but even if they be taken according to the wise rule of modern criticism, each in its kind, and judged simply according to their rank in that kind, they fall far below the merits of the two great collections of verse narratives which have assured La Fontaine's @@ -12238,7 +12206,7 @@ bonhomme." They have not. knowledge that they are considered indecent, and with a deliberate desire to pander to a vicious taste. No one who followed him in the style can claim this excuse; he can, and the way in which - contemporaries of stainless virtue such as Madame de Sévigné speak of + contemporaries of stainless virtue such as Madame de Sévigné speak of his work shows that, though the new public opinion was growing up, it was not finally accepted. In the _Contes_ La Fontaine for the most part attempts little originality of theme. He takes his stories @@ -12251,12 +12219,12 @@ bonhomme." They have not. ardour for physical beauty and the delights of sense which animates and excuses the early Italian Renaissance. They have not the subtle mixture of passion and sensuality, of poetry and appetite, which - distinguishes the work of Marguerite and of the Pléiade. They are + distinguishes the work of Marguerite and of the Pléiade. They are emphatically _contes pour rire_, a genuine expression of the _esprit gaulois_ of the fabliau writers and of Rabelais, destitute of the grossness of envelope which had formerly covered that spirit. A - comparison of "La Fiancée du roi de Garbe" with its original in - Boccaccio (especially if the reader takes M. Émile Montégut's + comparison of "La Fiancée du roi de Garbe" with its original in + Boccaccio (especially if the reader takes M. Émile Montégut's admirable essay as a commentary) will illustrate better than anything else what they have and what they have not. Some writers have pleaded hard for the admission of actual passion of the poetical sort in such @@ -12297,16 +12265,16 @@ bonhomme." They have not. like Lamartine, denied that the moral tone of the whole is as fresh and healthy as its literary interest is vivid. The book has therefore naturally become the standard reading book of French both at home and - abroad, a position which it shares in verse with the _Télémaque_ of - Fénelon in prose. It is no small testimony to its merit that not even + abroad, a position which it shares in verse with the _Télémaque_ of + Fénelon in prose. It is no small testimony to its merit that not even this use or misuse has interfered with its popularity. The general literary character of La Fontaine is, with allowance made for the difference of subject, visible equally in the _Fables_ and in the _Contes_. Perhaps one of the hardest sayings in French literature for an English student is the dictum of Joubert to the effect that - "_Il y a dans La Fontaine une plénitude de poésie qu'on ne trouve - nulle part dans les autres auteurs français._" The difficulty arises + "_Il y a dans La Fontaine une plénitude de poésie qu'on ne trouve + nulle part dans les autres auteurs français._" The difficulty arises from the ambiguity of the terms. For inventiveness of fancy and for diligent observation of the rules of art La Fontaine deserves, if not the first, almost the first place among French poets. In his hands the @@ -12318,10 +12286,10 @@ bonhomme." They have not. the sake of easy writing, intended to evade the trammels of the stately couplet and _rimes difficiles_ enjoined by Boileau. Lamartine in the attack already mentioned affects contempt of the "vers boiteux, - disloqués, inégaux, sans symmétrie ni dans l'oreille ni sur la page." + disloqués, inégaux, sans symmétrie ni dans l'oreille ni sur la page." This opinion may be said to have been finally exploded by the most accurate metrical critic and one of the most skilful metrical - practitioners that France has ever had, Théodore de Banville; and it + practitioners that France has ever had, Théodore de Banville; and it is only surprising that it should ever have been entertained by any professional maker of verse. La Fontaine's irregularities are strictly regulated, his cadences carefully arranged, and the whole effect may @@ -12348,8 +12316,8 @@ bonhomme." They have not. La Fontaine did not during his life issue any complete edition of his works, nor even of the two greatest and most important divisions of them. The most remarkable of his separate publications have already - been noticed. Others were the _Poëme de la captivité de St Malc_ - (1673), one of the pieces inspired by the Port-Royalists, the _Poëme + been noticed. Others were the _Poëme de la captivité de St Malc_ + (1673), one of the pieces inspired by the Port-Royalists, the _Poëme du Quinquina_ (1692), a piece of task work also, though of a very different kind, and a number of pieces published either in small pamphlets or with the works of other men. Among the latter may be @@ -12362,36 +12330,36 @@ bonhomme." They have not. magnificent illustrated editions ever published of any poet reproduced the two chief works of La Fontaine. The _Fables_ were illustrated by Oudry (1755-1759), the _Contes_ by Eisen (1762). This latter under the - title of "Edition des Fermiers-Généraux" fetches a high price. During + title of "Edition des Fermiers-Généraux" fetches a high price. During the first thirty years of the 19th century Walckenaer, a great student of French 17th-century classics, published for the house of Didot three successive editions of La Fontaine, the last (1826-1827) being perhaps entitled to the rank of the standard edition, as his _Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de La Fontaine_ is the standard biography and bibliography. The later editions of M. Marty-Laveaux in the - _Bibliothèque elzévirienne_, A. Pauly in the _Collection des - classiques françaises_ of M. Lemerre and L. Moland in that of M. + _Bibliothèque elzévirienne_, A. Pauly in the _Collection des + classiques françaises_ of M. Lemerre and L. Moland in that of M. Garnier supply in different forms all that can be wished. The second is the handsomest, the third, which is complete, perhaps the most generally useful. Editions, selections, translations, &c., of the _Fables_, especially for school use, are innumerable; but an illustrated edition published by the _Librairie des Bibliophiles_ (1874) deserves to be mentioned as not unworthy of its 18th-century - predecessors. The works of M. Grouchy, _Documents inédits sur La + predecessors. The works of M. Grouchy, _Documents inédits sur La Fontaine_ (1893); of G. Lafenestre, _Jean de La Fontaine_ (1895); and - of Émile Faguet, _Jean de La Fontaine_ (1900), should be mentioned. + of Émile Faguet, _Jean de La Fontaine_ (1900), should be mentioned. (G. Sa.) LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE, BART. (1807-1864), Canadian statesman -and judge, third son of Antoine Ménard LaFontaine (1772-1813) and +and judge, third son of Antoine Ménard LaFontaine (1772-1813) and Marie-J-Fontaine Bienvenue, was born at Boucherville in the province of Quebec on the 4th of October 1807. LaFontaine was educated at the -Collège de Montréal under the direction of the Sulpicians, and was +Collège de Montréal under the direction of the Sulpicians, and was called to the bar of the province of Lower Canada on the 18th of August -1829. He married firstly Adèle, daughter of A. Berthelot of Quebec; and, +1829. He married firstly Adèle, daughter of A. Berthelot of Quebec; and, secondly, Jane, daughter of Charles Morrison, of Berthier, by whom he had two sons. In 1830 he was elected a member of the House of Assembly for the county of Terrebonne, and became an ardent supporter of Louis @@ -12429,7 +12397,7 @@ a baronet. He died at Montreal on the 26th of February 1864. was upright in his conduct, sincerely attached to the traditions of his race, and laboured conscientiously to establish responsible government in Canada. His principal works are: _L'Analyse de - l'ordonnance du conseil spécial sur les bureaux d'hypothèques_ + l'ordonnance du conseil spécial sur les bureaux d'hypothèques_ (Montreal, 1842); _Observations sur les questions seigneuriales_ (Montreal, 1854); see _LaFontaine_, by A. DeCelles (Toronto, 1906). (A. G. D.) @@ -12465,7 +12433,7 @@ that of Crozat, under whose roof he died on the 13th of December 1716. LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE (1827-1891), German biblical scholar and orientalist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of November 1827. His real -name was Bötticher, Lagarde being his mother's name. At Berlin +name was Bötticher, Lagarde being his mother's name. At Berlin (1844-1846) and Halle (1846-1847) he studied theology, philosophy and oriental languages. In 1852 his studies took him to London and Paris. In 1854 he became a teacher at a Berlin public school, but this did not @@ -12473,7 +12441,7 @@ interrupt his biblical studies. He edited the _Didascalia apostolorum syriace_ (1854), and other Syriac texts collected in the British Museum and in Paris. In 1866 he received three years' leave of absence to collect fresh materials, and in 1869 succeeded Heinrich Ewald as -professor of oriental languages at Göttingen. Like Ewald, Lagarde was an +professor of oriental languages at Göttingen. Like Ewald, Lagarde was an active worker in a variety of subjects and languages; but his chief aim, the elucidation of the Bible, was almost always kept in view. He edited the Aramaic translation (known as the Targum) of the Prophets according @@ -12496,9 +12464,9 @@ _Mittheilungen_ (1884). Mention should also be made of the valuable _Onomastica sacra_ (1870; 2nd ed., 1887). Lagarde also took some part in politics. He belonged to the Prussian Conservative party, and was a violent anti-Semite. The bitterness which he felt appeared in his -writings. He died at Göttingen on the 22nd of December 1891. +writings. He died at Göttingen on the 22nd of December 1891. - See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_; and cf. Anna de + See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_; and cf. Anna de Lagarde, _Paul de Lagarde_ (1894). @@ -12575,7 +12543,7 @@ have become part of the Greek kingdom of Characene. The objects found at Tello are the most valuable art treasures up to this time discovered in Babylonia. - See E. de Sarzec, _Découvertes en Chaldée_ (1887 foll.). + See E. de Sarzec, _Découvertes en Chaldée_ (1887 foll.). (J. P. Pe.) @@ -12618,13 +12586,13 @@ protectorate in West Africa. The province consists of three divisions: Lagos; (2) small native states adjacent to the colony; and (3) the Yoruba country, farther inland. The total area is some 27,000 sq. m., or about the size of Scotland. The province is bounded S. by the Gulf of -Guinea, (from 2° 46´ 55´´ to 4° 30´ E.); W. by the French colony of +Guinea, (from 2° 46´ 55´´ to 4° 30´ E.); W. by the French colony of Dahomey; N. and E. by other provinces of Nigeria. _Physical Features._--The coast is low, marshy and malarious, and all along the shore the great Atlantic billows cause a dangerous surf. Behind the coast-line stretches a series of lagoons, in which are - small islands, that of Lagos having an area of 3¾ sq. m. Beyond the + small islands, that of Lagos having an area of 3¾ sq. m. Beyond the lagoons and mangrove swamps is a broad zone of dense primeval forest--"the bush"--which completely separates the arable lands from the coast lagoons. The water-parting of the streams flowing north to @@ -12659,8 +12627,8 @@ Dahomey; N. and E. by other provinces of Nigeria. where it is about 70 in. a year. The variation is, however, very great. In 1901 the rainfall was 112 in., in 1902 but 47, these figures being respectively the highest and lowest recorded in a period of - seventeen years. The mean temperature at Lagos is 82.5° F., the range - being from 68° to 91°. At certain seasons sudden heavy squalls of wind + seventeen years. The mean temperature at Lagos is 82.5° F., the range + being from 68° to 91°. At certain seasons sudden heavy squalls of wind and rain that last for a few hours are common. The hurricane and typhoon are unknown. The principal diseases are malarial fever, smallpox, rheumatism, peripheral neuritis, dysentery, chest diseases @@ -12707,7 +12675,7 @@ covered with timber trees, the wood chiefly cut for commercial purposes being a kind of mahogany. The destruction of immature trees and the fluctuations in price render this a very uncertain trade. The rubber industry was started in 1894, and in 1896 the rubber exported was valued -at £347,000. In 1899, owing to reckless methods of tapping the vines, +at £347,000. In 1899, owing to reckless methods of tapping the vines, 75% of the rubber plants died. Precautions were then taken to preserve the remainder and allow young plants to grow. The collection of rubber recommenced in 1904 and the industry again became one of importance. A @@ -12730,9 +12698,9 @@ country. Except iron there are no valuable minerals in the country. The cotton plant from which the "country cloths" are made is native to the country, the soil of which is capable of producing the very finest grades of cotton. The Egba branch of the Yoruba have always grown the -plant. In 1869 the cotton exported was valued at £76,957, but owing to +plant. In 1869 the cotton exported was valued at £76,957, but owing to low prices the natives ceased to grow cotton for export, so that in 1879 -the value of exported cotton was only £526. In 1902 planting for export +the value of exported cotton was only £526. In 1902 planting for export was recommenced by the Egba on scientific lines, and was started in the Abeokuta district with encouraging results. @@ -12759,10 +12727,10 @@ a concoction called "alcohol," introduced (1901) to meet the growing taste of the people for stronger liquor. This stuff contained 90% of pure alcohol and sometimes over 4% of fusel oil. To hinder the sale of this noxious compound legislation was passed in 1903 prohibiting the -import of liquor containing more than ½% of fusel oil, whilst the states +import of liquor containing more than ½% of fusel oil, whilst the states of Abeokuta and Ibadan prohibited the importation of liquor stronger than proof. The total trade of the country in 1905 was valued at -£2,224,754, the imports slightly exceeding the exports. There is a large +£2,224,754, the imports slightly exceeding the exports. There is a large transit trade with Dahomey. _Communications._--Lagos is well supplied with means of communication. @@ -12770,11 +12738,11 @@ transit trade with Dahomey. Abeokuta, 64 m. from Lagos, Ibadan (123 m.), Oshogbo (175 m.), to Illorin (247 m.) in Northern Nigeria, whence the line is continued to Jebba and Zunguru (see NIGERIA). Abeokuta is served by a branch line, - 1½ m. long, from Aro on the main line. Railway bridges connect Iddo + 1½ m. long, from Aro on the main line. Railway bridges connect Iddo Island both with the mainland and with Lagos Island (see Lagos, town). This line was begun in 1896 and opened to Ibadan in 1901. In 1905 the building of the section Ibadan-Illorin was undertaken. The railway was - built by the government and cost about £7000 per mile. The lagoons + built by the government and cost about £7000 per mile. The lagoons offer convenient channels for numerous small craft, which, with the exception of steam-launches, are almost entirely native-built canoes. Branch steamers run between the Forcados mouth of the Niger and Lagos, @@ -12800,8 +12768,8 @@ transit trade with Dahomey. monopoly, a considerable net profit is earned. Expenditure is mainly under the heads of railway administration, other public works, military and police, health, and education. The revenue increased in - the ten years 1895-1905 from £142,049 to £410,250. In the same period - the expenditure rose from £144,484 to £354,254. + the ten years 1895-1905 from £142,049 to £410,250. In the same period + the expenditure rose from £144,484 to £354,254. The defence of the province is entrusted to the Lagos battalion of the West African Frontier Force, a body under the control of the Colonial @@ -12838,7 +12806,7 @@ A treaty was concluded under which Akitoye bound himself to put down the slave trade. This treaty was not adhered to, and in 1861 Akitoye's son and successor, King Docemo, was induced to give up his territorial jurisdiction and accept a pension of 1200 bags of cowries, afterwards -commuted to £1000 a year, which pension he drew until his death in 1885. +commuted to £1000 a year, which pension he drew until his death in 1885. Immediately after the proclamation of the British annexation, a steady current of immigration from the mainland set in, and a flourishing town arose on Lagos Island. Iddo Island was acquired at the same time as @@ -12887,7 +12855,7 @@ NIGERIA). LAGOS, a seaport of West Africa, capital of the British colony and -protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in 6° 26´ N., 3° 23´ E. on an island +protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in 6° 26´ N., 3° 23´ E. on an island in a lagoon named Lagos also. Between Lagos and the mainland is Iddo Island. An iron bridge for road and railway traffic 2600 ft. long connects Lagos and Iddo Islands, and another iron bridge, 917 ft. long, @@ -12899,7 +12867,7 @@ club-house provided from public funds, and the police quarters. There are many substantial villas that serve as quarters for the officers of the civil service, as well as numerous solidly-built handsome private buildings. The streets are well kept; the town is supplied with electric -light, and there is a good water service. The chief stores and depôts +light, and there is a good water service. The chief stores and depôts for goods are all on the banks of the lagoon. The swamps of which originally Lagos Island entirely consisted have been reclaimed. In connexion with this work a canal, 25 ft. wide, has been cut right @@ -12950,8 +12918,8 @@ The great earthquake of 1755 destroyed a large part of the city. -LA GRÂCE, or LES GRÂCES, a game invented in France during the first -quarter of the 19th century and called there _le jeu des Grâces_. It is +LA GRÂCE, or LES GRÂCES, a game invented in France during the first +quarter of the 19th century and called there _le jeu des Grâces_. It is played with two light sticks about 16 in. long and a wicker ring, which is projected into the air by placing it over the sticks crossed and then separating them rapidly. The ring is caught upon the stick of another @@ -12962,7 +12930,7 @@ the ground. LA GRAND' COMBE, a town of southern France, in the department of Gard on -the Gardon, 39 m. N.N.W. of Nîmes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 6406; +the Gardon, 39 m. N.N.W. of Nîmes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 6406; commune, 11,292. There are extensive coal mines in the vicinity. @@ -13016,8 +12984,8 @@ further treated in a masterly manner of echoes and the mixture of sounds, and explained the phenomenon of grave harmonics as due to the occurrence of beats so rapid as to generate a musical note. This was followed, in the second volume of the _Miscellanea Taurinensia_ (1762) -by his "Essai d'une nouvelle méthode pour déterminer les maxima et les -minima des formules intégrales indéfinies," together with the +by his "Essai d'une nouvelle méthode pour déterminer les maxima et les +minima des formules intégrales indéfinies," together with the application of this important development of analysis to the solution of several dynamical problems, as well as to the demonstration of the mechanical principle of "least action." The essential point in his @@ -13051,7 +13019,7 @@ perturbations. He had in the meantime gratified a long felt desire by a visit to Paris, where he enjoyed the stimulating delight of conversing with such -mathematicians as A. C. Clairault, d'Alembert, Condorcet and the Abbé +mathematicians as A. C. Clairault, d'Alembert, Condorcet and the Abbé Marie. Illness prevented him from visiting London. The post of director of the mathematical department of the Berlin Academy (of which he had been a member since 1759) becoming vacant by the removal of Euler to St @@ -13076,7 +13044,7 @@ medical knowledge, to her care. The long series of memoirs--some of them complete treatises of great moment in the history of science--communicated by Lagrange to the Berlin Academy between the years 1767 and 1787 were not the only fruits of his -exile. His _Mécanique analytique_, in which his genius most fully +exile. His _Mécanique analytique_, in which his genius most fully displayed itself, was produced during the same period. This great work was the perfect realization of a design conceived by the author almost in boyhood, and clearly sketched in his first published essay.[1] Its @@ -13110,10 +13078,10 @@ income equal to that he had hitherto enjoyed, and, with the title of 1772), the right of voting at the deliberations of the Academy. In the midst of these distinctions, a profound melancholy seized upon him. His mathematical enthusiasm was for the time completely quenched, and during -two years the printed volume of his _Mécanique_, which he had seen only +two years the printed volume of his _Mécanique_, which he had seen only in manuscript, lay unopened beside him. He relieved his dejection with miscellaneous studies, especially with that of chemistry, which, in the -new form given to it by Lavoisier, he found "aisée comme l'algèbre." The +new form given to it by Lavoisier, he found "aisée comme l'algèbre." The Revolution roused him once more to activity and cheerfulness. Curiosity impelled him to remain and watch the progress of such a novel phenomenon; but curiosity was changed into dismay as the terrific @@ -13138,10 +13106,10 @@ marriage. Although specially exempted from the operation of the decree of October 1793, imposing banishment on foreign residents, he took alarm at the fate of J. S. Bailly and A. L. Lavoisier, and prepared to resume his former situation in Berlin. His design was frustrated by the -establishment of and his official connexion with the École Normale, and -the École Polytechnique. The former institution had an ephemeral +establishment of and his official connexion with the École Normale, and +the École Polytechnique. The former institution had an ephemeral existence; but amongst the benefits derived from the foundation of the -École Polytechnique one of the greatest, it has been observed,[4] was +École Polytechnique one of the greatest, it has been observed,[4] was the restoration of Lagrange to mathematics. The remembrance of his teachings was long treasured by such of his auditors--amongst whom were J. B. J. Delambre and S. F. Lacroix--as were capable of appreciating @@ -13151,7 +13119,7 @@ them by almost insensible gradations from elementary to abstruse conceptions. He seemed, not a professor amongst students, but a learner amongst learners; pauses for thought alternated with luminous exposition; invention accompanied demonstration; and thus originated his -_Théorie des fonctions analytiques_ (Paris, 1797). The leading idea of +_Théorie des fonctions analytiques_ (Paris, 1797). The leading idea of this work was contained in a paper published in the _Berlin Memoirs_ for 1772.[5] Its object was the elimination of the, to some minds, unsatisfactory conception of the infinite from the metaphysics of the @@ -13164,7 +13132,7 @@ ancients";[6] but it cannot be said that the attempt was successful. The validity of his fundamental position was impaired by the absence of a well-constituted theory of series; the notation employed was inconvenient, and was abandoned by its inventor in the second edition of -his _Mécanique_; while his scruples as to the admission into analytical +his _Mécanique_; while his scruples as to the admission into analytical investigations of the idea of limits or vanishing ratios have long since been laid aside as idle. Nowhere, however, were the keenness and clearness of his intellect more conspicuous than in this brilliant @@ -13173,7 +13141,7 @@ effective in secondary results. His purely abstract mode of regarding functions, apart from any mechanical or geometrical considerations, led the way to a new and sharply characterized development of the higher analysis in the hands of A. Cauchy, C. G. Jacobi, and others.[7] The -_Théorie des fonctions_ is divided into three parts, of which the first +_Théorie des fonctions_ is divided into three parts, of which the first explains the general doctrine of functions, the second deals with its application to geometry, and the third with its bearings on mechanics. @@ -13187,23 +13155,23 @@ affairs, the French commissary repaired in state to the old man's residence in Turin, to congratulate him on the merits of his son, whom they declared "to have done honour to mankind by his genius, and whom Piedmont was proud to have produced, and France to possess." Bonaparte, -who styled him "la haute pyramide des sciences mathématiques," loaded +who styled him "la haute pyramide des sciences mathématiques," loaded him with personal favours and official distinctions. He became a senator, a count of the empire, a grand officer of the legion of honour, and just before his death received the grand cross of the order of -réunion. +réunion. -The preparation of a new edition of his _Mécanique_ exhausted his +The preparation of a new edition of his _Mécanique_ exhausted his already falling powers. Frequent fainting fits gave presage of a speedy end, and on the 8th of April 1813 he had a final interview with his -friends B. Lacépède, G. Monge and J. A. Chaptal. He spoke with the -utmost calm of his approaching death; "c'est une dernière fonction," he -said, "qui n'est ni pénible ni désagréable." He nevertheless looked +friends B. Lacépède, G. Monge and J. A. Chaptal. He spoke with the +utmost calm of his approaching death; "c'est une dernière fonction," he +said, "qui n'est ni pénible ni désagréable." He nevertheless looked forward to a future meeting, when he promised to complete the autobiographical details which weakness obliged him to interrupt. They remained untold, for he died two days later on the 10th of April, and was buried in the Pantheon, the funeral oration being pronounced by -Laplace and Lacépède. +Laplace and Lacépède. Amongst the brilliant group of mathematicians whose magnanimous rivalry contributed to accomplish the task of generalization and @@ -13264,7 +13232,7 @@ Laplace and Lacépède. anticipated by Poisson, who gave formulae for the variation of the elements of rotation strictly corresponding with those found by Lagrange for the variation of the elements of revolution. The revision - of the _Mécanique analytique_ was undertaken mainly for the purpose of + of the _Mécanique analytique_ was undertaken mainly for the purpose of embodying in it these new methods and final results, but was interrupted, when two-thirds completed, by the death of its author. @@ -13342,52 +13310,52 @@ Laplace and Lacépède. BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lagrange's numerous scattered memoirs have been collected and published in seven 4to volumes, under the title - _Oeuvres de Lagrange, publiées sous les soins de M. J. A. Serret_ + _Oeuvres de Lagrange, publiées sous les soins de M. J. A. Serret_ (Paris, 1867-1877). The first, second and third sections of this publication comprise respectively the papers communicated by him to the Academies of Sciences of Turin, Berlin and Paris; the fourth includes his miscellaneous contributions to other scientific collections, together with his additions to Euler's _Algebra_, and his - _Leçons élémentaires_ at the École Normale in 1795. Delambre's notice - of his life, extracted from the _Mém. de l'Institut_, 1812, is + _Leçons élémentaires_ at the École Normale in 1795. Delambre's notice + of his life, extracted from the _Mém. de l'Institut_, 1812, is prefixed to the first volume. Besides the separate works already named - are _Résolution des équations numériques_ (1798, 2nd ed., 1808, 3rd - ed., 1826), and _Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions_ (1805, 2nd ed., + are _Résolution des équations numériques_ (1798, 2nd ed., 1808, 3rd + ed., 1826), and _Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions_ (1805, 2nd ed., 1806), designed as a commentary and supplement to the first part of - the _Théorie des fonctions_. The first volume of the enlarged edition - of the _Mécanique_ appeared in 1811, the second, of which the revision + the _Théorie des fonctions_. The first volume of the enlarged edition + of the _Mécanique_ appeared in 1811, the second, of which the revision was completed by MM Prony and Binet, in 1815. A third edition, in 2 - vols., 4to, was issued in 1853-1855, and a second of the _Théorie des + vols., 4to, was issued in 1853-1855, and a second of the _Théorie des fonctions_ in 1813. - See also J. J. Virey and Potel, _Précis historique_ (1813); Th. + See also J. J. Virey and Potel, _Précis historique_ (1813); Th. Thomson's _Annals of Philosophy_ (1813-1820), vols. ii. and iv.; H. - Suter, _Geschichte der math. Wiss._ (1873); E. Dühring, _Kritische + Suter, _Geschichte der math. Wiss._ (1873); E. Dühring, _Kritische Gesch. der allgemeinen Principien der Mechanik_ (1877, 2nd ed.); A. - Gautier, _Essai historique sur le problème des trois corps_ (1817); R. - Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_, &c.; Pietro Cossali, _Éloge_ - (Padua, 1813); L. Martini, _Cenni biográfici_ (1840); _Moniteur du 26 - Février_ (1814); W. Whewell, _Hist. of the Inductive Sciences_, ii. + Gautier, _Essai historique sur le problème des trois corps_ (1817); R. + Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_, &c.; Pietro Cossali, _Éloge_ + (Padua, 1813); L. Martini, _Cenni biográfici_ (1840); _Moniteur du 26 + Février_ (1814); W. Whewell, _Hist. of the Inductive Sciences_, ii. _passim_; J. Clerk Maxwell, _Electricity and Magnetism_, ii. 184; A. Berry, _Short Hist. of Astr._, p. 313; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. moderne_, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. - Handwörterbuch_. (A. M. C.) + Handwörterbuch_. (A. M. C.) FOOTNOTES: [1] _Oeuvres_, i. 15. - [2] _Méc. An._, Advertisement to 1st ed. + [2] _Méc. An._, Advertisement to 1st ed. - [3] E. Dühring, _Kritische Gesch. der Mechanik_, 220, 367; Lagrange, - _Méc. An._ i. 166-172, 3rd ed. + [3] E. Dühring, _Kritische Gesch. der Mechanik_, 220, 367; Lagrange, + _Méc. An._ i. 166-172, 3rd ed. [4] Notice by J. Delambre, _Oeuvres de Lagrange_, i. p. xlii. [5] _Oeuvres_, iii. 441. - [6] _Théorie des fonctions_, p. 6. + [6] _Théorie des fonctions_, p. 6. [7] H. Suter, _Geschichte der math. Wiss._ ii. 222-223. @@ -13400,8 +13368,8 @@ FOOTNOTES: -LAGRANGE-CHANCEL [CHANCEL], FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (1677-1758), French -dramatist and satirist, was born at Périgueux on the 1st of January +LAGRANGE-CHANCEL [CHANCEL], FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (1677-1758), French +dramatist and satirist, was born at Périgueux on the 1st of January 1677. He was an extremely precocious boy, and at Bordeaux, where he was educated, he produced a play when he was nine years old. Five years later his mother took him to Paris, where he found a patron in the @@ -13409,10 +13377,10 @@ princesse de Conti, to whom he dedicated his tragedy of _Jugurtha_ or, as it was called later, _Adherbal_ (1694). Racine had given him advice and was present at the first performance, although he had long lived in complete retirement. Other plays followed: _Oreste et Pylade_ (1697), -_Méléagre_ (1699), _Amasis_ (1701), and _Ino et Mélicerte_ (1715). +_Méléagre_ (1699), _Amasis_ (1701), and _Ino et Mélicerte_ (1715). Lagrange hardly realized the high hopes raised by his precocity, although his only serious rival on the tragic stage was Campistron, but -he obtained high favour at court, becoming _maître d'hôtel_ to the +he obtained high favour at court, becoming _maître d'hôtel_ to the duchess of Orleans. This prosperity ended with the publication in 1720 of his _Philippiques_, odes accusing the regent, Philip, duke of Orleans, of the most odious crimes. He might have escaped the @@ -13423,11 +13391,11 @@ arrested and sent as a prisoner to the isles of Sainte Marguerite. He contrived, however, to escape to Sardinia and thence to Spain and Holland, where he produced his fourth and fifth _Philippiques_. On the death of the Regent he was able to return to France. He was part author -of a _Histoire de Périgord_ left unfinished, and made a further +of a _Histoire de Périgord_ left unfinished, and made a further contribution to history, or perhaps, more exactly, to romance, in a -letter to Élie Fréron on the identity of the Man with the Iron Mask. +letter to Élie Fréron on the identity of the Man with the Iron Mask. Lagrange's family life was embittered by a long lawsuit against his son. -He died at Périgueux at the end of December 1758. +He died at Périgueux at the end of December 1758. He had collected his own works (5 vols., 1758) some months before his death. His most famous work, the _Philippiques_, was edited by M. de @@ -13446,7 +13414,7 @@ red-tiled farms, more nearly resembles the highlands of northern Europe than any other part of Spain. La Granja has an almost alpine climate, with a clear, cool atmosphere and abundant sunshine. Above the palace rise the wooded summits of the Guadarrama, culminating in the peak of -Peñalara (7891 ft.); in front of it the wide plains of Segovia extend +Peñalara (7891 ft.); in front of it the wide plains of Segovia extend northwards. The village of San Ildefonso, the oldest part of the estate, was founded in 1450 by Henry IV., who built a hunting lodge and chapel here. In 1477 the chapel was presented by Ferdinand and Isabella to the @@ -13455,7 +13423,7 @@ _granja_ (i.e. grange or farm), established by the monks, was purchased in 1719 by Philip V., after the destruction of his summer palace at Valsain, the ancient _Vallis Sapinorum_, 2 m. S. Philip determined to convert the estate into a second Versailles. The palace was built -between 1721 and 1723. Its façade is fronted by a colonnade in which the +between 1721 and 1723. Its façade is fronted by a colonnade in which the pillars reach to the roof. The state apartments contain some valuable 18th-century furniture, but the famous collection of sculptures was removed to Madrid in 1836, and is preserved there in the Museo del @@ -13489,7 +13457,7 @@ founded by Charles III. -LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS (1724-1805), French painter, was a pupil +LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS (1724-1805), French painter, was a pupil of Carle Vanloo. Born at Paris on the 30th of December 1724, in 1755 he became a member of the Royal Academy, presenting as his diploma picture the "Rape of Deianira" (Louvre). He visited St Petersburg at the call of @@ -13503,7 +13471,7 @@ which he was honorary keeper. LA GUAIRA, or LA GUAYRA (sometimes LAGUAIRA, &c.), a town and port of -Venezuela, in the Federal district, 23 m. by rail and 6½ m. in a direct +Venezuela, in the Federal district, 23 m. by rail and 6½ m. in a direct line N. of Caracas. Pop. (1904, estimate) 14,000. It is situated between a precipitous mountain side and a broad, semicircular indentation of the coast line which forms the roadstead of the port. The anchorage was long @@ -13511,8 +13479,8 @@ considered one of the most dangerous on the Caribbean coast, and landing was attended with much danger. The harbour has been improved by the construction of a concrete breakwater running out from the eastern shore line 2044 ft., built up from an extreme depth of 46 ft. or from an -average depth of 29½ ft., and rising 19½ ft. above sea-level. This -encloses an area of 76½ acres, having an average depth of nearly 28 ft. +average depth of 29½ ft., and rising 19½ ft. above sea-level. This +encloses an area of 76½ acres, having an average depth of nearly 28 ft. The harbour is further improved by 1870 ft. of concrete quays and 1397 ft. of retaining sea-wall, with several piers (three covered) projecting into deep water. These works were executed by a British company, known @@ -13526,7 +13494,7 @@ of the four _puertos habilitados_ of the republic. The shipping entries of that year numbered 217, of which 203 entered with general cargo and 14 with coal exclusively. The exports included 152,625 bags coffee, 114,947 bags cacao and 152,891 hides. For 1905-1906 the imports at La -Guaira were valued officially at £767,365 and the exports at £663,708. +Guaira were valued officially at £767,365 and the exports at £663,708. The city stands on sloping ground stretching along the circular coast line with a varying width of 130 to 330 ft. and having the appearance of an amphitheatre. The port improvements added 18 acres of reclaimed land @@ -13536,7 +13504,7 @@ composed in great part of small, roughly-made cabins, and narrow, badly-paved streets, but with good business houses on its principal street. From the mountain side, reddish-brown in colour and bare of vegetation, the solar heat is reflected with tremendous force, the mean -annual temperature being 84° F. The seaside towns of Maiquetia, 2 m. W. +annual temperature being 84° F. The seaside towns of Maiquetia, 2 m. W. and Macuto, 3 m. E., which have better climatic and sanitary conditions and are connected by a narrow-gauge railway, are the residences of many of the wealthier merchants of La Guaira. @@ -13551,24 +13519,24 @@ blockaded by a British-German-Italian fleet. -LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, LOUIS ÉTIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HÉLION, VICOMTE DE +LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, LOUIS ÉTIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HÉLION, VICOMTE DE (1816-1875), French politician, was the scion of a noble Poitevin family. Although by birth and education attached to Legitimist principles, he became closely associated with Lamartine, to whose organ, _Le Bien Public_, he was a principal contributor. After the stoppage of this paper he wrote for _La Presse_, and in 1850 edited _Le Pays_. A character sketch of Louis Napoleon in this journal caused differences -with Lamartine, and La Guéronnière became more and more closely +with Lamartine, and La Guéronnière became more and more closely identified with the policy of the prince president. Under the Empire he was a member of the council of state (1853), senator (1861), ambassador at Brussels (1868), and at Constantinople (1870), and grand officer of the legion of honour (1866). He died in Paris on the 23rd of December -1875. Besides his _Études et portraits politiques contemporains_ (1856) +1875. Besides his _Études et portraits politiques contemporains_ (1856) his most important works are those on the foreign policy of the Empire: _La France, Rome et Italie_ (1851), _L'Abandon de Rome_ (1862), _De la -politique intérieure et extérieure de la France_ (1862). +politique intérieure et extérieure de la France_ (1862). -His elder brother, ALFRED DUBREUIL HÉLION, Comte de La Guéronnière +His elder brother, ALFRED DUBREUIL HÉLION, Comte de La Guéronnière (1810-1884), who remained faithful to the Legitimist party, was also a well-known writer and journalist. He was consistent in his opposition to the July Monarchy and the Empire, but in a series of books on the crisis @@ -13583,7 +13551,7 @@ distinguished himself by brilliant pleadings in favour of socialist and anarchist leaders, defending Prince Kropotkine at Lyons in 1883, Louise Michel in the same year; and in 1886, with A. Millerand as colleague he defended Ernest Roche and Duc Quercy, the instigators of the Decazeville -strike. His strictures on the _procureur de la République_ on this +strike. His strictures on the _procureur de la République_ on this occasion being declared libellous he was suspended for six months and in 1890 he again incurred suspension for an attack on the attorney-general, Quesnay de Beaurepaire. He also pleaded in the greatest criminal cases @@ -13609,7 +13577,7 @@ LAGUNA, or LA LAGUNA, an episcopal city and formerly the capital of the island of Teneriffe, in the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands. Pop. (1900) 13,074. Laguna is 4 m. N. by W. of Santa Cruz, in a plain 1800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by mountains. Snow is unknown here, -and the mean annual temperature exceeds 63° F.; but the rainfall is very +and the mean annual temperature exceeds 63° F.; but the rainfall is very heavy, and in winter the plain is sometimes flooded. The humidity of the atmosphere, combined with the warm climate and rich volcanic soil, renders the district exceptionally fertile; wheat, wine and tobacco, @@ -13624,12 +13592,12 @@ decay caused by damp, and the luxuriant growth of climbing plants. -LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE (1739-1803), French critic, was born in Paris +LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE (1739-1803), French critic, was born in Paris of poor parents on the 20th of November 1739. His father, who signed himself Delharpe, was a descendant of a noble family originally of Vaud. Left an orphan at the age of nine, La Harpe was taken care of for six months by the sisters of charity, and his education was provided for by -a scholarship at the Collège d'Harcourt. When nineteen he was imprisoned +a scholarship at the Collège d'Harcourt. When nineteen he was imprisoned for some months on the charge of having written a satire against his protectors at the college. La Harpe always denied his guilt, but this culminating misfortune of an early life spent entirely in the position @@ -13638,8 +13606,8 @@ evinced in later life. In 1763 his tragedy of _Warwick_ was played before the court. This, his first play, was perhaps the best he ever wrote. The many authors whom he afterwards offended were always able to observe that the critic's own plays did not reach the standard of -excellence he set up. _Timoléon_ (1764), _Pharamond_ (1765) and _Gustave -Wasa_ (1766) were failures. _Mélanie_ was a better play, but was never +excellence he set up. _Timoléon_ (1764), _Pharamond_ (1765) and _Gustave +Wasa_ (1766) were failures. _Mélanie_ was a better play, but was never represented. The success of _Warwick_ led to a correspondence with Voltaire, who conceived a high opinion of La Harpe, even allowing him to correct his verses. In 1764 La Harpe married the daughter of a coffee @@ -13661,10 +13629,10 @@ pacific, modest and indulgent disposition. The speech was punctuated by the applause of the audience, who chose to regard it as a series of sarcasms on the new member. Eventually La Harpe was compelled to resign from the _Mercure_, which he had edited from 1770. On the stage he -produced _Les Barmécides_ (1778), _Philoctète_, _Jeanne de Naples_ +produced _Les Barmécides_ (1778), _Philoctète_, _Jeanne de Naples_ (1781), _Les Brames_ (1783), _Coriolan_ (1784), _Virginie_ (1786). In -1786 he began a course of literature at the newly-established Lycée. In -these lectures, published as the _Cours de littérature ancienne et +1786 he began a course of literature at the newly-established Lycée. In +these lectures, published as the _Cours de littérature ancienne et moderne_, La Harpe is at his best, for he found a standpoint more or less independent of contemporary polemics. He is said to be inexact in dealing with the ancients, and he had only a superficial knowledge of @@ -13677,27 +13645,27 @@ which adhered blindly to the revolutionary leaders. But in April 1794 he was nevertheless seized as a "suspect." In prison he underwent a spiritual crisis which he described in convincing language, and he emerged an ardent Catholic and a reactionist in politics. When he -resumed his chair at the Lycée, he attacked his former friends in +resumed his chair at the Lycée, he attacked his former friends in politics and literature. He was imprudent enough to begin the -publication (1801-1807) of his _Correspondance littéraire_ (1774-1791) +publication (1801-1807) of his _Correspondance littéraire_ (1774-1791) with the grand-duke, afterwards the emperor Paul of Russia. In these letters he surpassed the brutalities of the _Mercure_. He contracted a second marriage, which was dissolved after a few weeks by his wife. He died on the 11th of February 1803 in Paris, leaving in his will an incongruous exhortation to his fellow countrymen to maintain peace and -concord. Among his posthumous works was a _Prophétie de Cazotte_ which +concord. Among his posthumous works was a _Prophétie de Cazotte_ which Sainte-Beuve pronounces his best work. It is a sombre description of a dinner-party of notables long before the Revolution, when Jacques Cazotte is made to prophesy the frightful fates awaiting the various individuals of the company. Among his works not already mentioned are:--_Commentaire sur Racine_ - (1795-1796), published in 1807; _Commentaire sur le théâtre de + (1795-1796), published in 1807; _Commentaire sur le théâtre de Voltaire_ of earlier date (published posthumously in 1814), and an - epic poem _La Religion_ (1814). His _Cours de littérature_ has been + epic poem _La Religion_ (1814). His _Cours de littérature_ has been often reprinted. To the edition of 1825-1826 is prefixed a notice by Pierre Daunou. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. v.; - G. Peignot, _Recherches historiques, bibliographiques et littéraires + G. Peignot, _Recherches historiques, bibliographiques et littéraires ... sur La Harpe_ (1820). @@ -13717,12 +13685,12 @@ Mans. His drawings, of which the British Museum possesses a fine example, "Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple," are treated as seriously as his paintings, and sometimes show simplicity and dignity of effect. The example of the Capuchins, for whom he executed several other -works in Paris, Rouen and Fécamp, was followed by the goldsmiths' +works in Paris, Rouen and Fécamp, was followed by the goldsmiths' company, for whom he produced in 1635 "St Peter healing the Sick" (Louvre) and the "Conversion of St Paul" in 1637. In 1646, with eleven other artists, he founded the French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. Richelieu called Lahire to the Palais Royal; Chancellor -Séguier, Tallemant de Réaux and many others entrusted him with important +Séguier, Tallemant de Réaux and many others entrusted him with important works of decoration; for the Gobelins he designed a series of large compositions. Lahire painted also a great number of portraits, and in 1654 united in one work for the town-hall of Paris those of the @@ -13859,21 +13827,21 @@ struck, the battle has come to be known by the name of La Hogue. Sufficient accounts of the battle may be found in Lediard's _Naval History_ (London, 1735), and for the French side in Tronde's _Batailles navales de la France_ (Paris, 1867). The escape of - D'Amfreville's squadron is the subject of Browning's poem "Hervé + D'Amfreville's squadron is the subject of Browning's poem "Hervé Riel." (D. H.) LAHORE, an ancient city of British India, the capital of the Punjab, -which gives its name to a district and division. It lies in 31° 35' N. -and 74° 20' E. near the left bank of the River Ravi, 1706 ft. above the +which gives its name to a district and division. It lies in 31° 35' N. +and 74° 20' E. near the left bank of the River Ravi, 1706 ft. above the sea, and 1252 m. by rail from Calcutta. It is thus in about the same latitude as Cairo, but owing to its inland position is considerably hotter than that city, being one of the hottest places in India in the summer time. In the cold season the climate is pleasantly cool and -bright. The native city is walled, about 1¼ m. in length W. to E. and -about ¾ m. in breadth N. to S. Its site has been occupied from early +bright. The native city is walled, about 1¼ m. in length W. to E. and +about ¾ m. in breadth N. to S. Its site has been occupied from early times, and much of it stands high above the level of the surrounding country, raised on the remains of a succession of former habitations. Some old buildings, which have been preserved, stand now below the @@ -13885,7 +13853,7 @@ Lahore to Loh or Lava, son of Rama, the hero of the _Ramayana_. The absence of mention of Lahore by Alexander's historians, and the fact that coins of the Graeco-Bactrian kings are not found among the ruins, lead to the belief that it was not a place of any importance during the -earliest period of Indian history. On the other hand, Hsüan Tsang, the +earliest period of Indian history. On the other hand, Hsüan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist, notices the city in his _Itinerary_ (A.D. 630); and it seems probable, therefore, that Lahore first rose into prominence between the 1st and 7th centuries A.D. Governed originally by a family @@ -13978,10 +13946,10 @@ common language of the rural population and of artisans is Punjabi; while Urdu or Hindustani is spoken by the educated classes. So far from the seaboard, the range between extremes of winter and summer temperature in the sub-tropics is great. The mean temperature in the -shade in June is about 92° F., in January about 50°. In midsummer the -thermometer sometimes rises to 115° in the shade, and remains on some -occasions as high as 105° throughout the night. In winter the morning -temperature is sometimes as low as 20°. The rainfall is uncertain, +shade in June is about 92° F., in January about 50°. In midsummer the +thermometer sometimes rises to 115° in the shade, and remains on some +occasions as high as 105° throughout the night. In winter the morning +temperature is sometimes as low as 20°. The rainfall is uncertain, ranging from 8 in. to 25, with an average of 15 in. The country as a whole is parched and arid, and greatly dependent on irrigation. @@ -13997,9 +13965,9 @@ acted as official censor of the Madrid theatres. On the 13th of August presumed to have died in the following year. Hoz is not remarkable for originality of conception, but his recasts of plays by earlier writers are distinguished by an adroitness which accounts for the esteem in -which he was held by his contemporaries. _El Montañés Juan Pascal_ and +which he was held by his contemporaries. _El Montañés Juan Pascal_ and _El castigo de la miseria_, reprinted in the _Biblioteca de Autores -Españoles_, give a just idea of his adaptable talent. +Españoles_, give a just idea of his adaptable talent. @@ -14014,7 +13982,7 @@ town in 1278, and after several vicissitudes it passed wholly to Baden in 1803. See Stein, _Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Lahr_ (Lahr, 1827); - and Sütterlin, _Lahr und seine Umgebung_ (Lahr, 1904). + and Sütterlin, _Lahr und seine Umgebung_ (Lahr, 1904). @@ -14235,7 +14203,7 @@ in 1878 while in the Signet Library, and it is related that, on recovering consciousness, he looked about and asked if a proof of Wyntoun had been sent from the printers. He died a few days afterwards, on the 18th of October, in his eighty-sixth year. His library was sold -by auction, and realized £16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he +by auction, and realized £16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he bequeathed his collection of MSS. See the Biographical Memoir prefixed to _Select Remains of Ancient, @@ -14376,7 +14344,7 @@ Birkenhead in the House of Commons from 1861 to his death. -LAÏS, the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distinguished as +LAÃS, the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distinguished as follows. (1) The elder, a native of Corinth, born _c._ 480 B.C., was famous for her greed and hardheartedness, which gained her the nickname of _Axine_ (the axe). Among her lovers were the philosophers Aristippus @@ -14389,7 +14357,7 @@ expedition. The painter Apelles, who saw her drawing water from the fountain of Peirene, was struck by her beauty, and took her as a model. Having followed a handsome Thessalian to his native land, she was slain in the temple of Aphrodite by women who were jealous of her beauty. Many -anecdotes are told of a Laïs by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she +anecdotes are told of a Laïs by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she forms the subject of many epigrams in the Greek Anthology; but, owing to the similarity of names, there is considerable uncertainty to whom they refer. The name itself, like Phryne, was used as a general term for a @@ -14401,7 +14369,7 @@ courtesan. LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE (1841- ), French politician, was born at Nantes -on the 1st of November 1841, and was educated at the École Polytechnique +on the 1st of November 1841, and was educated at the École Polytechnique as a military engineer. He defended the fort of Issy at the siege of Paris, and served in Corsica and in Algeria in 1873. In 1876 he resigned his commission to enter the Chamber as deputy for Nantes in the @@ -14416,19 +14384,19 @@ Patriots. He was elected Boulangist deputy for the 18th Parisian arrondissement in 1889. He did not seek re-election in 1893, but devoted himself thenceforward to mathematics, helping to make known in France the theories of Giusto Bellavitis. He was attached to the staff of the -École Polytechnique, and in 1903-1904 was president of the French +École Polytechnique, and in 1903-1904 was president of the French Association for the Advancement of Science. In addition to his political pamphlets _Pourquoi et comment je suis Boulangiste_ (1887) and _L'Anarchie bourgeoise_ (1887), he published - mathematical works, among them _Introduction à l'étude des - quarternions_ (1881) and _Théorie et applications des équipollences_ + mathematical works, among them _Introduction à l'étude des + quarternions_ (1881) and _Théorie et applications des équipollences_ (1887). -LAI-YANG, a city in the Chinese province of Shan-tung, in 37° N., 120° +LAI-YANG, a city in the Chinese province of Shan-tung, in 37° N., 120° 55' E., about the middle of the eastern peninsula, on the highway running south from Chi-fu to Kin-Kia or Ting-tsu harbour. It is surrounded by well-kept walls of great antiquity, and its main streets @@ -14444,7 +14412,7 @@ wax-tree insect is largely carried on in the vicinity. LAKANAL, JOSEPH (1762-1845), French politician, was born at Serres -(Ariège) on the 14th of July 1762. His name, originally Lacanal, was +(Ariège) on the 14th of July 1762. His name, originally Lacanal, was altered to distinguish him from his Royalist brothers. He joined one of the teaching congregations, and for fourteen years taught in their schools. When elected by his native department to the Convention in 1792 @@ -14456,12 +14424,12 @@ knowledge of education. He became a member of the Committee of Public Instruction early in 1793, and after carrying many useful decrees on the preservation of national monuments, on the military schools, on the reorganization of the Museum of Natural History and other matters, he -brought forward on the 26th of June his _Projet d'éducation nationale_ +brought forward on the 26th of June his _Projet d'éducation nationale_ (printed at the Imprimerie Nationale), which proposed to lay the burden or primary education on the public funds, but to leave secondary education to private enterprise. Provision was also made for public festivals, and a central commission was to be entrusted with educational -questions. The scheme, in the main the work of Sieyès, was refused by +questions. The scheme, in the main the work of Sieyès, was refused by the Convention, who submitted the whole question to a special commission of six, which under the influence of Robespierre adopted a report by Michel le Peletier de Saint Fargeau shortly before his tragic death. @@ -14484,18 +14452,18 @@ became president of the university of Louisiana. He returned to France in 1834, and shortly afterwards, in spite of his advanced age, married a second time. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1845; his widow survived till 1881. Lakanal was an original member of the Institute of -France. He published in 1838 an _Exposé sommaire des travaux de Joseph +France. He published in 1838 an _Exposé sommaire des travaux de Joseph Lakanal_. - His _éloge_ at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which he - was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Rémusat (February 16, + His _éloge_ at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which he + was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Rémusat (February 16, 1845), and a _Notice historique_ by F. A. M. Mignet was read on the - 2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Émile Darnaud (Paris, 1874), - "Marcus" (Paris, 1879), P. Legendre in _Hommes de la révolution_ + 2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Émile Darnaud (Paris, 1874), + "Marcus" (Paris, 1879), P. Legendre in _Hommes de la révolution_ (Paris, 1882), E. Guillon, _Lakanal et l'instruction publique_ (Paris, 1881). For details of the reports submitted by him to the government see M. Tourneux, "Histoire de l'instruction publique, actes et - déliberations de la convention, &c." in _Bibliog. de l'hist. de Paris_ + déliberations de la convention, &c." in _Bibliog. de l'hist. de Paris_ (vol. iii., 1900); also A. Robert and G. Cougny, _Dictionnaire des parlementaires_ (vol. ii., 1890). @@ -14570,7 +14538,7 @@ the Union. He died in London on the 20th of February 1808. LAKE. Professor Forel of Switzerland, the founder of the science of -limnology (Gr. [Greek: limnê], a lake), defines a lake (Lat. _lacus_) as +limnology (Gr. [Greek: limnê], a lake), defines a lake (Lat. _lacus_) as a mass of still water situated in a depression of the ground, without direct communication with the sea. The term is sometimes applied to widened parts of rivers, and sometimes to bodies of water which lie @@ -14626,7 +14594,7 @@ oceans. have generally a circular form, and are often without visible outlet. Excellent examples of such lakes are to be seen in the province of Rome (Italy) and in the central plateau of France, where M. Delebecque - found the Lake of Issarlès 329 ft. in depth. The most splendid + found the Lake of Issarlès 329 ft. in depth. The most splendid crater-lake is found on the summit of the Cascade range of Southern Oregon (U.S.A.). This lake is 2000 ft. in depth. @@ -14656,7 +14624,7 @@ oceans. 2. _By a Glacier._--In Alaska, in Scandinavia and in the Alps a glacier often bars the mouth of a tributary valley, the stream flowing therein is dammed back, and a lake is thus formed. The best-known lake - of this kind is the Märjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great Aletsch + of this kind is the Märjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great Aletsch Glacier. Lake Castain in Alaska is barred by the Malaspina Glacier; it is 2 or 3 m. long and 1 m. in width when at its highest level; it discharges through a tunnel 9 m. in length beneath the ice-sheet. The @@ -14744,11 +14712,11 @@ formed, without doubt, one continuous sheet of water, which subsequently became divided into three different basins by the deposition of sediment. Loch Doine has been separated from Loch Voil by alluvial cones laid down by two opposite streams. At the head of Loch Doine there is an -alluvial flat that stretches for 1½ m., formed by the Lochlarig river +alluvial flat that stretches for 1½ m., formed by the Lochlarig river and its tributaries. The long stretch of alluvium that separates Loch Voil from Loch Lubnaig has been laid down by Calair Burn in Glen Buckie, by the Kirkton Burn at Balquhidder, and by various streams on both sides -of Strathyre. Loch Lubnaig once extended to a point ¾ m. beyond its +of Strathyre. Loch Lubnaig once extended to a point ¾ m. beyond its present outlet, the level of the loch being lowered about 20 ft. by the denuding action of the river Leny on its rocky barrier. @@ -14855,7 +14823,7 @@ quantities. composition of the water of fresh-water lakes in grams per litre:-- +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ - | | Tanay. | Bleu. |Märjelen.|St Gothard.| + | | Tanay. | Bleu. |Märjelen.|St Gothard.| +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ | SiO2 | 0.003 | 0.0042 | 0.0014 | 0.0008 | | Fe2O3 + Al2O3 | 0.0012 | 0.0006 | 0.0008 | trace | @@ -14906,17 +14874,17 @@ quantities. atmosphere, by rain, by the inflow of rivers and other factors, but the most important of all these are insolation and terrestrial radiation. Fresh water has its greatest density at a temperature of - 39.2° F., so that water both above and below this temperature floats + 39.2° F., so that water both above and below this temperature floats to the surface, and this physical fact largely determines the water stratification in a lake. In salt lakes the maximum density point is much lower, and does not come into play. In the tropical type of - fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39° F., and the + fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39° F., and the temperature decreases as the depth increases. In the polar type the - temperature is always lower than 39° F., and the temperature increases + temperature is always lower than 39° F., and the temperature increases from the surface downwards. In the temperate type the distribution of temperature in winter resembles the polar type, and in summer the tropical type. In Loch Ness and other deep Scottish lochs the - temperature in March and April is 41° to 42° F., and is then nearly + temperature in March and April is 41° to 42° F., and is then nearly uniform from top to bottom. As the sun comes north, and the mean air temperature begins to be higher than the surface temperature, the surface waters gain heat, and this heating goes on till the month of @@ -14925,8 +14893,8 @@ quantities. radiation and conduction. The temperature of the deeper layers beyond 300 ft. is only slightly affected throughout the whole year. In the autumn the waters of the loch are divided into two compartments, the - upper having a temperature from 49° to 55° F., the deeper a - temperature from 41° to 45°. Between these lies the + upper having a temperature from 49° to 55° F., the deeper a + temperature from 41° to 45°. Between these lies the discontinuity-layer (_Sprungschicht_ of the Germans), where there is a rapid fall of temperature within a very short distance. In August this discontinuity-layer is well marked, and lies at a depth of about 150 @@ -15058,7 +15026,7 @@ represented in the ocean. 1 Mollusc: _Pisidium pusillum_ (Gmel). 3 Crustacea: _Cyclops viridis_, Jurine. - _Candona candida_ (Müll). + _Candona candida_ (Müll). _Cypria ophthalmica_, Jurine. 3 Worms: _Stylodrilus gabreteae_, Vejd. Oligochaete, not determined. @@ -15080,7 +15048,7 @@ represented in the ocean. lochs, while others are quite local. Some of the species occur all the year through, while others have only been recorded in summer or in winter. The great development of Algae in the surface waters, called - "flowering of the water" (_Wasserblüthe_), was observed in August in + "flowering of the water" (_Wasserblüthe_), was observed in August in Loch Lomond; a distinct "flowering," due to Chlorophyceae, has been observed in shallow lochs as early as July. It is most common in August and September, but has also been observed in winter. @@ -15214,7 +15182,7 @@ the globe at 6524 cub. m. | Vener | 93 | 292 | 108 | 2149 | 6,357,000 | | Geneva | 45 | 1015 | 506 | 225 | 3,175,000 | | Vetter | 68 | 413 | 128 | 733 | 2,543,000 | - | Mjösen | 57 | 1483 | .. | 139 | 2,882,000 | + | Mjösen | 57 | 1483 | .. | 139 | 2,882,000 | | Garda | 38 | 1124 | 446 | 143 | 1,766,000 | | Constance | 42 | 827 | 295 | 208 | 1,711,000 | | Ochrida | 19 | 942 | 479 | 105 | 1,391,000 | @@ -15284,20 +15252,20 @@ the globe at 6524 cub. m. +--------------+-------+------+------+--------+-----------+ AUTHORITIES.--F. A. Forel, "Handbuch der Seenkunde: allgemeine - Limnologie," _Bibliothek geogr. Handbücher_ (Stuttgart, 1901), _Le - Léman, monographie limnologique_ (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1901); A. - Delebecque, _Les Lacs français_, text and plates (Paris, 1898); H. R. + Limnologie," _Bibliothek geogr. Handbücher_ (Stuttgart, 1901), _Le + Léman, monographie limnologique_ (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1901); A. + Delebecque, _Les Lacs français_, text and plates (Paris, 1898); H. R. Mill, "Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes," _Geogr. Journ._ vol. vi. pp. 46 and 135 (1895); Jehu, "Bathymetrical and Geological Study of the Lakes of Snowdonia," _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. xl. p. 419 (1902); Sir John Murray and Laurence Pullar, "Bathymetrical Survey of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland," _Geogr. Journ._ (1900 to 1908, re-issued in six volumes, Edinburgh, 1910); W. Halbfass, "Die - Morphometrie der europäischen Seen," _Zeitschr. Gesell. Erdkunde + Morphometrie der europäischen Seen," _Zeitschr. Gesell. Erdkunde Berlin_ (Jahrg. 1903, p. 592; 1904, p. 204); I. C. Russell, _Lakes of North America_ (Boston and London, 1895); O. Zacharias, - "Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station zu Plön" (Stuttgart); - F. E. Bourcart, _Les Lacs alpins suisses: étude chimique et physique_ + "Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station zu Plön" (Stuttgart); + F. E. Bourcart, _Les Lacs alpins suisses: étude chimique et physique_ (Geneva, 1906); G. P. Magrini, _Limnologia_ (Milan, 1907). (J. Mu.) @@ -15370,7 +15338,7 @@ of Great Britain as a district of remarkable and strongly individual physical beauty, its area is only some 700 sq. m., a circle with radius of 15 m. from the central point covering practically the whole. Within this circle, besides the largest lake, Windermere, is the highest point -in England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but 10½ m. in length, and +in England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but 10½ m. in length, and covers an area of 5.69 sq. m., while Scafell Pike is only 3210 ft. in height. But the lakes show a wonderful variety of character, from open expanse and steep rock-bound shores to picturesque island-groups and @@ -15440,7 +15408,7 @@ south and east. vale of peculiar richness in its lower parts; while the range continues south to culminate in the Old Man of Coniston (2633) with the splendid Dow Crags above Goats Water. The pleasant vale of Yewdale - drains south to Coniston Lake (5½ m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), east + drains south to Coniston Lake (5½ m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), east of which a lower, well-wooded tract, containing two beautiful lesser lakes, Tarn Hows and Esthwaite Water, extends to Windermere (q.v.). This lake collects waters by the Brathay from Langdale, the head of @@ -15609,14 +15577,14 @@ adjoining countries--in Savoy and the north of Italy, in Austria and Hungary and in Mecklenburg and Pomerania--were peopled, so to speak, by lake-dwelling communities, living in villages constructed on platforms supported by piles at varying distances from the shores. The principal -groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget, Geneva, Neuchâtel, Bienne, -Zürich and Constance lying to the north of the Alps, and in the Lakes +groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget, Geneva, Neuchâtel, Bienne, +Zürich and Constance lying to the north of the Alps, and in the Lakes Maggiore, Varese, Iseo and Garda lying to the south of that mountain range. Many smaller lakes, however, contain them, and they are also found in peat moors on the sites of ancient lakes now drained or silted up, as at Laibach in Carniola. In some of the larger lakes the number of settlements has been very great. Fifty are enumerated in the Lake of -Neuchâtel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four in the Lake +Neuchâtel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four in the Lake of Geneva, and twenty in the Lake of Bienne. The site of the lake dwelling of Wangen, in the Untersee, Lake of Constance, forms a parallelogram more than 700 paces in length by about 120 paces in @@ -15711,7 +15679,7 @@ while remains of the beaver, the fox, the hare, the dog, the bear, the horse, the elk and the bison were also found. The settlement of Robenhausen, in the moor which was formerly the bed of -the ancient Lake of Pfäffikon, seems to have continued in occupation +the ancient Lake of Pfäffikon, seems to have continued in occupation after the introduction of bronze. The site covers nearly 3 acres, and is estimated to have contained 100,000 piles. In some parts three distinct successions of inhabited platforms have been traced. The first had been @@ -15743,7 +15711,7 @@ varieties of domestic dishes, cups and pipkins, and crucibles or melting pots made of clay and horse dung and still retaining the drossy coating of the melted bronze. -The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchâtel is one of the +The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchâtel is one of the richest and most considerable stations of the Bronze age. It has yielded four bronze swords, ten socketed spear-heads, forty celts or axe-heads and sickles, fifty knives, twenty socketed chisels, four hammers and an @@ -15847,17 +15815,17 @@ medieval times. AUTHORITIES.--The materials for the investigation of this singular phase of prehistoric life were first collected and systematized by Dr - Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zürich, and printed in _Mittheilungen - der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zürich_, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to + Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zürich, and printed in _Mittheilungen + der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zürich_, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to (1855-1886). The substance of these reports has been issued as a separate work in England, _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other parts of Europe_, by Dr Ferdinand Keller, translated and arranged by John Edward Lee, 2nd ed. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1878). Other works on - the same subject are Frédéric Troyon, _Habitations lacustres des temps + the same subject are Frédéric Troyon, _Habitations lacustres des temps anciens et modernes_ (Lausanne, 1860); E. Desor, _Les Palafittes ou - constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchâtel_ (Paris, 1865); E. Desor - and L. Favre, _Le Bel Âge du bronze lacustre en Suisse_ (Paris, 1874); - A. Perrin, _Étude préhistorique sur la Savoie spécialement à l'époque + constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchâtel_ (Paris, 1865); E. Desor + and L. Favre, _Le Bel Âge du bronze lacustre en Suisse_ (Paris, 1874); + A. Perrin, _Étude préhistorique sur la Savoie spécialement à l'époque lacustre_ (_Les Palafittes du lac de Bourget_, Paris, 1870); Ernest Chantre, _Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Paladru_ (Chambery, 1871); Bartolomeo Gastaldi, _Lake Habitations and @@ -15874,7 +15842,7 @@ LAKE GENEVA, a city of Walworth county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom 468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449; (1910) 3079. It is served by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The city is picturesquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long -and 1½ to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by +and 1½ to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick groves of hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer resort, particularly for Chicago people. The city is the seat of Oakwood Sanitarium, and at @@ -15913,7 +15881,7 @@ four good golf courses here, and the village has a well-built club house, called the "Neighborhood House." The village lies on the narrow strip of land (about 1/3 m.) between Mirror Lake (about 1 m. long, N. and S., and 1/3 m. wide), and Lake Placid, about 5 m. long (N.N.E. by -S.S.W.), and about 1½ m. (maximum) broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. The +S.S.W.), and about 1½ m. (maximum) broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. The lake is roughly divided, from N. to S. by three islands--Moose, the largest, and Hawk, both privately owned, and Buck--and is a beautiful sheet of water in a picturesque setting of forests and heavily wooded @@ -15942,7 +15910,7 @@ including the village, 3094; (1905) 4265; (1910) 5149. Lakewood is a fashionable health and winter resort, and is situated in the midst of a pine forest, with two small lakes, and many charming walks and drives. In the village there are a number of fine residences, large hotels, a -library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12° F. warmer than +library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12° F. warmer than in New York. The township of Lakewood was incorporated in 1892. @@ -15951,7 +15919,7 @@ in New York. The township of Lakewood was incorporated in 1892. LAKH (from the Sans. _laksha_, one hundred thousand), a term used in British India, in a colloquial sense to signify a lakh of rupees (written 1,00,000), which at the face value of the rupee would be worth -£10,000, but now is worth only £6666. The term is also largely used in +£10,000, but now is worth only £6666. The term is also largely used in trade returns. A hundred lakhs make a crore. @@ -16026,16 +15994,16 @@ pope and the king of France (1451), and subsequently sent him to put down the revolt of the inhabitants of Ghent, in which expedition he was killed. His biography, _Le Livre des faits de messire Jacques de Lalaing_, which has been published several times, is mainly the work of -the Burgundian herald and chronicler Jean le Fèvre, better known as +the Burgundian herald and chronicler Jean le Fèvre, better known as _Toison d'or_; the Flemish historiographer Georges Chastellain and the herald Charolais also took part in its compilation. -LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE (1732-1807), French astronomer, was +LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE (1732-1807), French astronomer, was born at Bourg (department of Ain), on the 11th of July 1732. His parents -sent him to Paris to study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hôtel +sent him to Paris to study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hôtel Cluny, where J. N. Delisle had his observatory, drew him to astronomy, and he became the zealous and favoured pupil of both Delisle and Pierre Lemonnier. He, however, completed his legal studies, and was about to @@ -16048,7 +16016,7 @@ adjunct astronomer to that of Paris. He now devoted himself to the improvement of the planetary theory, publishing in 1759 a corrected edition of Halley's tables, with a history of the celebrated comet whose return in that year he had aided Clairault to calculate. In 1762 J. N. -Delisle resigned in his favour the chair of astronomy in the Collège de +Delisle resigned in his favour the chair of astronomy in the Collège de France, the duties of which were discharged by Lalande for forty-six years. His house became an astronomical seminary, and amongst his pupils were J. B. J. Delambre, G. Piazzi, P. Mechain, and his own nephew Michel @@ -16066,34 +16034,34 @@ benevolence. He died on the 4th of April 1807. the end of the 18th century; and the Lalande prize, instituted by him in 1802 for the chief astronomical performance of each year, still testifies to his enthusiasm for his favourite pursuit. Amongst his - voluminous works are _Traité d'astronomie_ (2 vols., 1764; enlarged + voluminous works are _Traité d'astronomie_ (2 vols., 1764; enlarged edition, 4 vols., 1771-1781; 3rd ed., 3 vols., 1792); _Histoire - céleste française_ (1801), giving the places of 50,000 stars; + céleste française_ (1801), giving the places of 50,000 stars; _Bibliographie astronomique_ (1803), with a history of astronomy from - 1781 to 1802; _Astronomie des dames_ (1785); _Abrégé de navigation_ - (1793); _Voyage d'un françois en Italie_ (1769), a valuable record of + 1781 to 1802; _Astronomie des dames_ (1785); _Abrégé de navigation_ + (1793); _Voyage d'un françois en Italie_ (1769), a valuable record of his travels in 1765-1766. He communicated above one hundred and fifty papers to the Paris Academy of Sciences, edited the _Connoissance des temps_ (1759-1774), and again (1794-1807), and wrote the concluding 2 - vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla's _Histoire des mathématiques_ + vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla's _Histoire des mathématiques_ (1802). - See _Mémoires de l'Institut_, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre); - Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siècle_, p. 547; _Magazin - encyclopédique_, ii. 288 (1810) (Mme de Salm); J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de - l'astr. moderne_, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Mädler, _Geschichte der + See _Mémoires de l'Institut_, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre); + Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siècle_, p. 547; _Magazin + encyclopédique_, ii. 288 (1810) (Mme de Salm); J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de + l'astr. moderne_, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Mädler, _Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, ii. 141; R. Wolf, _Gesch. der Astronomie_; J. J. Lalande, _Bibl. astr._ p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. - Handwörterbuch_; M. Marie, _Hist. des sciences_, ix. 35. + Handwörterbuch_; M. Marie, _Hist. des sciences_, ix. 35. -LALÍN, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Pontevedra. -Pop. (1900) 16,238. Lalín is the centre of the trade in agricultural +LALÃN, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Pontevedra. +Pop. (1900) 16,238. LalÃn is the centre of the trade in agricultural products of the fertile highlands between the Deza and Arnego rivers. The local industries are tanning and the manufacture of paper. Near -Lalín are the ruins of the Gothic abbey of Carboeiro. +LalÃn are the ruins of the Gothic abbey of Carboeiro. @@ -16128,7 +16096,7 @@ struggle that the district was pacified. LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR, COMTE DE, Baron de Tollendal (1702-1766), French -general, was born at Romans, Dauphiné, in January 1702, being the son of +general, was born at Romans, Dauphiné, in January 1702, being the son of Sir Gerard O'Lally, an Irish Jacobite who married a French lady of noble family, from whom the son inherited his titles. Entering the French army in 1721 he served in the war of 1734 against Austria; he was present at @@ -16138,7 +16106,7 @@ field by Louis XV. He had previously been mixed up in several Jacobite plots, and in 1745 accompanied Charles Edward to Scotland, serving as aide-de-camp at the battle of Falkirk (January 1746). Escaping to France, he served with Marshal Saxe in the Low Countries, and at the -capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a _maréchal de camp_. When war +capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a _maréchal de camp_. When war broke out with England in 1756 Lally was given the command of a French expedition to India. He reached Pondicherry in April 1758, and at the outset met with some trifling military success. He was a man of courage @@ -16162,13 +16130,13 @@ authority to save an almost friendless foreigner. See G. B. Malleson, _The Career of Count Lally_ (1865); "Z's" (the marquis de Lally-Tollendal) article in the _Biographie Michaud_; and - Voltaire's _Oeuvres complètes_. The legal documents are preserved in - the Bibliothèque Nationale. + Voltaire's _Oeuvres complètes_. The legal documents are preserved in + the Bibliothèque Nationale. -LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD, MARQUIS DE (1751-1830), was born at +LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD, MARQUIS DE (1751-1830), was born at Paris on the 5th of March 1751. He was the legitimized son of the comte de Lally and only discovered the secret of his birth on the day of his father's execution, when he resolved to devote himself to clearing his @@ -16178,7 +16146,7 @@ de Lally; but the parlement of Rouen, to which the case was referred back, in 1784 again decided in favour of Lally's guilt. The case was retried by other courts, but Lally's innocence was never fully admitted by the French judges. In 1779 Lally-Tollendal bought the office of -_Grand bailli_ of Étampes, and in 1789 was a deputy to the +_Grand bailli_ of Étampes, and in 1789 was a deputy to the states-general for the _noblesse_ of Paris. He played some part in the early stages of the Revolution, but was too conservative to be in sympathy with all even of its earlier developments. He threw himself @@ -16194,13 +16162,13 @@ French Academy. From that time until his death, on the 11th of March himself with prison reform. See his _Plaidoyer pour Louis XVI._ (London, 1793); Lally-Tollendal - was also in part responsible for the _Mémoires_, attributed to Joseph + was also in part responsible for the _Mémoires_, attributed to Joseph Weber, concerning Marie Antoinette (1804); he further edited the article on his father in the _Biographie Michaud_; see also Arnault, - _Discours prononcé aux funérailles de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal - le 13 mars 1830_ (Paris); Gauthier de Brecy, _Nécrologie de M. le + _Discours prononcé aux funérailles de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal + le 13 mars 1830_ (Paris); Gauthier de Brecy, _Nécrologie de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal_ (Paris, undated); Voltaire, _Oeuvres - complètes_ (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of + complètes_ (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of contents, vol. ii. @@ -16215,8 +16183,8 @@ composing chamber music. His early works include two trios, a quartet, and several pieces for violin and pianoforte. In 1867 he took part in an operatic competition, an opera from his pen, entitled _Fiesque_, obtaining the third place out of forty-three. This work was accepted for -production at the Paris Opéra, but delays occurred, and nothing was -done. _Fiesque_ was next offered to the Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels, +production at the Paris Opéra, but delays occurred, and nothing was +done. _Fiesque_ was next offered to the Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels, and was about to be produced there when the manager became bankrupt. Thus, when nearly fifty years of age, Lalo found himself in difficulties. _Fiesque_ was never performed, but the composer published @@ -16228,14 +16196,14 @@ produced, among them a sonata for violoncello, a "divertissement" for orchestra, a violin concerto and the _Symphonie Espagnole_ for violin and orchestra, one of his best-known compositions. In the meanwhile he had written a second opera, _Le Roi d'Ys_, which he hoped would be -produced at the Opéra. The administration offered him the "scenario" of +produced at the Opéra. The administration offered him the "scenario" of a ballet instead. Lalo was obliged to be content with this, and set to work with so much energy that he fell ill, the last scenes of the ballet being orchestrated by Gounod. _Namouna_, the ballet in question, was -produced at the Opéra in 1882. Six years later, on the 7th of May 1888, -_Le Roi d'Ys_ was brought out at the Opéra Comique, and Lalo was at last +produced at the Opéra in 1882. Six years later, on the 7th of May 1888, +_Le Roi d'Ys_ was brought out at the Opéra Comique, and Lalo was at last enabled to taste the sweets of success. Unfortunately, fame came to him -too late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to _Néron_, a +too late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to _Néron_, a pantomimic piece played at the Hippodrome in 1891, were his last two works. He had begun a new opera, but had only written the first act when, on the 23rd of April 1892, he died. This opera, _La Jacquerie_, @@ -16247,7 +16215,7 @@ ever ingenious and brilliantly effective. -LA MADDALENA, an island 2½ m. from the N.E. coast of Sardinia. Pop. +LA MADDALENA, an island 2½ m. from the N.E. coast of Sardinia. Pop. (1901) 8361. Napoleon bombarded it in 1793 without success, and Nelson made it his headquarters for some time. It is now an important naval station of the Italian fleet, the anchorage being good, and is strongly @@ -16346,7 +16314,7 @@ like Latin in the middle ages in Europe, was the literary _lingua franca_. The new literature therefore, which the new movement called forth, was written, and has been preserved, in Sanskrit--its principal books of _Dharma_, or doctrine, being the following nine: (1) -_Prajña-paramita_; (2) _Ganda-vyuha_; (3) _Dasa-bhumis-vara_; (4) +_Prajña-paramita_; (2) _Ganda-vyuha_; (3) _Dasa-bhumis-vara_; (4) _Samadhi-raja_; (5) _Lankavatara_; (6) _Saddharma-pundarika_; (7) _Tathagata-guhyaka_; (8) _Lalita-vistara_; (9) _Suvarna-prabhasa_. The date of none of these works is known with any certainty, but it is @@ -16393,7 +16361,7 @@ two, a conclusion supported also by other considerations. Among the Bodhisats mentioned in the _Saddharma Pundarika_, and not mentioned in the _Lalita Vistara_, as attendant on the Buddha are -Mañju-sri and Avalokitesvara. That these saints were already +Mañju-sri and Avalokitesvara. That these saints were already acknowledged by the followers of the Great Vehicle at the beginning of the 5th century is clear from the fact that Fa Hien, who visited India about that time, says that "men of the Great Vehicle" were then @@ -16409,7 +16377,7 @@ spiritual beings, and only deprived them of all power over the lives of men, and declared them to be temporary beings liable, like men, to sin and ignorance, and requiring, like men, the salvation of Arahatship. Among them the later Buddhists seem to have placed their numerous -Bodhisats; and to have paid especial reverence to Mañju-sri as the +Bodhisats; and to have paid especial reverence to Mañju-sri as the personification of wisdom, and to Avalokiteswara as the personification of overruling love. The former was afterwards identified with the mythical first Buddhist missionary, who is supposed to have introduced @@ -16476,7 +16444,7 @@ incorporated into the corrupted Buddhism. The founder of this system seems to have been Asanga, an influential monk of Peshawar, who wrote the first text-book of the creed, the -_Yogachchara Bhumi Sastra_, in the 6th century A.D. Hsüan Tsang, who +_Yogachchara Bhumi Sastra_, in the 6th century A.D. Hsüan Tsang, who travelled in the first half of the 7th, found the monastery where Asanga had lived in ruins, and says that he had lived one thousand years after the Buddha.[1] Asanga managed with great dexterity to reconcile the two @@ -16520,7 +16488,7 @@ emperors of the Tang dynasty. He was the founder of the present capital of Tibet, now known as Lhasa; and in the year 622 (the same year as that in which Mahomet fled from Mecca) he began the formal introduction of Buddhism into Tibet. For this purpose he sent the minister Thumi -Sambhota, afterwards looked upon as an incarnation of Mañju-sri, to +Sambhota, afterwards looked upon as an incarnation of Mañju-sri, to India, there to collect the sacred books, and to learn and translate them. Thumi Sambhota accordingly invented an alphabet for the Tibetan language on the model of the Indian alphabets then in use. And, aided by @@ -16542,14 +16510,14 @@ his two queens, Bribsun, a princess from Nepal, and Wen Ching, a princess from China. They are related to have brought with them sacred relics, books and pictures, for whose better preservation two large monasteries were erected. These are the cloisters of La Brang (Jokhang) -and Ra Moché, still, though much changed and enlarged, the most sacred +and Ra Moché, still, though much changed and enlarged, the most sacred abbeys in Tibet, and the glory of Lhasa. The two queens have become semi-divine personages, and are worshipped under the name of the two _Dara-Eke_, the "glorious mothers," being regarded as incarnations of the wife of Siva, representing respectively two of the qualities which she personifies, divine vengeance and divine love. The former is worshipped by the Mongolians as _Okkin Tengri_, "the Virgin Goddess"; -but in Tibet and China the rôle of the divine virgin is filled by _Kwan +but in Tibet and China the rôle of the divine virgin is filled by _Kwan Yin_, a personification of Avalokitesvara as the heavenly word, who is often represented with a child in her arms. Srong Tsan Gampo has also become a saint, being looked upon as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara; @@ -16580,9 +16548,9 @@ collection of what are still regarded as their sacred books--the _Kandjur_. It consists of 100 volumes containing 689 works, of which there are two or three complete sets in Europe, one of them in the India Office library. A detailed analysis of these scriptures has been -published by the celebrated Hungarian scholar Csoma de Körös, whose +published by the celebrated Hungarian scholar Csoma de Körös, whose authoritative work has been republished in French with complete indices -and very useful notes by M. Léon Feer. These volumes contain about a +and very useful notes by M. Léon Feer. These volumes contain about a dozen works of the oldest school of Buddhism, the Hinayana, and about 300 works, mostly very short, belonging to the Tantra school. But the great bulk of the collection consists of Mahayana books, belonging to @@ -16722,7 +16690,7 @@ the constitution of the Lamaism of to-day. And first as to the mode of electing successors to the two Great Lamas. It will have been noticed that it was an old idea of the northern Buddhists to look upon distinguished members of the order as incarnations of Avalokitesvara, of -Mañju-sri, or of Amitabha. These beings were supposed to possess the +Mañju-sri, or of Amitabha. These beings were supposed to possess the power, whilst they continued to live in heaven, of appearing on earth in a _Nirmana-kaya_, or apparitional body. In the same way the Pantshen Lama is looked upon as an incarnation, the Nirmana-kaya, of Amitabha, @@ -16771,21 +16739,21 @@ Mongolia and China. He has no supremacy over his co-religionists in Japan, and even in China there are many Buddhists who are not practically under his control or influence. - The best work on Lamaism is still Köppen's _Die Lamaische Hierarchie + The best work on Lamaism is still Köppen's _Die Lamaische Hierarchie und Kirche_ (Berlin, 1859). See also Bushell, "The Early History of Tibet," in the _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1879-1880, vol. xii.; Sanang Setzen's _History of the East Mongols_ (in Mongolian, translated into German by J. Schmidt, _Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen_); - "Analyse du Kandjur," by M. Léon Feer, in _Annales du Musée Gaimet_ + "Analyse du Kandjur," by M. Léon Feer, in _Annales du Musée Gaimet_ (1881); Schott, _Ueber den Buddhismus in Hoch-Asien_; Gutzlaff, _Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches_; Hue and Gabet, _Souvenirs d'un voyage dans la Tartarie, le Tibet, et la Chine_ (Paris, 1858); - Pallas's _Sammlung historischer Nachrichten über die Mongolischen - Völkerschaften_; Babu Sarat Chunder Das's "Contributions on the + Pallas's _Sammlung historischer Nachrichten über die Mongolischen + Völkerschaften_; Babu Sarat Chunder Das's "Contributions on the Religion and History of Tibet," in the _Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society_, 1881; L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895); A. H. Francke, _History of Western Tibet_ (London, 1907); A. - Grünwedel, _Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei_ + Grünwedel, _Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei_ (Berlin, 1900). (T. W. R. D.) @@ -16807,8 +16775,8 @@ FOOTNOTES: LAMALOU-LES-BAINS, a watering-place of southern France in the department -of Hérault, 53½ m. W. of Montpellier by rail, in a valley of the -southern Cévennes. Pop. (1906) 720. The waters, which are both hot and +of Hérault, 53½ m. W. of Montpellier by rail, in a valley of the +southern Cévennes. Pop. (1906) 720. The waters, which are both hot and cold, are used in cases of rheumatism, sciatica, locomotor ataxy and nervous maladies. @@ -16926,7 +16894,7 @@ to put a stop to his military career. He went to Paris and began the study of medicine, supporting himself by working in a banker's office. He early became interested in meteorology and in physical and chemical speculations of a chimerical kind, but happily threw his main strength -into botany, and in 1778 published his _Flore française_, a work in +into botany, and in 1778 published his _Flore française_, a work in which by a dichotomous system of contrasting characters he enabled the student with facility to determine species. This work, which went through several editions and long kept the field, gained for its author @@ -16939,7 +16907,7 @@ of natural history; and on his return he began those elaborate contributions to botany on which his reputation in that science principally rests, namely, the _Dictionnaire de Botanique_ and the _Illustrations de Genres_, voluminous works contributed to the -_Encyclopédie Méthodique_ (1785). In 1793, in consequence of changes in +_Encyclopédie Méthodique_ (1785). In 1793, in consequence of changes in the organization of the natural history department at the Jardin du Roi, where he had held a botanical appointment since 1788, Lamarck was presented to a zoological chair, and called on to lecture on the @@ -16948,11 +16916,11 @@ the term _Invertebrata_. Thus driven, comparatively late in life, to devote his principal attention to zoology instead of botany, he had the misfortune soon after to suffer from impaired vision; and the malady resulted subsequently in total blindness. Yet his greatest zoological -work, the _Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres_, was published +work, the _Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres_, was published from 1815 to 1822, with the assistance, in the last two volumes, of his eldest daughter and of P. A. Latreille (1762-1833). A volume of plates of the fossil shells of the neighbourhood of Paris was collected in 1823 -from his memoirs in the _Annales des Muséums_. He died on the 18th of +from his memoirs in the _Annales des Muséums_. He died on the 18th of December 1829. The character of Lamarck as a naturalist is remarkable alike for its @@ -16978,7 +16946,7 @@ classification of plants, interesting, though crude and falling immeasurably short of the system which grew in the hands of his intimate friend A. L. de Jussieu. The problem of taxonomy has never been put more philosophically than he subsequently put it in his _Animaux sans -vertèbres_: "What arrangement must be given to the general distribution +vertèbres_: "What arrangement must be given to the general distribution of animals to make it conformable to the order of nature in the production of these beings?" @@ -16988,7 +16956,7 @@ a powerful incentive to work, but it outran the legitimate deductions from observation, and led him into the production of volumes of worthless chemistry without experimental basis, as well as into spending much time on fruitless meteorological predictions. His _Annuaires -Météorologiques_ were published yearly from 1800 to 1810, and were not +Météorologiques_ were published yearly from 1800 to 1810, and were not discontinued until after an unnecessarily public and brutal tirade from Napoleon, administered on the occasion of being presented with one of his works on natural history. @@ -17002,10 +16970,10 @@ forms, became with Lamarck a belief or, as he imagined, a demonstration. Spontaneous generation, he considered, might be easily conceived as resulting from such agencies as heat and electricity causing in small gelatinous bodies an utricular structure, and inducing a "singular -tension," a kind of "éréthisme" or "orgasme"; and, having thus accounted +tension," a kind of "éréthisme" or "orgasme"; and, having thus accounted for the first appearance of life, he explained the whole organization of animals and formation of different organs by four laws (introduction to -his _Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres_, 1815):-- +his _Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres_, 1815):-- 1. "Life by its proper forces tends continually to increase the volume of every body possessing it, and to enlarge its parts, up to a limit @@ -17100,7 +17068,7 @@ Prussia against Austria, and, on the outbreak of war in June, took command of an army corps, but was defeated at Custozza on the 23rd of June. Accused of treason by his fellow-countrymen, and of duplicity by the Prussians, he eventually published in defence of his tactics (1873) -a series of documents entitled _Un po' più di luce sugli eventi dell' +a series of documents entitled _Un po' più di luce sugli eventi dell' anno_ 1866 (More light on the events of 1866) a step which caused irritation in Germany, and exposed him to the charge of having violated state secrets. Meanwhile he had been sent to Paris in 1867 to oppose the @@ -17116,14 +17084,14 @@ segreti di stato nel governo constituzionale_ (Florence, 1877). LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE LOUIS DE PRAT DE (1790-1869), French poet, -historian and statesman, was born at Mâcon on the 21st of October 1790. +historian and statesman, was born at Mâcon on the 21st of October 1790. The order of his surnames is a controversial matter, and they are sometimes reversed. The family of Lamartine was good, and the title of -Prat was taken from an estate in Franche Comté. His father was +Prat was taken from an estate in Franche Comté. His father was imprisoned during the Terror, and only released owing to the events of the 9th Thermidor. Lamartine's early education was received from his mother. He was sent to school at Lyons in 1805, but not being happy -there was transferred to the care of the Pères de la Foi at Belley, +there was transferred to the care of the Pères de la Foi at Belley, where he remained until 1809. For some time afterwards he lived at home, reading romantic and poetical literature, but in 1811 he set out for Italy, where he seems to have sojourned nearly two years. His family @@ -17133,20 +17101,20 @@ first in Switzerland and then at Aix-en-Savoie, where he fell in love, with abundant results of the poetical kind. After Waterloo he returned to Paris. In 1818-1819 he revisited Switzerland, Savoy and Italy, the death of his beloved affording him new subjects for verse. After some -difficulties he had his first book, the _Méditations, poétiques et +difficulties he had his first book, the _Méditations, poétiques et religieuses_, published (1820). It was exceedingly popular, and helped him to make a position. He had left the army for some time; he now entered the diplomatic service and was appointed secretary to the embassy at Naples. On his way to his post he married, in 1823, at Geneva a young English lady, Marianne Birch, who had both money and beauty, and -in the same year his _Nouvelles méditations poétiques_ appeared. +in the same year his _Nouvelles méditations poétiques_ appeared. In 1824 he was transferred to Florence, where he remained five years. His _Last Canto of Childe Harold_ appeared in 1825, and he had to fight a duel (in which he was wounded) with an Italian officer, Colonel Pepe, in consequence of a phrase in it. Charles X., on whose coronation he wrote a poem, gave him the order of the Legion of Honour. The _Harmonies -poétiques et religieuses_ appeared in 1829, when he had left Florence. +poétiques et religieuses_ appeared in 1829, when he had left Florence. Having refused an appointment in Paris under the Polignac ministry, he went on a special mission to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In the same year he was elected to the Academy. Lamartine was in Switzerland, not in @@ -17218,8 +17186,8 @@ changed. His efforts had not succeeded in placing him in a position of independence; and at last, in 1867, the government of the Empire (from which he had perforce stood aloof, though he never considered it necessary to adopt the active protesting attitude of Edgar Quinet and -Victor Hugo) came to his assistance, a vote of £20,000 being proposed in -April of that year for his benefit by Émile Ollivier. This was +Victor Hugo) came to his assistance, a vote of £20,000 being proposed in +April of that year for his benefit by Émile Ollivier. This was creditable to both parties, for Lamartine, both as a distinguished man of letters and as a past servant of the state, had every claim to the bounty of his country. But he was reproached for accepting it by the @@ -17247,19 +17215,19 @@ on the 28th of February 1869. departments of belles lettres, was almost empty. The feeble school of descriptive writers, epic poets of the extreme decadence, fabulists and miscellaneous verse-makers, which the Empire had nourished could - satisfy no one. Madame de Staël was dead; Chateaubriand, though alive, + satisfy no one. Madame de Staël was dead; Chateaubriand, though alive, was something of a classic, and had not effected a full revolution. Lamartine did not himself go the complete length of the Romantic revival, but he went far in that direction. He availed himself of the reviving interest in legitimism and Catholicism which was represented by Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, of the nature worship of Rousseau and - Bernardin de Saint Pierre, of the sentimentalism of Madame de Staël, + Bernardin de Saint Pierre, of the sentimentalism of Madame de Staël, of the medievalism and the romance of Chateaubriand and Scott, of the - _maladie du siècle_ of Chateaubriand and Byron. Perhaps if his matter + _maladie du siècle_ of Chateaubriand and Byron. Perhaps if his matter be very closely analysed it will be found that he added hardly anything of his own. But if the parts of the mixture were like other things the mixture itself was not. It seemed indeed to the immediate - generation so original that tradition has it that the _Méditations_ + generation so original that tradition has it that the _Méditations_ were refused by a publisher because they were in none of the accepted styles. They appeared when Lamartine was nearly thirty years old. The best of them, and the best thing that Lamartine ever did, is the @@ -17271,7 +17239,7 @@ on the 28th of February 1869. to readers of that day the want of vigour was entirely compensated by the presence of freshness and grace. Lamartine's chief misfortune in poetry was not only that his note was a somewhat weak one, but that he - could strike but one. The four volumes of the _Méditations_, the + could strike but one. The four volumes of the _Méditations_, the _Harmonies_ and the _Recueillements_, which contained the prime of his verse, are perhaps the most monotonous reading to be found anywhere in work of equal bulk by a poet of equal talent. They contain nothing but @@ -17311,7 +17279,7 @@ on the 28th of February 1869. which he could cover strictly limited. He could only carry the picturesque sentimentalism of Rousseau, Bernardin de Saint Pierre and Chateaubriand a little farther, and clothe it in language and verse a - little less antiquated than that of Chênedollé and Millevoye. He has + little less antiquated than that of Chênedollé and Millevoye. He has been said to be a French Cowper, and the parallel holds good in respect of versification and of his relative position to the more daringly innovating school that followed, though not in respect of @@ -17321,7 +17289,7 @@ on the 28th of February 1869. importance in conversation with Sainte-Beuve, the answer was, "He is important to _us_," and it was a true answer; but the limitation is obvious. In more recent years, however, efforts have been made by - Brunetière and others to remove it. The usual revolution of critical + Brunetière and others to remove it. The usual revolution of critical as of other taste, the oblivion of personal and political unpopularity, and above all the reaction against Hugo and the extreme Romantics, have been the main agents in this. Lamartine has been @@ -17337,10 +17305,10 @@ on the 28th of February 1869. The edition mentioned is the most complete one of Lamartine, but there are many issues of his separate works. After his death some poems and - _Mémoires inédits_ of his youth were published, and also two volumes + _Mémoires inédits_ of his youth were published, and also two volumes of correspondence, while in 1893 Mlle V. de Lamartine added a volume of _Lettres_ to him. The change of views above referred to may be - studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetière, Faguet, Lemaître, + studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetière, Faguet, Lemaître, &c., and in the more substantive work of Ch. de Pomairols, _Lamartine_ (1889); E. Deschanel, _Lamartine_ (1893); E. Zyrowski, _Lamartine_ (1896); and perhaps best of all in the Preface to Emile Legouis' @@ -17424,7 +17392,7 @@ second edition of Coleridge's _Poems_. In 1797 his short summer holiday was spent with Coleridge at Nether Stowey, where he met the Wordsworths, William and Dorothy, and established a friendship with both which only his own death terminated. In 1798, under the influence of Henry -Mackenzie's novel _Julie de Roubigné_, he published a short and pathetic +Mackenzie's novel _Julie de Roubigné_, he published a short and pathetic prose tale entitled _Rosamund Gray_, in which it is possible to trace beneath disguised conditions references to the misfortunes of the author's own family, and many personal touches; and in the same year he @@ -17501,7 +17469,7 @@ this occasion was retained for the subsequent contributions, which appeared collectively in a volume of essays called _Elia_, in 1823. After a career of five years the _London Magazine_ came to an end; and about the same period Lamb's long connexion with the India House -terminated, a pension of £450 (£441 net) having been assigned to him. +terminated, a pension of £450 (£441 net) having been assigned to him. The increased leisure, however, for which he had long sighed, did not prove favourable to literary production, which henceforth was limited to a few trifling contributions to the _New Monthly_ and other serials, and @@ -17611,16 +17579,16 @@ Sedgmoor, lent irony to the nickname. -LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO, PRINCESSE DE +LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO, PRINCESSE DE (1749-1792), fourth daughter of Louis Victor of Carignano (d. 1774) (great-grandfather of King Charles Albert of Sardinia), and of Christine Henriette of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rothenburg, was born at Turin on the 8th of September 1749. In 1767 she was married to Louis Alexandre Stanislaus de -Bourbon, prince of Lamballe, son of the duke of Penthièvre, a grandson +Bourbon, prince of Lamballe, son of the duke of Penthièvre, a grandson of Louis XIV.'s natural son the count of Toulouse. Her husband dying the following year, she retired with her father-in-law to Rambouillet, where she lived until the marriage of the dauphin, when she returned to court. -Marie Antoinette, charmed by her gentle and naïve manners, singled her +Marie Antoinette, charmed by her gentle and naïve manners, singled her out for a companion and confidante. The impetuous character of the dauphiness found in Madame de Lamballe that submissive temperament which yields to force of environment, and the two became fast friends. After @@ -17644,9 +17612,9 @@ of the queen. See George Bertin, _Madame de Lamballe_ (Paris, 1888); Austin Dobson, _Four Frenchwomen_ (1890); B. C. Hardy, _Princesse de Lamballe_ - (1908); Comte de Lescure, _La Princesse de Lamballe ... d'après des - documents inédits_ (1864); some letters of the princess published by - Ch. Schmidt in _La Révolution française_ (vol. xxxix., 1900); L. + (1908); Comte de Lescure, _La Princesse de Lamballe ... d'après des + documents inédits_ (1864); some letters of the princess published by + Ch. Schmidt in _La Révolution française_ (vol. xxxix., 1900); L. Lambeau, _Essais sur la mort de madame la princesse de Lamballe_ (1902); Sir F. Montefiore, _The Princesse de Lamballe_ (1896). _The Secret Memoirs of the Royal Family of France ... now first published @@ -17659,17 +17627,17 @@ of the queen. LAMBALLE, a town of north-western France, in the department of -Côtes-du-Nord, on the Gouessant 13 m. E.S.E. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop. +Côtes-du-Nord, on the Gouessant 13 m. E.S.E. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop. (1906) 4347. Crowning the eminence on which the town is built is a beautiful Gothic church (13th and 14th centuries), once the chapel of -the castle of the counts of Penthièvre. La Noue, the famous Huguenot +the castle of the counts of Penthièvre. La Noue, the famous Huguenot leader, was mortally wounded in 1591 in the siege of the castle, which was dismantled in 1626 by Richelieu. Of the other buildings, the church of St Martin (11th, 15th and 16th centuries) is the chief. Lamballe has an important _haras_ (depot for stallions) and carries on trade in grain, tanning and leather-dressing; earthenware is manufactured in the environs. Lamballe was the capital of the territory of the counts of -Penthièvre, who in 1569 were made dukes. +Penthièvre, who in 1569 were made dukes. @@ -17679,12 +17647,12 @@ and S. by Cajamarca and Libertad. Area, 4614 sq. m. Pop. (1906 estimate) 93,070. It belongs to the arid region of the coast, and is settled along the river valleys where irrigation is possible. It is one of the chief sugar-producing departments of Peru, and in some valleys, especially -near Ferreñafe, rice is largely produced. Four railways connect its +near Ferreñafe, rice is largely produced. Four railways connect its principal producing centres with the small ports of Eten and Pimentel, -viz.: Eten to Ferreñafe, 27 m.; Eten to Cayalti, 23 m.; Pimentel to -Lambayeque, 15 m.; and Chiclayo to Pátapo, 15 m. The principal towns are +viz.: Eten to Ferreñafe, 27 m.; Eten to Cayalti, 23 m.; Pimentel to +Lambayeque, 15 m.; and Chiclayo to Pátapo, 15 m. The principal towns are Chiclayo, the departmental capital, with a population (1906 estimate) of -10,500, Ferreñafe 6000, and Lambayeque 4500. +10,500, Ferreñafe 6000, and Lambayeque 4500. @@ -17701,7 +17669,7 @@ was much impressed by the works of Jean Bologne, he showed a strong predilection for effects of force and motion. Other notable works are his fountain at Antwerp (1886), "Robbing the Eagle's Eyrie" (1890), "Drunkenness" (1893), "The Triumph of Woman," "The Bitten Faun" (which -created a great stir at the Exposition Universelle at Liége in 1905), +created a great stir at the Exposition Universelle at Liége in 1905), and "The Human Passions," a colossal marble bas-relief, elaborated from a sketch exhibited in 1889. Of his numerous busts may be mentioned those of Hendrik Conscience, and of Charles Bals, the burgomaster of Brussels. @@ -17762,7 +17730,7 @@ size and weight increased enormously, and though he had led an active and athletic life he weighed in 1793 thirty-two stone (448 lb.). In 1806 he resolved to profit by his notoriety, and resigning his office went up to London and exhibited himself. He died on the 21st of July 1809, and -at the time measured 5 ft. 11 in. in height and weighed 52¾ stone (739 +at the time measured 5 ft. 11 in. in height and weighed 52¾ stone (739 lb.). His waistcoat, now in the Kings Lynn Museum, measures 102 in. round the waist. His coffin contained 112 ft. of elm and was built on wheels. His name has been used as a synonym for immensity. George @@ -17783,7 +17751,7 @@ Switzerland. His study of the Scriptures shook his faith in Roman Catholic theology, and by 1522 he had abandoned his order, and became known to the leaders of the Reformation in Switzerland and Germany. He did not, however, identify himself either with Zwinglianism or -Lutheranism; he disputed with Zwingli at Zürich in 1522, and then made +Lutheranism; he disputed with Zwingli at Zürich in 1522, and then made his way to Eisenach and Wittenberg, where he married in 1523. He returned to Strassburg in 1524, being anxious to spread the doctrines of the Reformation among the French-speaking population of the @@ -17828,14 +17796,14 @@ LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH (1728-1777), German physicist, mathematician and astronomer, was born at Mulhausen, Alsace, on the 26th of August 1728. He was the son of a tailor; and the slight elementary instruction he obtained at the free school of his native town was supplemented by -his own private reading. He became book-keeper at Montbéliard ironworks, +his own private reading. He became book-keeper at Montbéliard ironworks, and subsequently (1745) secretary to Professor Iselin, the editor of a newspaper at Basel, who three years later recommended him as private tutor to the family of Count A. von Salis of Coire. Coming thus into virtual possession of a good library, Lambert had peculiar opportunities for improving himself in his literary and scientific studies. In 1759, after completing with his pupils a tour of two years' duration through -Göttingen, Utrecht, Paris, Marseilles and Turin, he resigned his +Göttingen, Utrecht, Paris, Marseilles and Turin, he resigned his tutorship and settled at Augsburg. Munich, Erlangen, Coire and Leipzig became for brief successive intervals his home. In 1764 he removed to Berlin, where he received many favours at the hand of Frederick the @@ -17864,7 +17832,7 @@ to the apparent curvature of the geocentric path of a comet. systematic treatise on heat, containing the records and full discussion of many of his own experiments. Worthy of special notice also are _Photometria_ (Augsburg, 1760), _Insigniores orbitae - cometarum proprietates_ (Augsburg, 1761), and _Beiträge zum Gebrauche + cometarum proprietates_ (Augsburg, 1761), and _Beiträge zum Gebrauche der Mathematik und deren Anwendung_ (4 vols., Berlin, 1765-1772). The _Memoirs_ of the Berlin Academy from 1761 to 1784 contain many of @@ -17874,7 +17842,7 @@ to the apparent curvature of the geocentric path of a comet. acta erudita_ (1763-1769) several of his contributions appear. In Bode's _Jahrbuch_ (1776-1780) he discusses nutation, aberration of light, Saturn's rings and comets; in the _Nova acta Helvetica_ (1787) - he has a long paper "Sur le son des corps élastiques," in Bernoulli + he has a long paper "Sur le son des corps élastiques," in Bernoulli and Hindenburg's _Magazin_ (1787-1788) he treats of the roots of equation and of parallel lines; and in Hindenburg's _Archiv_ (1798-1799) he writes on optics and perspective. Many of these pieces @@ -17973,7 +17941,7 @@ but Lambert displayed the greatest energy and did not cease to harass the invaders till Cromwell came up from Wales and with him destroyed the Scottish army in the three days' fighting from Preston to Warrington. After the battle Lambert's cavalry headed the chase, pursuing the -defeated army _à outrance_, and finally surrounded it at Uttoxeter, +defeated army _à outrance_, and finally surrounded it at Uttoxeter, where Hamilton surrendered to Lambert on the 25th of August. He then led the advance of Cromwell's army into Scotland, where he was left in charge on Cromwell's return. From December 1648 to March 1649 he was @@ -17996,7 +17964,7 @@ followed, see GREAT REBELLION. Lambert's part in the general plan was carried out most brilliantly, and in the crowning victory of Worcester he commanded the right wing of the English army, and had his horse shot under him. Parliament now conferred on him a grant of lands in Scotland -worth £1000 per annum. +worth £1000 per annum. In October 1651 Lambert was made a commissioner to settle the affairs of Scotland, and on the death of Ireton he was appointed lord deputy of @@ -18059,7 +18027,7 @@ protector, and begged him to put a stop to the proceedings. Lambert was not convinced by Cromwell's arguments, and their complete estrangement, personal as well as political, followed. On his refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the protector, Lambert was deprived of his commissions, -receiving, however, a pension of £2000 a year. He retired to his garden +receiving, however, a pension of £2000 a year. He retired to his garden at Wimbledon, and appeared no more in public during Oliver Cromwell's lifetime; but shortly before his death Cromwell sought a reconciliation, and Lambert and his wife visited him at Whitehall. @@ -18147,7 +18115,7 @@ including the visit to Canossa and the battle of Hohenburg, are vividly described. Their tone is hostile to Henry IV. and friendly to the papacy; their Latin style is excellent. The _Annales_ were first published in 1525 and are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae -historica_, Bände iii. and v. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). Formerly +historica_, Bände iii. and v. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). Formerly Lambert's reputation for accuracy and impartiality was very high, but both qualities have been somewhat discredited. @@ -18158,7 +18126,7 @@ both qualities have been somewhat discredited. Saxonico_. His _Opera_ have been edited with an introduction by O. Holder-Egger (Hanover, 1894). - See H. Delbrück, _Über die Glaubwürdigkeit Lamberts von Hersfeld_ + See H. Delbrück, _Ãœber die Glaubwürdigkeit Lamberts von Hersfeld_ (Bonn, 1873); A. Eigenbrodt, _Lampert von Hersfeld und die neuere Quellenforschung_ (Cassel, 1896); L. von Ranke, _Zur Kritik frankisch-deutscher Reichsannalisten_ (Berlin, 1854); W. Wattenbach, @@ -18185,15 +18153,15 @@ cemeteries with the stones standing in their original alignments; to the west is a similar area, from which, however, the stones have been largely removed for building the modern village. Of the temple of Aesculapius only one column is standing, though in the middle of the -19th century its façade was entire. The capitol or temple dedicated to -Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which has been cleared of débris, has a +19th century its façade was entire. The capitol or temple dedicated to +Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which has been cleared of débris, has a portico with eight columns. On level ground about two-thirds of a mile from the centre of the ancient town stands the camp, its site now partly occupied by the penitentiary and its gardens. It measures 1640 ft. N. to S. by 1476 ft. E. to W., and in the middle rise the ruins of a building commonly called, but incorrectly, the praetorium. This noble building, which dates from A.D. 268, is 92 ft. long by 66 ft. broad and 49 ft. -high; its southern façade has a splendid peristyle half the height of +high; its southern façade has a splendid peristyle half the height of the wall, consisting of a front row of massive Ionic columns and an engaged row of Corinthian pilasters. Behind this building (which was roofed), is a large court giving access to other buildings, one being @@ -18225,9 +18193,9 @@ from the temple of Aesculapius. About 2 m. S. of Lambessa are the ruins of Markuna, the ancient Verecunda, including two triumphal arches. - See S. Gsell, _Les Monuments antiques de l'Algérie_ (Paris, 1901) and - _L'Algérie dans l'antiquité_ (Algiers, 1903); L. Renier, _Inscriptions - romaines de l'Algérie_ (Paris, 1855); Gustav Wilmann, "Die röm. + See S. Gsell, _Les Monuments antiques de l'Algérie_ (Paris, 1901) and + _L'Algérie dans l'antiquité_ (Algiers, 1903); L. Renier, _Inscriptions + romaines de l'Algérie_ (Paris, 1855); Gustav Wilmann, "Die röm. Lagerstadt Afrikas," in _Commentationes phil. in honorem Th. Mommseni_ (Berlin, 1877); Sir L. Playfair, _Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce_ (London, 1877); A. Graham, _Roman Africa_ (London, 1902). @@ -18255,7 +18223,7 @@ Early records present the name _Lamb-hythe_ in various forms. The suffix is common along the river in the meaning of a haven, but the prefix is less clear; a Saxon word signifying mud is suggested. Brixton and Kennington are mentioned in Domesday; and in Vauxhall is concealed the -name of Falkes de Breauté, an unscrupulous adventurer of the time of +name of Falkes de Breauté, an unscrupulous adventurer of the time of John and Henry III. exiled in 1225. The manor of North Lambeth was given to the bishopric of Rochester in the time of Edward the Confessor, and the bishops had a house here till the 16th century. They did not, @@ -18484,11 +18452,11 @@ LAMBINUS, DIONYSIUS, the Latinized name of DENIS LAMBIN (1520-1572), French classical scholar, born at Montreuil-sur-mer in Picardy. Having devoted several years to classical studies during a residence in Italy, he was invited to Paris in 1650 to fill the professorship of Latin in -the Collège de France, which he soon afterwards exchanged for that of +the Collège de France, which he soon afterwards exchanged for that of Greek. His lectures were frequently interrupted by his ill-health and the religious disturbances of the time. His death (September 1572) is said to have been caused by his apprehension that he might share the -fate of his friend Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramée), who had been killed +fate of his friend Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramée), who had been killed in the massacre of St Bartholomew. Lambinus was one of the greatest scholars of his age, and his editions of classical authors are still useful. In textual criticism he was a conservative, but by no means a @@ -18511,7 +18479,7 @@ to express trifling and diffuseness. praefationes ac epistolae familiares aliquot: Mureti, Lambini, Regii_ (Paris, 1579); also Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_ (1908, ii. 188), and A. Horawitz in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine - Encyclopädie_. + Encyclopädie_. @@ -18559,7 +18527,7 @@ name mentioned in Ezekiel in connexion with "vessels of bronze."[2] All three names are sometimes derived from [Hebrew: yuval] in the sense of offspring, so that they would be three different words for "son," and there are numerous other theories as to their etymology. Lamech has also -a daughter Naamah ("gracious," "pleasant," "comely"; cf. No'mân, a name +a daughter Naamah ("gracious," "pleasant," "comely"; cf. No'mân, a name of the deity Adonis). This narrative clearly intends to account for the origin of these various arts as they existed in the narrator's time; it is not likely that he thought of these discoveries as separated from his @@ -19025,7 +18993,7 @@ cygnea_), comparing it with other Lamellibranchia. oyster it is absent altogether. [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Psammobia florida_, right side, showing - expanded foot e, and g incurrent and g´ excurrent siphons. (From + expanded foot e, and g incurrent and g´ excurrent siphons. (From Owen.)] The labial tentacles or palps of _Anodonta_ (n, o in fig. 1 [3], [5]) @@ -19210,7 +19178,7 @@ cygnea_), comparing it with other Lamellibranchia. ep., ep., the ciliated junctions; il, j., interlamellar junction. C, Transverse section of a filament taken so as to cut neither a ciliated junction nor an interlamellar junction. f.e., Frontal - epithelium; l.f.e´., l.f.e´´., the two rows of latero-frontal + epithelium; l.f.e´., l.f.e´´., the two rows of latero-frontal epithelial cells with long cilia; ch, chitinous tubular lining of the filament; lac., blood lacuna traversed by a few processes of connective tissue cells; b.c., blood-corpuscle.] @@ -19242,7 +19210,7 @@ cygnea_), comparing it with other Lamellibranchia. pig, Pigment-cells. bc, Blood-corpuscles. fe, Frontal epithelium. - lfe´, lfe´´, Two rows of latero-frontal epithelial cells with long + lfe´, lfe´´, Two rows of latero-frontal epithelial cells with long cilia. lrf, Fibrous, possibly muscular, substance of the inter-filamentar junctions.] @@ -19378,11 +19346,11 @@ cygnea_), comparing it with other Lamellibranchia. the mid-region of the Foot. m, Mantle-flap. - br, Outer, b´r´, inner gill-plate--each composed of two lamellae. + br, Outer, b´r´, inner gill-plate--each composed of two lamellae. f, Foot. v, Ventricle of the heart. a, Auricle. - p, p´, Pericardial cavity. + p, p´, Pericardial cavity. i, Intestine.] In the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia Professor (Sir) E. R. @@ -20165,7 +20133,7 @@ proper external apertures. of the shell and right mantle-flap removed, and the siphons retracted. (From Gegenbaur.) - br, br´, Outer and inner gill-plates. + br, br´, Outer and inner gill-plates. t, Labial tentacle. ta, tr, Upper and lower siphons. ms, Siphonal muscle of the mantle-flap. @@ -20463,360 +20431,4 @@ at considerable depths, and are carnivorous. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 1 - "L" to "Lamellibranchia" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: January 23, 2013 [EBook #41902] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41902 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -364,50 +326,50 @@ L to Lamellibranchia</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">LAAS, ERNST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">LA FAYETTE, MARIE JOSEPH PAUL YVES ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">LA BADIE, JEAN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">LA FAYETTE, MARIE-MADELEINE PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">LABEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">LAFAYETTE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">LA FERTÉ</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">LABERIUS, DECIMUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">LA FERTÉ-BERNARD</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">LABIATAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">LA FERTÉ-MILON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">LA FERTÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">LABERIUS, DECIMUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">LA FERTÉ-BERNARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">LABIATAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">LA FERTÉ-MILON</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">LABICANA, VIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">LAFFITTE, JACQUES</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">LAFFITTE, PIERRE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">LABICI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">LA FLÈCHE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">LABĪD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">LAFFITTE, PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">LABICI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">LA FLÈCHE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">LABĪD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">LABIENUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">LABLACHE, LUIGI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">LABOR DAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">LA BOURBOULE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">LABOUR CHURCH, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">LAGASH</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">LAGHMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">LAGHMAN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">LABOUR EXCHANGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">LAGOON</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">LABOUR LEGISLATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">LAGOS</a> (province of Nigeria)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">LABOUR PARTY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">LAGOS</a> (seaport of Nigeria)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">LABRADOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">LAGOS</a> (seaport of Portugal)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">LABRADORITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">LA GRÂCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">LABRADORITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">LA GRÂCE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">LABRADOR TEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">LA GRAND’ COMBE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">LABRUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">LAGRANGE-CHANCEL, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">LAGRANGE-CHANCEL, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">LABUAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">LA GRANJA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">LABURNUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">LABURNUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">LABYRINTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">LA GUAIRA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">LABYRINTHULIDEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, LOUIS ÉTIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HÉLION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">LABYRINTHULIDEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, LOUIS ÉTIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HÉLION</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">LAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">LAGUNA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">LACAITA, SIR JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">LACAITA, SIR JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">LA CALLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">LAHIRE, LAURENT DE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">LA CALPRENÈDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">LAHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">LA CALPRENÈDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">LAHN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">LA CARLOTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">LAHNDA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">LACCADIVE ISLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">LACCOLITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">LAHORE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">LACE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">LACE-BARK TREE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">LAHR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">LACEDAEMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">LAIBACH</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ÉTIENNE DE LA VILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">LAIDLAW, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ÉTIENNE DE LA VILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">LAIDLAW, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">LACEWING-FLY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">LAING, DAVID</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">LAING, DAVID</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">LA CHAISE-DIEU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">LAING, MALCOLM</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENÉ DE CARADEUC DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">LAING, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">LA CHARITÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">LAING’S NEK</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">LA CHAUSSÉE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">LAIRD, MACGREGOR</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">LACHES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">LAÏS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENÉ DE CARADEUC DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">LAING, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">LA CHARITÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">LAING’S NEK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">LA CHAUSSÉE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">LAIRD, MACGREGOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">LACHES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">LAÃS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">LACHINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">LACHISH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">LAI-YANG</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">LAKANAL, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> @@ -421,16 +383,16 @@ L to Lamellibranchia</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">LAKE OF THE WOODS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">LACQUER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">LAKE PLACID</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">LAKEWOOD</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">LAKH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">LAKH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">LACROIX, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">LAKHIMPUR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">LACROMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">LAKSHMI</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">LA CROSSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">LALAING, JACQUES DE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">LACROSSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">LALÍN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">LACROSSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">LALÃN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">LACRYMATORY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">LA LINEA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">LALITPUR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">LACTIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">LACTONES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">LACTONES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">LA CUEVA, JUAN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">LALO, EDOUARD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">LACUNAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">LA MADDALENA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">LACUZON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">LĀMĀISM</a></td></tr> @@ -443,7 +405,7 @@ L to Lamellibranchia</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">LADDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE LOUIS DE PRAT DE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">LADING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">LAMB, CHARLES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">LADISLAUS [I.]</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">LAMB</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">LADISLAUS IV.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">LADISLAUS IV.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">LADISLAUS V.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">LAMBALLE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">LAMBAYEQUE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">LADO ENCLAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">LAMBEAUX, JEF</a></td></tr> @@ -620,7 +582,7 @@ See the biographical article: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clerke, A. M. See the biographical article: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Newton, Alfred</a></span>.</td> - <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lämmergeyer;</b></p> + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lämmergeyer;</b></p> <p><b>Lapwing;</b></p> <p><b>Lark;</b></p> <p><b>Linnet;</b></p> @@ -667,7 +629,7 @@ Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of <i>The London Water-Supp <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Albrecht Socin, Ph.D. (1844-1899).</span><br /> -Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of Leipzig and Tübingen. +Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of Leipzig and Tübingen. Author of <i>Arabische Grammatik</i>; &c.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lebanon</b> (<i>in part</i>).</p></td></tr> @@ -956,17 +918,17 @@ and Officier de l’Instruction Publique (France). Joint-editor of New Volumes (10th ed.) of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>. Author of <i>Russia</i>; <i>Egypt and the Egyptian Question</i>; <i>The Web of Empire</i>; &c.</td> - <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lobánov-Rostovski.</b></p></td></tr> + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lobánov-Rostovski.</b></p></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tc1">E. B.*</td> - <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Ernest Charles François Babelon.</span><br /> + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Ernest Charles François Babelon.</span><br /> -Professor at the Collège de France. Keeper of the department of Medals and -Antiquities at the Bibliothèque Nationale. Member of the Académie des Inscriptions +Professor at the Collège de France. Keeper of the department of Medals and +Antiquities at the Bibliothèque Nationale. Member of the Académie des Inscriptions et de Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of -<i>Descriptions Historiques des Monnaies de la République Romaine</i>; <i>Traités des -Monnaies Grecques et Romaines</i>; <i>Catalogue des Camées de la Bibliothèque Nationale</i>.</td> +<i>Descriptions Historiques des Monnaies de la République Romaine</i>; <i>Traités des +Monnaies Grecques et Romaines</i>; <i>Catalogue des Camées de la Bibliothèque Nationale</i>.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Leptis.</b></p></td></tr> @@ -1054,7 +1016,7 @@ Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Author of <i>Let of a Portuguese Nun</i>; <i>Azurara’s Chronicle of Guinea</i>; &c.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lobo, F. R.;</b></p> -<p><b>Lopes, Fernão.</b></p></td></tr> +<p><b>Lopes, Fernão.</b></p></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tc1">E. R. L.</td> @@ -1147,7 +1109,7 @@ Formerly Chief Police Magistrate for London. Author of Wagers of Battle.</td> <tr> <td class="tc1">F. v. H.</td> - <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Baron Friedrich von Hügel.</span><br /> + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Baron Friedrich von Hügel.</span><br /> Member of Cambridge Philological Society; Member of Hellenic Society. Author of <i>The Mystical Element of Religion</i>.</td> @@ -1237,7 +1199,7 @@ Their Structure and Life</i>.</td> See the biographical article: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saintsbury, George E. B.</a></span></td> - <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>La Bruyère;</b></p> + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>La Bruyère;</b></p> <p><b>La Fontaine;</b></p> <p><b>Lamartine;</b></p> <p><b>La Rochefoucauld;</b></p> @@ -1265,7 +1227,7 @@ Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.</td> <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hendrik Antoon Lorentz.</span><br /> -Professor of Physics in the University of Leiden. Author of <i>La théorie electromagnétique +Professor of Physics in the University of Leiden. Author of <i>La théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants</i>.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Light:</b> <i>Nature of</i>.</p></td></tr> @@ -1339,7 +1301,7 @@ See the biographical article: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Johnston, Sir Professor of History and Director of University Extension, University of California. Author of <i>History of the French Revolution</i>; <i>Revolutionary Europe</i>; &c.</td> - <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Littré.</b></p></td></tr> + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Littré.</b></p></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tc1">H. R. T.</td> @@ -1549,7 +1511,7 @@ a Century</i>; &c.</td> <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Jŭstuŭs Hashagen, Ph.D.</span><br /> Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of -<i>Das Rheinland unter der französische Herrschaft</i>.</td> +<i>Das Rheinland unter der französische Herrschaft</i>.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lang, Karl Heinrich;</b></p> <p><b>Ledochowski;</b></p> @@ -1596,7 +1558,7 @@ See the biographical article: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ingram, J. K. See the biographical article: <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Legge, James</a></span>.</td> - <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lâo-Tsze.</b></p></td></tr> + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lâo-Tsze.</b></p></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tc1">J. L. M.</td> @@ -1644,11 +1606,11 @@ of <i>David Scott, R.S.A.</i>; <i>James and William Tassie</i>.</td> <tr> <td class="tc1">J. P. E.</td> - <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel Adhémar Esmein.</span><br /> + <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel Adhémar Esmein.</span><br /> Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. -Member of the Institute of France. Author of <i>Cours élémentaire d’histoire du droit -français</i>; &c.</td> +Member of the Institute of France. Author of <i>Cours élémentaire d’histoire du droit +français</i>; &c.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Lettres de Cachet.</b></p></td></tr> @@ -1765,7 +1727,7 @@ Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.</td> Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public Instruction. Author of <i>La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois</i>; &c.</td> - <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Le Maçon.</b></p></td></tr> + <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Le Maçon.</b></p></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tc1">J. W. D.</td> @@ -1884,7 +1846,7 @@ Tuscany</i>).</p></td></tr> <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Moritz Cantor, Ph.D.</span><br /> Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg. Author of -<i>Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Mathematik</i>; &c.</td> +<i>Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Mathematik</i>; &c.</td> <td class="tc4 cl"><p><b>Leonardo of Pisa.</b></p></td></tr> @@ -2633,7 +2595,7 @@ is familiar as the name of a light beer (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAAS, ERNST<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1837-1885), German philosopher, was born -on the 16th of June 1837 at Fürstenwalde. He studied theology +on the 16th of June 1837 at Fürstenwalde. He studied theology and philosophy under Trendelenburg at Berlin, and eventually became professor of philosophy in the new university of Strassburg. In <i>Kant’s Analogien der Erfahrung</i> (1876) he keenly @@ -2649,7 +2611,7 @@ with ethics and the theory of education.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>His chief educational works were <i>Der deutsche Aufsatz in den obern Gymnasialklassen</i> (1868; 3rd ed., part i., 1898, part ii, 1894), -and <i>Der deutsche Unterricht auf höhern Lehranstalten</i> (1872; 2nd ed. +and <i>Der deutsche Unterricht auf höhern Lehranstalten</i> (1872; 2nd ed. 1886). He contributed largely to the <i>Vierteljahrsschr. f. wiss. Philos.</i> (1880-1882); the <i>Litterarischer Nachlass</i>, a posthumous collection, was published at Vienna (1887). See Hanisch, <i>Der Positivismus von @@ -2679,7 +2641,7 @@ showed him that he had more in common with the Reformed than with the Roman Catholic Church, and after various adventures he joined the Reformed Church of France and became professor of theology at Montauban in 1650. His reasons -for doing so he published in the same year in his <i>Déclaration +for doing so he published in the same year in his <i>Déclaration de Jean de la Badie</i>. His accession to the ranks of the Protestants was deemed a great triumph; no such man since Calvin himself, it was said, had left the Roman Catholic Church. @@ -2698,9 +2660,9 @@ ecclesiastical authorities. The result was that la Badie and his followers established a separate church in a neighbouring town. In 1669 he moved to Amsterdam. He had enthusiastic disciples, Pierre Yvon (1646-1707) at Montauban, Pierre Dulignon -(d. 1679), François Menuret (d. 1670), Theodor Untereyk (d. +(d. 1679), François Menuret (d. 1670), Theodor Untereyk (d. 1693), F. Spanheim (1632-1701), and, more important than -any, Anna Maria v. Schürman (1607-1678), whose book <i>Eucleria</i> +any, Anna Maria v. Schürman (1607-1678), whose book <i>Eucleria</i> is perhaps the best exposition of the tenets of her master. At the head of his separatist congregation, la Badie developed his views for a reformation of the Reformed Churches: the church @@ -2761,7 +2723,7 @@ caused himself to be slain after the defeat of his party at Philippi. A member of the plebeian nobility, and in easy circumstances, the younger Labeo early entered public life, and soon rose to the praetorship; but his undisguised antipathy to the new -régime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in the +régime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in the senate he occasionally gave expression to his republican sympathies—what Tacitus (<i>Ann.</i> iii. 75) calls his <i>incorrupta libertas</i>—proved an obstacle to his advancement, and his rival, Ateius @@ -2796,14 +2758,14 @@ so called because published only after his death. It contained a systematic exposition of the common law. His <i>Libri ad Edictum</i> embraced a commentary, not only on the edicts of the urban and peregrine praetors, but also on that of the curule aediles. His -<i>Probabilium</i> (<span class="grk" title="pithanôn">πιθανῶν</span>) <i>lib. VIII.</i>, a collection of definitions and +<i>Probabilium</i> (<span class="grk" title="pithanôn">πιθανῶν</span>) <i>lib. VIII.</i>, a collection of definitions and axiomatic legal propositions, seems to have been one of his most characteristic productions.</p> <p>See van Eck, “De vita, moribus, et studiis M. Ant. Labeonis” (Franeker, 1692), in Oelrichs’s <i>Thes. nov.</i>, vol. i.; Mascovius, <i>De sectis Sabinianor. et Proculianor.</i> (1728); Pernice, <i>M. Antistius -Labeo. Das röm. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit</i> +Labeo. Das röm. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit</i> (Halle, 1873-1892).</p> </div> @@ -3012,18 +2974,18 @@ buildings along its course.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1815-1888), French dramatist, +<p><span class="bold">LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1815-1888), French dramatist, was born on the 5th of May 1815, of <i>bourgeois</i> parentage. He read for the bar, but literature had more powerful attractions, -and he was hardly twenty when he gave to the <i>Chérubin</i>—an +and he was hardly twenty when he gave to the <i>Chérubin</i>—an impertinent little magazine, long vanished and forgotten—a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>5</span> short story, entitled, in the cavalier style of the period, <i>Les plus belles sont les plus fausses</i>. A few others followed much in the same strain, but failed to catch the attention of the public. -He tried his hand at dramatic criticism in the <i>Revue des théâtres</i>, +He tried his hand at dramatic criticism in the <i>Revue des théâtres</i>, and in 1838 made a double venture on the stage. The small -Théâtre du Panthéon produced, amid some signs of popular +Théâtre du Panthéon produced, amid some signs of popular favour, a drama of his, <i>L’Avocat Loubet</i>, while a vaudeville, <i>Monsieur de Coislin ou l’homme infiniment poli</i>, written in collaboration with Marc Michel, and given at the Palais Royal, @@ -3031,7 +2993,7 @@ introduced for the first time to the Parisians a provincial actor who was to become and to remain a great favourite with them, Grassot, the famous low comedian. In the same year Labiche, still doubtful about his true vocation, published a romance -called <i>La Clé des champs</i>. M. Léon Halévy, his successor at +called <i>La Clé des champs</i>. M. Léon Halévy, his successor at the Academy and his panegyrist, informs us that the publisher became a bankrupt soon after the novel was out. “A lucky misadventure, for,” the biographer concludes, “this timely @@ -3064,19 +3026,19 @@ between the hero and the scoundrel, between the saint and the profligate.” During the second period of his career Labiche had the collaboration of Delacour,<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Choler,<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and others. When it is asked what share in the authorship and success of the plays -may be claimed for those men, we shall answer in Émile Augier’s +may be claimed for those men, we shall answer in Émile Augier’s words: “The distinctive qualities which secured a lasting vogue for the plays of Labiche are to be found in all the comedies written by him with different collaborators, and are conspicuously absent from those which they wrote without him.” A more useful and more important collaborator he found in Jean Marie -Michel Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a <i>débutant</i> +Michel Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a <i>débutant</i> in his younger days, and who remained his faithful interpreter to the last. Geoffroy impersonated the <i>bourgeois</i> not only to the public, but to the author himself; and it may be assumed that Labiche, when writing, could see and hear Geoffroy acting the character and uttering, in his pompous, fussy way, the words -that he had just committed to paper. <i>Célimare le bien-aimé</i> +that he had just committed to paper. <i>Célimare le bien-aimé</i> (1863), <i>Le Voyage de M. Perrichon</i> (1860), <i>La Grammaire</i>, <i>Un Pied dans le crime</i>, <i>La Cagnotte</i> (1864), may be quoted as the happiest productions of Labiche.</p> @@ -3112,7 +3074,7 @@ his sterling qualities. But when the honour was bestowed upon him, he enjoyed it with his usual good sense and quiet modesty. He died in Paris on the 23rd of January 1888.</p> -<p>Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Molière, +<p>Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Molière, but it will be enough to say that he was something better than a public <i>amuseur</i>. Many of his plays have been transferred to the English stage. They are, on the whole, as sound as they @@ -3130,23 +3092,23 @@ unmeaning complexity.</p> <div class="author">(A. Fi.)</div> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His <i>Théâtre complet</i> (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by -Émile Augier.</p> +<p>His <i>Théâtre complet</i> (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by +Émile Augier.</p> </div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Victor Varin, pseudonym of Charles Voirin (1798-1869).</p> -<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Marc Antoine Amédée Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist.</p> +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Marc Antoine Amédée Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist.</p> -<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Louis François Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879), part-author +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Louis François Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879), part-author of the famous <i>Fille de Mme Angot</i> (1872).</p> -<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Philippe François Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865).</p> +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Philippe François Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865).</p> <p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Alfred Charlemagne Lartigue, called Delacour (1815-1885). -For a list of this author’s pieces see O. Lorenz, <i>Catalogue Général</i> +For a list of this author’s pieces see O. Lorenz, <i>Catalogue Général</i> (vol. ii., 1868).</p> <p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Adolphe Joseph Choler (1822-1889).</p> @@ -3193,7 +3155,7 @@ is contained in the <i>Mo‘allakat</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> another thirty-five, with fragments and a German translation of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>6</span> whole, were edited (partly from the remains of A. Huber) by C. -Brockelmann (Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, <i>Über die Gedichte +Brockelmann (Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, <i>Ãœber die Gedichte des Lebyd</i> (Vienna, 1881). Stories of Labīd are contained in the <i>Kitābul-Aghāni</i>, xiv. 93 ff. and xv. 137 ff.</p> </div> @@ -3250,13 +3212,13 @@ He was one of the thirty-two torch-bearers chosen to surround the coffin at Beethoven’s funeral in 1827. He died at Naples on the 23rd of January 1858 and was buried at Maison Lafitte, Paris. Lablache’s Leporello in <i>Don Giovanni</i> was perhaps his -most famous impersonation; among his principal other rôles +most famous impersonation; among his principal other rôles were Dandini in <i>Cenerentola</i> (Rossini), Assur in <i>Semiramide</i> (Rossini), Geronimo in <i>La Gazza Ladra</i> (Rossini), Henry VIII. in <i>Anna Bolena</i> (Donizetti), the Doge in <i>Marino Faliero</i> -(Donizetti), the title-rôle in <i>Don Pasquale</i> (Donizetti), Geronimo -in <i>Il Matrimonio Segreto</i> (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in <i>L’Étoile du -Nord</i> (Meyerbeer), Caliban in <i>The Tempest</i> (Halévy).</p> +(Donizetti), the title-rôle in <i>Don Pasquale</i> (Donizetti), Geronimo +in <i>Il Matrimonio Segreto</i> (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in <i>L’Étoile du +Nord</i> (Meyerbeer), Caliban in <i>The Tempest</i> (Halévy).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -3277,7 +3239,7 @@ be proclaimed as such in any year by the governor.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA BOURBOULE,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a watering-place of central France, in -the department of Puy-de-Dôme, 4½ m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore +the department of Puy-de-Dôme, 4½ m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore by road. Pop. (1906) 1401. La Bourboule is situated on the right bank of the Dordogne at a height of 2790 ft. Its waters, of which arsenic is the characteristic constituent, are used in @@ -3317,24 +3279,24 @@ changed to “Socialist Church.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count Mahé +<p><span class="bold">LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count Mahé de</span> (1699-1753), French naval commander, was born at Saint Malo on the 11th of February 1699. He went to sea when a boy, and in 1718 entered the service of the French India Company as a lieutenant. In 1724 he was promoted captain, and displayed -such bravery in the capture of Mahé of the Malabar coast that +such bravery in the capture of Mahé of the Malabar coast that the name of the town was added to his own. For two years he was in the service of the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, but in -1735 he returned to French service as governor of the Île de -France and the Île de Bourbon. His five years’ administration +1735 he returned to French service as governor of the ÃŽle de +France and the ÃŽle de Bourbon. His five years’ administration of the islands was vigorous and successful. A visit to France in 1740 was interrupted by the outbreak of hostilities with Great Britain, and La Bourdonnais was put at the head of a fleet in -Indian waters. He saved Mahé, relieved General Dupleix at +Indian waters. He saved Mahé, relieved General Dupleix at Pondicherry, defeated Lord Peyton, and in 1746 participated in the siege of Madras. He quarrelled with Dupleix over the conduct of affairs in India, and his anger was increased on his -return to the Île de France at finding a successor to himself +return to the ÃŽle de France at finding a successor to himself installed there by his rival. He set sail on a Dutch vessel to present his case at court, and was captured by the British, but allowed to return to France on parole. Instead of securing @@ -3348,9 +3310,9 @@ Dupleix. He died at Paris on the 10th of November 1753. The French government gave his widow a pension of 2400 livres.</p> -<p>La Bourdonnais wrote <i>Traité de la mâture des vaisseaux</i> +<p>La Bourdonnais wrote <i>Traité de la mâture des vaisseaux</i> (Paris 1723), and left valuable memoirs which were published -by his grandson, a celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahé +by his grandson, a celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahé de la Bourdonnais (1795-1840) (latest edition, Paris, 1890). His quarrel with Dupleix has given rise to much debate; for a long while the fault was generally laid to the arrogance and @@ -3361,19 +3323,19 @@ and over-ambitious.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>7</span></p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See P. de Gennes, <i>Mémoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais, avec -les pièces justificatives</i> (Paris, 1750); <i>The Case of Mde la Bourdonnais, +<p>See P. de Gennes, <i>Mémoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais, avec +les pièces justificatives</i> (Paris, 1750); <i>The Case of Mde la Bourdonnais, in a Letter to a Friend</i> (London, 1748); Fantin des Odoards, -<i>Révolutions de l’Inde</i> (Paris, 1796); Collin de Bar, <i>Histoire de l’Inde -ancienne et moderne</i> (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoën, <i>Histoire -de la conquête et de la fondation de l’empire anglais dans l’Inde</i> (Paris, +<i>Révolutions de l’Inde</i> (Paris, 1796); Collin de Bar, <i>Histoire de l’Inde +ancienne et moderne</i> (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoën, <i>Histoire +de la conquête et de la fondation de l’empire anglais dans l’Inde</i> (Paris, 1840); Margry, “Les Isles de France et de Bourbon sous le gouvernement de La Bourdonnais,” in <i>La Revue maritime et coloniale</i> (1862); -W. Cartwright, “Dupleix et l’Inde française,” in <i>La Revue britannique</i> +W. Cartwright, “Dupleix et l’Inde française,” in <i>La Revue britannique</i> (1882); G. B. Malleson, <i>Dupleix</i> (Oxford, 1895); Anandaranga -Pillai, <i>Les Français dans l’Inde</i>, <i>Dupleix et Labourdonnais, extraits -du journal d’Anandaran-gappoullé 1736-1748</i>, trans. in French by -Vinsor in <i>École spéciale des langues orientales vivantes</i>, séries 3, +Pillai, <i>Les Français dans l’Inde</i>, <i>Dupleix et Labourdonnais, extraits +du journal d’Anandaran-gappoullé 1736-1748</i>, trans. in French by +Vinsor in <i>École spéciale des langues orientales vivantes</i>, séries 3, vol. xv. (Paris, 1894).</p> </div> @@ -3748,7 +3710,7 @@ or engaged in art, science or letters, or being a “gentleman.” Persons leaving a service were bound to obtain a testimonial, and might not be taken into fresh employment without producing such testimonial, or, if in a new district, until after showing -it to the authorities of the place. A master might be fined £5, +it to the authorities of the place. A master might be fined £5, and a labourer imprisoned, and if contumacious, whipped, for breach of this rule. The carefully devised scheme for technical training of apprentices embodied to a considerable extent the @@ -3911,7 +3873,7 @@ by county justices for repression of contraventions, and were empowered to “direct the adoption of such sanitary regulations as they might on advice think proper.” The mills were to be registered by the clerk of the peace, and justices had power to -inflict fines of from £2 to £5 for contraventions. Although +inflict fines of from £2 to £5 for contraventions. Although enforcement of the very limited provisions of the act was in many cases poor or non-existent, in some districts excellent work was done by justices, and in 1803 the West Riding of @@ -4632,7 +4594,7 @@ have a proper safety valve, a steam gauge, and a water gauge, and every such boiler, valve and gauge must be maintained in proper condition. Examination by a competent person must take place at least once in every fourteen months. The occupier of any factory -or workshop may be liable for penal compensation not exceeding £100 +or workshop may be liable for penal compensation not exceeding £100 in case of injury or death due to neglect of any provision or special rule, the whole or any part of which may be applied for the benefit of the injured person or his family, as the secretary of state determines. @@ -5327,7 +5289,7 @@ named, but the act does not apply to such wages as are paid by the resident, owner or occupier of the public-house, beer-shop and other places included in the prohibition to any workman <i>bona fide</i> employed by him. The penalty for an offence against this act is one -not exceeding £10 (compare the limit of £20 for the corresponding +not exceeding £10 (compare the limit of £20 for the corresponding offence under the Coal Mines Act), and all offences may be prosecuted and penalties recovered in England and Scotland under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts. The act does not apply to Ireland, and no special @@ -5391,10 +5353,10 @@ a penalty of 40s. for failure of an employer to keep exhibited the notice of the provisions of the acts, which in the absence of a penalty it had been impossible to enforce. The penalty for employment contrary to the acts is a fine not exceeding -£1 for each person so employed, and for failure to comply with -the requirements as to seats, a fine not exceeding £3 for a first +£1 for each person so employed, and for failure to comply with +the requirements as to seats, a fine not exceeding £3 for a first offence, and for any subsequent offence a fine of not less than -£1 and not exceeding £5.</p> +£1 and not exceeding £5.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>A wide interpretation is given by the act of 1892 to the class @@ -5450,7 +5412,7 @@ default of the local authority.</p> clerical labour, come under the provisions of the Truck Acts 1831 to 1887, and in all circumstances they fall within the sections directed against unfair and unreasonable fines in the Truck Act of 1896; but, -unlike employés in factories, workshops, laundries and mines, they +unlike employés in factories, workshops, laundries and mines, they are left to apply these provisions so far as they can themselves, since neither Home Office inspectors nor officers of the local authority have any specially assigned powers to administer the Truck Acts in shops.</p> @@ -5666,10 +5628,10 @@ what constitutes “reasonableness” in a deduction, the average number of convictions obtained on prosecutions is not so high as under the Factory Acts, though the average penalty imposed is higher. In 1904, 61 cases were taken into court resulting in 34 -convictions with an average penalty of £1, 10s. In 1905, 38 cases +convictions with an average penalty of £1, 10s. In 1905, 38 cases resulting in 34 convictions were taken with an average penalty of -£1, 3s. In 1906, 37 cases resulting in 25 convictions were taken with -an average penalty of £1, 10s.</p> +£1, 3s. In 1906, 37 cases resulting in 25 convictions were taken with +an average penalty of £1, 10s.</p> <p>Reference should here be made to the Shop Clubs Act of 1902 as closely allied with some of the provisions of the Truck Acts by its @@ -5738,7 +5700,7 @@ furnaces and in heating workshops, manufacture of projectiles of war, and any work for the government in the interests of national defence or security. The limit of 12 hours was reduced, as regards works in which women or young workers are employed, in 1900 to 11, and was -to be successively reduced to 10½ hours and to 10 hours at intervals +to be successively reduced to 10½ hours and to 10 hours at intervals of two years from April 1900. This labour law for adults was preceded in 1841 by one for children, which prevented their employment in factories before 8 years of age and prohibited night labour for any @@ -5750,7 +5712,7 @@ labour is prohibited for children under 13 years, though they may begin at 12 if qualified by the prescribed educational certificate and medical certificate of fitness. The limit of daily hours of employment is the same as for adult labour, and, similarly, from the -1st of April 1902 was 10½, and two years later became 10 hours in the +1st of April 1902 was 10½, and two years later became 10 hours in the 24. Notice of the hours must be affixed, and meal-times or pauses with absolute cessation of work of at least one hour must be specified. By the act of 1892 one day in the week, not necessarily Sunday, had @@ -5840,17 +5802,17 @@ by local authorities in exceptional cases. The exceptions may be applied, generally, only to workers over 14 years, but in mines, by royal decree, boys over 12 years may be employed from 4 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> The law of 1889 fixes only a maximum of 12 hours of effective work, to be -interrupted by pauses for rest of not less than 1½ hours, empowering +interrupted by pauses for rest of not less than 1½ hours, empowering the king by decree to formulate more precise limits suited to the special circumstances of individual industries. Royal decrees have accordingly laid down the conditions for many groups, including textile trades, manufacture of paper, pottery, glass, clothing, mines, quarries, engineering and printing works. In some the daily limit -is 10 hours, but in more 10½ or 11 hours. In a few exceptionally unhealthy +is 10 hours, but in more 10½ or 11 hours. In a few exceptionally unhealthy trades, such as the manufacture of lucifer matches, vulcanization of india-rubber by means of carbon bi-sulphide, the age of exclusion from employment has been raised, and in the last-named -process hours have been reduced to 5, broken into two spells of 2½ +process hours have been reduced to 5, broken into two spells of 2½ hours each. As a rule the conditions of health and safeguarding of employments in exceptionally injurious trades have been sought by a series of decrees under the law of 1863 relating to public health in @@ -5937,7 +5899,7 @@ subsequent legislation rests. Such legislation is also cantonal as well as Federal, but in the latter there is only amplification or interpretation of the principles contained in the law of 1877, whereas cantonal legislation covers industries not included under the Federal -law, <i>e.g.</i> single workers employed in a trade (<i>métier</i>) and employment +law, <i>e.g.</i> single workers employed in a trade (<i>métier</i>) and employment in shops, offices and hotels. The Federal law is applied to factories, workshops employing young persons under 18 or more than 10 workers, and workshops in which unhealthy or dangerous processes @@ -5961,9 +5923,9 @@ work are forbidden, but exceptions are permitted conditionally. Night work is defined as 8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> to 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> in summer, 8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> to 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> in winter. Children are excluded from employment in workplaces under the law until 14 years of age, and until 16 must attend continuation -schools. Zürich canton has fixed the working day for +schools. Zürich canton has fixed the working day for women at 10 hours generally, and 9 hours on Saturdays and eves of -holidays. Bâle-Ville canton has the same limits and provides that +holidays. Bâle-Ville canton has the same limits and provides that the very limited Sunday employment permitted shall be compensated by double time off on another day. In the German-speaking cantons girls under 18 are not permitted to work overtime; in all @@ -5992,7 +5954,7 @@ The Federal Labour Law 1877 generally prohibits payment of wages otherwise than in current coin, and provides that no deduction shall be made without an express contract. Some of the cantonal laws go much farther than the British act of 1896 in forbidding -certain deductions; <i>e.g.</i> Zürich prohibits any charge for +certain deductions; <i>e.g.</i> Zürich prohibits any charge for cleaning, warming or lighting workrooms or for hire of machinery. By the Federal law fines may not exceed half a day’s wage. Administration of the Labour laws is divided between inspectors @@ -6029,7 +5991,7 @@ The Code (unlike the Austrian Industrial Code) lays down no general limit for a normal working day for adult male workers, but since 1891 full powers were given to the Imperial government to limit hours for any classes of workers in industries where excessive length of the -working day endangers the health of the worker (R.G.O. § 120<i>e</i>). +working day endangers the health of the worker (R.G.O. § 120<i>e</i>). Previously application had been made of powers to reduce the working day in such unhealthy industries as silvering of mirrors by mercury and the manufacture of white-lead. Separate states had, under @@ -6118,14 +6080,14 @@ for a parent or husband are not included; outworkers are covered. Control of fines and deductions from wages applies only in factory industries and shops employing at least 20 workers. Shop hours are regulated by requiring shops to be closed generally between -9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, by requiring a fixed mid-day rest of 1½ hours and +9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, by requiring a fixed mid-day rest of 1½ hours and at least 10 hours’ rest in the 24 for assistants. These limits can be modified by administrative authority. Notice of hours and working rules must be affixed. During the hours of compulsory closing sale of goods on the streets or from house to house is forbidden. Under the Commercial Code, as under the Civil Code, every employer is bound to adopt every possible measure for maintaining the safety, -health and good conduct of his employés. By an order of the +health and good conduct of his employés. By an order of the Imperial Chancellor under the Commercial Code seats must be provided for commercial assistants and apprentices.</p> @@ -6215,7 +6177,7 @@ and of elementary education. The hours of children are limited to 6, with pauses, and of young persons (of 14 to 18 years) to 10, with pauses. Night work between 8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> is prohibited. All workers are entitled to a copy of a code of factory rules containing the -terms of the contract of work drawn up by representatives of employés +terms of the contract of work drawn up by representatives of employés with the employers and sanctioned by the inspector. Health and safety in working are provided for in detail in the same law of 1892. Special rules may be made for dangerous trades, and in 1899 such @@ -6229,7 +6191,7 @@ strengthened by municipal regulation, and this has been done in Copenhagen by an order of the 23rd of May 1903. In Sweden the 12 years’ limit had for some time held in the larger factories; the scope has been extended so that it corresponds with the Norwegian -law. The hours of children are, in Denmark, 6½ for those under 14 +law. The hours of children are, in Denmark, 6½ for those under 14 years; in Sweden 6 for those under 13 years. Young persons may not in either country work more than 10 hours daily, and night work, which is forbidden for persons under 18 years, is now defined as in @@ -6311,7 +6273,7 @@ employed in this industry.</p> <p>Under the general head of Labour Legislation all American statute laws regulating labour, its conditions, and the relation -of employer and employé must be classed. It includes +of employer and employé must be classed. It includes what is properly known as factory legislation. Labour <span class="sidenote">History.</span> legislation belongs to the latter half of the 19th century, so far @@ -6497,7 +6459,7 @@ Union might be classified in two general branches: (A) protective labour legislation, or laws for the aid of workers who, on account of their economic dependence, are not in a position fully to protect themselves; (B) legislation having for its purpose the fixing of the -legal status of the worker as an employé, such as laws relating to the +legal status of the worker as an employé, such as laws relating to the making and breaking of the labour contract, the right to form organizations and to assemble peaceably, the settlement of labour disputes, the licensing of occupations, &c.</p> @@ -6505,13 +6467,13 @@ disputes, the licensing of occupations, &c.</p> <p>(A) The first class includes factory and workshop acts, laws relating to hours of labour, work on Sundays and holidays, the payment of wages, the liability of employers for injuries to their -employés, &c. Factory acts have been passed by +employés, &c. Factory acts have been passed by <span class="sidenote">Factory and workshop acts.</span> nearly all the states of the Union. These may be considered in two groups—first, laws which relate to conditions of employment and affect only children, young persons and women; and second, laws which relate to the sanitary condition of -factories and workshops and to the safety of employés generally. +factories and workshops and to the safety of employés generally. The states adopting such laws have usually made provision for factory inspectors, whose duties are to enforce these laws and who have power to enter and inspect factories and workshops. The most @@ -6549,7 +6511,7 @@ females and separate toilet facilities for the sexes, and prohibit employment in certain occupations as in mines, places where intoxicants are manufactured or sold, in cleaning or operating dangerous machinery, &c. Provisions of factory acts relating to the sanitary -condition of factories and workshops and the safety of employés +condition of factories and workshops and the safety of employés have been enacted in nearly all the manufacturing states of the Union. They prohibit overcrowding, and require proper ventilation, sufficient light and heat, the lime-washing or painting of walls @@ -6569,11 +6531,11 @@ occupations; and (5) laws which specify the hours per day or per week during which women and children may be employed. The statutes included in the first two groups place no restrictions upon the number of hours which may be agreed upon between employers -and employés, while those in the other three groups usually limit the +and employés, while those in the other three groups usually limit the freedom of contract and provide penalties for their violation. A considerable number of states have enacted laws which fix a day’s labour in the absence of any contract, some at eight and others at -ten hours, so that when an employer and an employé make a contract +ten hours, so that when an employer and an employé make a contract and they do not specify what shall constitute a day’s labour, eight or ten hours respectively would be ruled as the day’s labour in an action which might come before the courts. In a number of the states @@ -6582,7 +6544,7 @@ cash payments or by rendering personal service. In the latter case the length of the working day is defined by law, eight hours being usually specified. The Federal government and nearly one-half of the states have laws providing that eight hours shall constitute a day’s -work for employés on public works. Under the Federal Act it is +work for employés on public works. Under the Federal Act it is unlawful for any officer of the government or of any contractor or sub-contractor for public works to permit labourers and mechanics to work longer than eight hours per day. The state laws concerning @@ -6590,11 +6552,11 @@ hours of labour have similar provisions. Exceptions are provided for cases of extraordinary emergencies, such as danger to human life or property. In many states the hours of labour have been limited by law in occupations in which, on account of their dangerous or -insanitary character, the health of the employés would be jeopardized +insanitary character, the health of the employés would be jeopardized by long hours of labour, or in which the fatigue occasioned by long -hours would endanger the lives of the employés or of the public. +hours would endanger the lives of the employés or of the public. The occupations for which such special legislation has been enacted -are those of employés on steam and street railways, in mines and +are those of employés on steam and street railways, in mines and other underground workings, smelting and refining works, bakeries and cotton and woollen mills. Laws limiting the hours of labour of women and children have been considered under factory and workshop @@ -6605,12 +6567,12 @@ the employment of labour on Sunday. These laws usually make it <span class="sidenote">Sunday labour.</span> a misdemeanour for persons either to labour themselves or to compel or permit their apprentices, servants or other -employés, to labour on the first day of the week. Exceptions +employés, to labour on the first day of the week. Exceptions are made in the case of household duties or works of necessity or charity, and in the case of members of religious societies who observe some other than the first day of the week.</p> -<p>Statutes concerning the payment of wages of employés may be +<p>Statutes concerning the payment of wages of employés may be considered in two groups: (1) those which relate to the employment contract, such as laws fixing the maximum period of wage payments, prohibiting the payment of wages in scrip or @@ -6625,27 +6587,27 @@ such as laws exempting wages from attachment, preferring wage claims in assignments, and granting workmen liens upon buildings and other constructions on which they have been employed.</p> -<p>Employers’ liability laws have been passed to enable an employé +<p>Employers’ liability laws have been passed to enable an employé to recover damages from his employer under certain conditions when he has been injured through accident occurring in the works of the employer. The common-law maxim that the <span class="sidenote">Employers’ liability.</span> principal is responsible for the acts of his agent does not apply where two or more persons are working together under -the same employer and one of the employés is injured through the -carelessness of his fellow-employé, although the one causing the +the same employer and one of the employés is injured through the +carelessness of his fellow-employé, although the one causing the accident is the agent of the principal, who under the common law would be responsible. The old Roman law and the English and -American practice under it held that the co-employé was a party to +American practice under it held that the co-employé was a party to the accident. The injustice of this rule is seen by a single illustration. A weaver in a cotton factory, where there are hundreds of operatives, is injured by the neglect or carelessness of the engineer in charge of the motive power. Under the common law the weaver could not -recover damages from the employer, because he was the co-employé -of the engineer. So, one of thousands of employés of a railway +recover damages from the employer, because he was the co-employé +of the engineer. So, one of thousands of employés of a railway system, sustaining injuries through the carelessness of a switchman whom he never saw, could recover no damages from the railway -company, both being co-employés of the same employer. The +company, both being co-employés of the same employer. The injustice of this application of the common-law rule has been recognized, but the only way to avoid the difficulty was through specific legislation providing that under such conditions as those related, @@ -6657,22 +6619,22 @@ of the most notable distinctions of law.</p> <p>The first agitation for legislation of this character occurred in England in 1880. A number of states in the Union have now enacted statutes fixing the liability of employers under certain -conditions and relieving the employé from the application of the -common-law rule. Where the employé himself is contributory to +conditions and relieving the employé from the application of the +common-law rule. Where the employé himself is contributory to the injuries resulting from an accident he cannot recover, nor can he recover in some cases where he knows of the danger from the defects of tools or implements employed by him. The legislation upon the subject involves many features of legislation which need not be -described here, such as those concerning the power of employés to +described here, such as those concerning the power of employés to make a contract, and those defining the conditions, often elaborate, which lead to the liability of the employer and the duties of the -employé, and the relations in which damages for injuries sustained +employé, and the relations in which damages for injuries sustained in employment may be recovered from the employer.</p> <p>(B) The statutes thus far considered may be regarded as protective labour legislation. There is, besides, a large body of statutory laws enacted in the various states for the purpose of fixing the legal status -of employers and employés and defining their rights and privileges +of employers and employés and defining their rights and privileges as such.</p> <p>A great variety of statutes have been enacted in the various @@ -6683,7 +6645,7 @@ of contract, making it a misdemeanour to break a contract of service and thereby endanger human life or expose valuable property to serious injury, or to make a contract of service and accept transportation or pecuniary advancements with intent to -defraud, prohibiting contracts of employment whereby employés +defraud, prohibiting contracts of employment whereby employés waive the right to damages in case of injury, &c. A Federal statute makes it a misdemeanour for any one to prepay the transportation or in any way assist or encourage the importation of aliens under @@ -6702,11 +6664,11 @@ pilots, &c. The occupations for which examinations and licences are required by the various state laws are those of barbers, horseshoers, elevator operators, plumbers, stationary firemen, steam engineers, telegraph operators on railroads and certain classes of -mine workers and steam and street railway employés.</p> +mine workers and steam and street railway employés.</p> </div> <p>The right of combination and peaceable assembly on the part -of employés is recognized at common law throughout the United +of employés is recognized at common law throughout the United States. Organizations of working-men formed for their mutual benefit, protection and improvement, <span class="sidenote">Labour organizations.</span> @@ -6737,10 +6699,10 @@ Some of the states have now fairly complete statutory enactments concerning labour disturbances, while <span class="sidenote">Labour disputes.</span> others have little or no legislation of this class. The -right of employés to strike for any cause or for no cause is sustained +right of employés to strike for any cause or for no cause is sustained by the common law everywhere in the United States. Likewise an employer has a right to discharge any or all of his -employés when they have no contract with him, and he may +employés when they have no contract with him, and he may refuse to employ any person or class of persons for any reason or for no reason. Agreements among strikers to take peaceable means to induce others to remain away from the works of an @@ -6759,8 +6721,8 @@ established principles. The list of such statutory enactments is a large one, and includes laws relating to blacklisting, boycotting, conspiracy against working-men, interference with employment, intimidation, picketing and strikes of railway -employés; laws requiring statements of causes of discharge of -employés and notice of strikes in advertisements for labour; +employés; laws requiring statements of causes of discharge of +employés and notice of strikes in advertisements for labour; laws prohibiting deception in the employment of labour and the hiring of armed guards by employers; and laws declaring that certain labour agreements do not constitute conspiracy. Some of @@ -6769,7 +6731,7 @@ not yet been tested in the courts.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The laws just treated relate almost entirely to acts either of -employers or of employés, but there is another form of law, namely, +employers or of employés, but there is another form of law, namely, that providing for action to be taken by others in the effort to prevent working people from losing employment, either <span class="sidenote">Arbitration and conciliation.</span> @@ -6784,7 +6746,7 @@ for the appointment of state boards, and in others of local boards only. A number of states provide for local or special boards in addition to the regular state boards. In some states it is required that a member of a labour organization must be a member of the -board, and, in general, both employers and employés must be +board, and, in general, both employers and employés must be represented. Nearly all state boards are required to attempt to mediate between the parties to a dispute when information is received of an actual or threatened labour trouble. Arbitration may @@ -6799,7 +6761,7 @@ punishable as for contempt of court. The Federal statute applies only to common carriers engaged in interstate commerce, and provides for an attempt to be made at mediation by two designated government officials in controversies between common carriers and their -employés, and, in case of the failure of such an attempt, for the +employés, and, in case of the failure of such an attempt, for the formation of a board of arbitration consisting of the same officials together with certain other parties to be selected. Such arbitration boards are to be formed only at the request or upon the consent of @@ -6829,7 +6791,7 @@ by reason of such events that any portion or class of the people are deprived thereby of their rights and privileges under the constitution and laws of the country. Under this general power the United States forces have been used for the protection of -both employers and employés indirectly, the purpose being to +both employers and employés indirectly, the purpose being to protect mails and, as in the states, to see that the laws are carried out.</p> @@ -6845,7 +6807,7 @@ which issued it the power to punish for contempt. The doctrine is that something is necessary to be done to stop at once the destruction of property and the obstruction of business, and the injunction is immediate in its action. This writ has been resorted -to frequently for the indirect protection of employés and of +to frequently for the indirect protection of employés and of employers.</p> <div class="author">(C. D. W.)</div> @@ -6890,14 +6852,14 @@ and Checkweighing Clauses of the Coal Mines Acts 1896, Memorandum relating to the Truck Acts, by Sir Kenelm Digby, with text of Acts (1897).</p> -<p><span class="sc">Continental Europe</span>: <i>Annuaire de la législation du travail</i> -(Bruxelles, 1898-1905); <i>Hygiène et sécurité des travailleurs dans les +<p><span class="sc">Continental Europe</span>: <i>Annuaire de la législation du travail</i> +(Bruxelles, 1898-1905); <i>Hygiène et sécurité des travailleurs dans les ateliers industriels</i> (Paris, 1895); <i>Bulletin de l’inspection du travail</i> (Paris, 1895-1902); <i>Bulletin de l’office international du travail</i> (Paris, -1902-1906); <i>Congrès international de législation du travail</i> (1898); -<i>Die Gewerbeordnung für das deutsche Reich</i>. (1) Landmann (1897); +1902-1906); <i>Congrès international de législation du travail</i> (1898); +<i>Die Gewerbeordnung für das deutsche Reich</i>. (1) Landmann (1897); (2) Neukamp (1901); <i>Gesetz betr. Kinderarbeit in gewerblichen -Betrieben</i>, 30. <i>März 1903</i>; Konrad Agahd, <i>Manz’sche Gesetzausgabe</i>, +Betrieben</i>, 30. <i>März 1903</i>; Konrad Agahd, <i>Manz’sche Gesetzausgabe</i>, erster Band und siebenter Band (Wien, 1897-1898); <i>Legge sugli infortunii del lavoro</i> (Milan, 1900).</p> @@ -6906,12 +6868,12 @@ Commissioner of Labor</i> (1907) giving all labour laws in force in the United States in 1907, with annotations of decisions of courts; bimonthly <i>Bulletins</i> of the U.S. Bureau of Labor, containing laws passed since those published in the foregoing, and decisions of courts -relating to employers and employés; also special articles in these -<i>Bulletins</i> on “Employer and Employé under the Common Law” +relating to employers and employés; also special articles in these +<i>Bulletins</i> on “Employer and Employé under the Common Law” (No. 1), “Protection of Workmen in their Employment” (No. 26), “Government Industrial Arbitration” (No. 60), “Laws relating to the Employment of Women and Children, and to Factory Inspection -and the Health and Safety of Employés” (No. 74), +and the Health and Safety of Employés” (No. 74), “Wages and Hours of Labor in Manufacturing Industries, 1890 to 1907” (No. 77), “Review of Labor Legislation of 1908 and 1909” (No. 85); also “Report of the Industrial Commission on Labor Legislation” @@ -6994,10 +6956,10 @@ party, which after the election numbered 40 members of parliament.</p> <p><span class="bold">LABRADOR,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a great peninsula in British North America, bounded E. by the North Atlantic, N. by Hudson Strait, W. by Hudson and James Bays, and S. by an arbitrary line extending -eastwards from the south-east corner of Hudson Bay, near 51° +eastwards from the south-east corner of Hudson Bay, near 51° N., to the mouth of the Moisie river, on the Gulf of St Lawrence, -in 50° N., and thence eastwards by the Gulf of St Lawrence. It -extends from 50° to 63° N., and from 55° to 80° W., and embraces +in 50° N., and thence eastwards by the Gulf of St Lawrence. It +extends from 50° to 63° N., and from 55° to 80° W., and embraces an approximate area of 511,000 sq. m. Recent explorations and surveys have added greatly to the knowledge of this vast region, and have shown that much of the peninsula is not a @@ -7010,8 +6972,8 @@ in the Archaean protaxis of North America (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlin most of the highest parts of that area. Along some portions of the coasts of Hudson and also of Ungava Bay there is a fringe of lowland, but most of the interior is a plateau rising toward the south -and east. The highest portion extends east and west between 52° -and 54° N., where an immense granite area lies between the headwaters +and east. The highest portion extends east and west between 52° +and 54° N., where an immense granite area lies between the headwaters of the larger rivers of the four principal drainage basins; the lowest area is between Hudson Bay and Ungava Bay in the north-west, where the general level is not more than 500 ft. above the sea. @@ -7086,14 +7048,14 @@ nickel and lead; good prospects of these metals have been found.</p> <p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate ranges from cold temperate on the southern coasts to arctic on Hudson Strait, and is generally so rigorous that it -is doubtful if the country is fit for agriculture north of 51°, except +is doubtful if the country is fit for agriculture north of 51°, except on the low grounds near the coast. On James Bay good crops of -potatoes and other roots are grown at Fort George, 54° N., while +potatoes and other roots are grown at Fort George, 54° N., while about the head of Hamilton Inlet, on the east coast, and in nearly the same latitude, similar crops are easily cultivated. On the outer coasts the climate is more rigorous, being affected by the floating ice borne southwards on the Arctic current. In the interior at Mistassini, -50° 30′ N, a crop of potatoes is raised annually, but they rarely +50° 30′ N, a crop of potatoes is raised annually, but they rarely mature. No attempts at agriculture have been made elsewhere inland. Owing to the absence of grass plains, there is little likelihood that it will ever be a grazing district. There are only two @@ -7101,9 +7063,9 @@ seasons in the interior: winter begins early in October, with the freezing of the small lakes, and lasts until the middle of June, when the ice on rivers and lakes melts and summer suddenly bursts forth. From unconnected observations the lowest temperatures of the -interior range from −50° F. to −60° F., and are slightly higher along +interior range from −50° F. to −60° F., and are slightly higher along the coast. The mean summer temperature of the interior is about -55° F., with frosts during every month in the northern portion. +55° F., with frosts during every month in the northern portion. On the Atlantic coast and in Hudson Bay the larger bays freeze solid between the 1st and 15th of December, and these coasts remain ice-bound until late in June. Hudson Strait is usually sufficiently open @@ -7113,11 +7075,11 @@ for navigation about the 10th of July.</p> belt, and nine species of trees constitute the whole arborescent flora of this region; these species are the white birch, poplar, aspen, cedar. Banksian pine, white and black spruce, balsam fir and larch. The -forest is continuous over the southern portion to 53° N., the only +forest is continuous over the southern portion to 53° N., the only exceptions being the summits of rocky hills and the outer islands of the Atlantic and Hudson Bay, while the low margins and river valleys contain much valuable timber. To the northward the size -and number of barren areas rapidly increase, so that in 55° N. more +and number of barren areas rapidly increase, so that in 55° N. more than half the country is treeless, and two degrees farther north the limit of trees is reached, leaving, to the northward, only barrens covered with low Arctic flowering plants, sedges and lichens.</p> @@ -7204,7 +7166,7 @@ of Quebec. The government of Newfoundland, under Letters Patent of the 28th of March 1876, exercises jurisdiction along the Atlantic coast; the boundary between its territory and that of Canada is a line running due north and south from Anse -Sablon, on the north shore of the Strait of Belle Isle, to 52° N., +Sablon, on the north shore of the Strait of Belle Isle, to 52° N., the remainder of the boundary being as yet undetermined. The northern boundary of the province of Quebec follows the East Main river to its source in Patamisk lake, thence by a line due @@ -7262,7 +7224,7 @@ play of colours—blue, green, orange, purple or red; the colour in some specimens changing when the stone is viewed in different directions. This optical effect, known sometimes as “labradorescence,” seems due in some cases to the presence of minute -laminae of certain minerals, like göthite or haematite, arranged +laminae of certain minerals, like göthite or haematite, arranged parallel to the surface which reflects the colour; but in other cases it may be caused not so much by inclusions as by a delicate lamellar structure in the felspar. An aventurine effect is produced @@ -7280,7 +7242,7 @@ New York. The ornamental stone from south Norway, now largely used as a decorative material in architecture, owes its beauty to a felspar with a blue opalescence, often called labradorite, but really a kind of orthoclase which Professor W. C. -Brögger has termed cryptoperthite, whilst the rock in which +Brögger has termed cryptoperthite, whilst the rock in which it occurs is an augite-syenite called by him laurvigite, from its chief locality, Laurvik in Norway. Common labradorite, without play of colour, is an important constituent of such @@ -7289,7 +7251,7 @@ rocks as gabbro, diorite, andesite, dolerite and basalt. (See Monti Rossi, a double parasitic cone on Etna.</p> <p>The term labradorite is unfortunately used also as a rock-name, -having been applied by Fouqué and Lévy to a group +having been applied by Fouqué and Lévy to a group of basic rocks rich in augite and poor in olivine.</p> <div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div> @@ -7314,57 +7276,57 @@ the lower lip being termed <i>labium</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1643-1696), French essayist and +<p><span class="bold">LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1643-1696), French essayist and moralist, was born in Paris on the 16th of August 1645, and not as was once the common statement, at Dourdan (Seine-et-Oise) in 1639. His family was of the middle class, and his reference -to a certain Geoffroy de la Bruyère, a crusader, is only a satirical +to a certain Geoffroy de la Bruyère, a crusader, is only a satirical illustration of a method of self-ennoblement common in France as in some other countries. Indeed he himself always signed the -name Delabruyère in one word, thus avowing his <i>roture</i>. His +name Delabruyère in one word, thus avowing his <i>roture</i>. His progenitors, however, were of respectable position, and he could trace them back at least as far as his great-grandfather, who had -been a strong Leaguer. La Bruyère’s own father was controller-general -of finance to the Hôtel de Ville. The son was educated +been a strong Leaguer. La Bruyère’s own father was controller-general +of finance to the Hôtel de Ville. The son was educated by the Oratorians and at the university of Orleans; he was called to the bar, and in 1673 bought a post in the revenue department at Caen, which gave the status of noblesse and a certain income. In 1687 he sold this office. His predecessor in it was a relation of Bossuet, and it is thought that the transaction -was the cause of La Bruyère’s introduction to the great orator. +was the cause of La Bruyère’s introduction to the great orator. Bossuet, who from the date of his own preceptorship of the dauphin, was a kind of agent-general for tutorships in the royal family, introduced him in 1684 to the household of the great -Condé, to whose grandson Henri Jules de Bourbon as well as +Condé, to whose grandson Henri Jules de Bourbon as well as to that prince’s girl-bride Mlle de Nantes, one of Louis XIV.’s -natural children, La Bruyère became tutor. The rest of his life +natural children, La Bruyère became tutor. The rest of his life was passed in the household of the prince or else at court, and -he seems to have profited by the inclination which all the Condé +he seems to have profited by the inclination which all the Condé family had for the society of men of letters. Very little is known of the events of this part—or, indeed, of any part—of his life. The impression derived from the few notices of him is of a silent, observant, but somewhat awkward man, resembling in manners -Joseph Addison, whose master in literature La Bruyère undoubtedly +Joseph Addison, whose master in literature La Bruyère undoubtedly was. Yet despite the numerous enemies which his book raised up for him, most of these notices are favourable—notably that of Saint-Simon, an acute judge and one bitterly prejudiced against <i>roturiers</i> generally. There is, however, a curious passage in a letter from Boileau to Racine in which he -regrets that “nature has not made La Bruyère as agreeable as -he would like to be.” His <i>Caractères</i> appeared in 1688, and at +regrets that “nature has not made La Bruyère as agreeable as +he would like to be.” His <i>Caractères</i> appeared in 1688, and at once, as Nicolas de Malezieu had predicted, brought him “bien des lecteurs et bien des ennemis.” At the head of these were Thomas Corneille, Fontenelle and Benserade, who were pretty clearly aimed at in the book, as well as innumerable other persons, men and women of letters as well as of society, on whom -the cap of La Bruyère’s fancy-portraits was fitted by manuscript +the cap of La Bruyère’s fancy-portraits was fitted by manuscript “keys” compiled by the scribblers of the day. The friendship -of Bossuet and still more the protection of the Condés sufficiently +of Bossuet and still more the protection of the Condés sufficiently defended the author, and he continued to insert fresh portraits of his contemporaries in each new edition of his book, especially in the 4th (1689). Those, however, whom he had attacked were powerful in the Academy, and numerous defeats awaited La -Bruyère before he could make his way into that guarded hold. +Bruyère before he could make his way into that guarded hold. He was defeated thrice in 1691, and on one memorable occasion he had but seven votes, five of which were those of Bossuet, Boileau, Racine, Pellisson and Bussy-Rabutin. It was not @@ -7373,58 +7335,58 @@ considering his admitted insignificance in conversation, was not of the worst, <i>haesit lateri</i>:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Quand la Bruyère se présente</p> +<p>“Quand la Bruyère se présente</p> <p class="i2">Pourquoi faut il crier haro?</p> <p>Pour faire un nombre de quarante</p> - <p class="i2">Ne falloit il pas un zéro?”</p> + <p class="i2">Ne falloit il pas un zéro?”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p>His unpopularity was, however, chiefly confined to the subjects of his sarcastic portraiture, and to the hack writers of the time, of whom he was wont to speak with a disdain only surpassed by that of Pope. His description of the <i>Mercure galant</i> as -“<i>immédiatement au dessous de rien</i>” is the best-remembered +“<i>immédiatement au dessous de rien</i>” is the best-remembered specimen of these unwise attacks; and would of itself account for the enmity of the editors, Fontenelle and the younger -Corneille. La Bruyère’s discourse of admission at the Academy, +Corneille. La Bruyère’s discourse of admission at the Academy, one of the best of its kind, was, like his admission itself, severely criticized, especially by the partisans of the “Moderns” in the -“Ancient and Modern” quarrel. With the <i>Caractères</i>, the +“Ancient and Modern” quarrel. With the <i>Caractères</i>, the translation of Theophrastus, and a few letters, most of them -addressed to the prince de Condé, it completes the list of his +addressed to the prince de Condé, it completes the list of his literary work, with the exception of a curious and much-disputed -posthumous treatise. La Bruyère died very suddenly, and not +posthumous treatise. La Bruyère died very suddenly, and not long after his admission to the Academy. He is said to have been struck with dumbness in an assembly of his friends, and, being -carried home to the Hôtel de Condé, to have expired of apoplexy +carried home to the Hôtel de Condé, to have expired of apoplexy a day or two afterwards, on the 10th of May 1696. It is not surprising that, considering the recent panic about poisoning, the bitter personal enmities which he had excited and the peculiar circumstances of his death, suspicions of foul play should have been entertained, but there was apparently no foundation for them. Two years after his death appeared certain <i>Dialogues sur -le Quiétisme</i>, alleged to have been found among his papers incomplete, +le Quiétisme</i>, alleged to have been found among his papers incomplete, and to have been completed by the editor. As these -dialogues are far inferior in literary merit to La Bruyère’s other +dialogues are far inferior in literary merit to La Bruyère’s other works, their genuineness has been denied. But the straightforward and circumstantial account of their appearance given -by this editor, the Abbé du Pin, a man of acknowledged probity, -the intimacy of La Bruyère with Bossuet, whose views in his -contest with Fénelon these dialogues are designed to further, +by this editor, the Abbé du Pin, a man of acknowledged probity, +the intimacy of La Bruyère with Bossuet, whose views in his +contest with Fénelon these dialogues are designed to further, and the entire absence, at so short a time after the alleged author’s death, of the least protest on the part of his friends and representatives, seem to be decisive in their favour.</p> <p>Although it is permissible to doubt whether the value of the -<i>Caractères</i> has not been somewhat exaggerated by traditional +<i>Caractères</i> has not been somewhat exaggerated by traditional French criticism, they deserve beyond all question a high place. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>31</span> The plan of the book is thoroughly original, if that term may be accorded to a novel and skilful combination of existing elements. The treatise of Theophrastus may have furnished the first idea, but it gave little more. With the ethical generalizations and -social Dutch painting of his original La Bruyère combined the -peculiarities of the Montaigne essay, of the <i>Pensées</i> and <i>Maximes</i> +social Dutch painting of his original La Bruyère combined the +peculiarities of the Montaigne essay, of the <i>Pensées</i> and <i>Maximes</i> of which Pascal and La Rochefoucauld are the masters respectively, and lastly of that peculiar 17th-century product, the “portrait” or elaborate literary picture of the personal and @@ -7433,7 +7395,7 @@ unlike anything that had been before seen, and it has not been exactly reproduced since, though the essay of Addison and Steele resembles it very closely, especially in the introduction of fancy portraits. In the titles of his work, and in its extreme desultoriness, -La Bruyère reminds the reader of Montaigne, but he aimed +La Bruyère reminds the reader of Montaigne, but he aimed too much at sententiousness to attempt even the apparent continuity of the great essayist. The short paragraphs of which his chapters consist are made up of maxims proper, of criticisms @@ -7447,10 +7409,10 @@ or more frequently exquisite pain to the originals, who were in many cases unmistakable and in most recognizable.</p> <p>But there is something wanting in them. The criticism of -Charpentier, who received La Bruyère at the Academy, and +Charpentier, who received La Bruyère at the Academy, and who was of the opposite faction, is in fact fully justified as far -as it goes. La Bruyère literally “est [trop] descendu dans le -particulier.” He has neither, like Molière, embodied abstract +as it goes. La Bruyère literally “est [trop] descendu dans le +particulier.” He has neither, like Molière, embodied abstract peculiarities in a single life-like type, nor has he, like Shakespeare, made the individual pass <i>sub speciem aeternitatis</i>, and serve as a type while retaining his individuality. He is a photographer @@ -7459,8 +7421,8 @@ admirably as they are expressed, and exact as their truth often is, are on a lower level than those of La Rochefoucauld. Beside the sculpturesque precision, the Roman brevity, the profoundness of ethical intuition “piercing to the accepted hells beneath,” -of the great Frondeur, La Bruyère has the air of a literary -<i>petit-maître</i> dressing up superficial observation in the finery +of the great Frondeur, La Bruyère has the air of a literary +<i>petit-maître</i> dressing up superficial observation in the finery of <i>esprit</i>. It is indeed only by comparison that he loses, but then it is by comparison that he is usually praised. His abundant wit and his personal “malice” have done much to give him his @@ -7476,15 +7438,15 @@ now that, in point of matter, “tout est dit.” It ought to be added to his credit that he was sensible of the folly of impoverishing French by ejecting old words. His chapter on “Les ouvrages de l’esprit” contains much good criticism, though it shows that, -like most of his contemporaries except Fénelon, he was lamentably +like most of his contemporaries except Fénelon, he was lamentably ignorant of the literature of his own tongue.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The editions of La Bruyère, both partial and complete, have been -extremely numerous. <i>Les Caractères de Théophraste traduits du -Grec, avec les caractères et les mœurs de ce siècle</i>, appeared for the +<p>The editions of La Bruyère, both partial and complete, have been +extremely numerous. <i>Les Caractères de Théophraste traduits du +Grec, avec les caractères et les mœurs de ce siècle</i>, appeared for the first time in 1688, being published by Michallet, to whose little -daughter, according to tradition, La Bruyère gave the profits of the +daughter, according to tradition, La Bruyère gave the profits of the book as a dowry. Two other editions, little altered, were published in the same year. In the following year, and in each year until 1694, with the exception of 1693, a fresh edition appeared, and, in all these @@ -7492,18 +7454,18 @@ five, additions, omissions and alterations were largely made. A ninth edition, not much altered, was put forth in the year of the author’s death. The Academy speech appeared in the eighth edition. The Quietist dialogues were published in 1699; most of the letters, -including those addressed to Condé, not till 1867. In recent times +including those addressed to Condé, not till 1867. In recent times numerous editions of the complete works have appeared, notably those of Walckenaer (1845), Servois (1867, in the series of <i>Grands -écrivains de la France</i>), Asselineau (a scholarly reprint of the last +écrivains de la France</i>), Asselineau (a scholarly reprint of the last original edition, 1872) and finally Chassang (1876); the last is one of the most generally useful, as the editor has collected almost everything of value in his predecessors. The literature of “keys” to -La Bruyère is extensive and apocryphal. Almost everything that +La Bruyère is extensive and apocryphal. Almost everything that can be done in this direction and in that of general illustration was -done by Edouard Fournier in his learned and amusing <i>Comédie de -La Bruyère</i> (1866); M. Paul Morillot contributed a monograph on -La Bruyère to the series of <i>Grands écrivains français</i> in 1904.</p> +done by Edouard Fournier in his learned and amusing <i>Comédie de +La Bruyère</i> (1866); M. Paul Morillot contributed a monograph on +La Bruyère to the series of <i>Grands écrivains français</i> in 1904.</p> </div> <div class="author">(G. Sa.)</div> @@ -7511,7 +7473,7 @@ La Bruyère to the series of <i>Grands écrivains français</i> in 1904.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LABUAN<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (a corruption of the Malay word <i>labuh-an</i>, signifying an “anchorage”), an island of the Malay Archipelago, off the -north-west coast of Borneo in 5° 16′ N., 115° 15′ E. Its area +north-west coast of Borneo in 5° 16′ N., 115° 15′ E. Its area is 30.23 sq. m.; it is distant about 6 m. from the mainland of Borneo at the nearest point, and lies opposite to the northern end of the great Brunei Bay. The island is covered with low @@ -7545,7 +7507,7 @@ been expended. It was succeeded by the Labuan Coalfields Ltd. The harbour is a fine one, and the above-named company possesses three wharves capable of berthing the largest Eastern-going ocean steamers. To-day Labuan chiefly exists as a trading -depôt for the natives of the neighbouring coast of Borneo, who +depôt for the natives of the neighbouring coast of Borneo, who sell their produce—beeswax, edible birds-nests, camphor, gutta, trepang, &c.,—to Chinese shopkeepers, who resell it in Singapore. There is also a considerable trade in sago, much of @@ -7606,7 +7568,7 @@ its introduction into England appears to be unknown. In France it is called <i>l’aubour</i>—a corruption from laburnum according to Du Hamel—as also <i>arbois</i>, <i>i.e.</i> <i>arc-bois</i>, “the wood having been used by the ancient Gauls for bows. It -is still so employed in some parts of the Mâconnois, where the +is still so employed in some parts of the Mâconnois, where the bows are found to preserve their strength and elasticity for half a century” (Loudon, <i>Arboretum</i>, ii. 590).</p> @@ -7669,7 +7631,7 @@ four famous labyrinths of antiquity.</p> <p>1. The Egyptian: of which a description is given by Herodotus (ii. 148) and Strabo (xvii. 811). It was situated to the east of -Lake Moeris, opposite the ancient site of Arsinoë or Crocodilopolis. +Lake Moeris, opposite the ancient site of Arsinoë or Crocodilopolis. According to Egyptologists, the word means “the temple at the entrance of the lake.” According to Herodotus, the entire building, surrounded by a single wall, contained twelve @@ -7690,7 +7652,7 @@ its foundation, the extent of which is about 1000 ft. long by 800 ft. wide. Immediately to the north of it is the pyramid of Hawara, in which the mummies of the king and his daughter have been found (see W. M. Flinders Petrie, <i>Hawara, Biahmu, -and Arsinoë</i>, 1889).</p> +and Arsinoë</i>, 1889).</p> <p>2. The Cretan: said to have been built by Daedalus on the plan of the Egyptian, and famous for its connexion with the @@ -7727,13 +7689,13 @@ the ground or pavement, to some extent anticipating the modern or garden maze.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>On the Egyptian labyrinth see A. Wiedemann, <i>Ägyptische Geschichte</i> +<p>On the Egyptian labyrinth see A. Wiedemann, <i>Ägyptische Geschichte</i> (1884), p. 258, and his edition of the second book of -Herodotus (1890); on the Cretan, C. Höck, <i>Kreta</i> (1823-1829), and +Herodotus (1890); on the Cretan, C. Höck, <i>Kreta</i> (1823-1829), and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>33</span> A. J. Evans in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>; on the subject generally, articles in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i> and Daremberg and -Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p> +Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p> </div> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -7828,7 +7790,7 @@ the hedge from first to last, going round all the stops.</p> <p>The maze in the gardens at Somerleyton Hall, near Lowestoft (fig. 5), was designed by Mr John Thomas. The hedges are of English -yew, are about 6½ ft. high, and have been planted about sixty years. +yew, are about 6½ ft. high, and have been planted about sixty years. In the centre is a grass mound, raised to the height of the hedges, and on this mound is a pagoda, approached by a curved grass path. At the two corners on the western side are banks of laurels 15 or 16 ft. @@ -7947,10 +7909,10 @@ as <i>Mikrogromia</i>.</p> <p>See Cienkowsky, <i>Archiv f. Microscopische Anatomie</i>, iii. 274 (1867), xii. 44 (1876); W. Archer, <i>Quart. Jour. Microscopic Science</i>, xv. 107 (1875); E. R. Lankester, <i>Ibid.</i>, xxxix., 233 (1896); Hieronymus and -Jenkinson, <i>Ibid.</i>, xiii. 89 (1899); W. Zopf, <i>Beiträge zur Physiologie +Jenkinson, <i>Ibid.</i>, xiii. 89 (1899); W. Zopf, <i>Beiträge zur Physiologie und Morphologie niederer Organismen</i>, ii. 36 (1892), iv. 60 (1894); -Pènard, <i>Archiv für Protistenkunde</i>, iv. 296 (1904); F. Schaudinn -and Leyden, <i>Sitzungsberichte der Königlich preussischen Akademie +Pènard, <i>Archiv für Protistenkunde</i>, iv. 296 (1904); F. Schaudinn +and Leyden, <i>Sitzungsberichte der Königlich preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaft</i>, vi. (1896).</p> </div> @@ -8015,8 +7977,8 @@ although not identical with, cochineal.</p> <p><span class="bold">LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1713-1762), French astronomer, was born at Rumigny, in the Ardennes, on the 15th of March 1713. Left destitute by the death of his father, who held -a post in the household of the duchess of Vendôme, his theological -studies at the Collège de Lisieux in Paris were prosecuted at the +a post in the household of the duchess of Vendôme, his theological +studies at the Collège de Lisieux in Paris were prosecuted at the expense of the duke of Bourbon. After he had taken deacon’s orders, however, he devoted himself exclusively to science, and, through the patronage of J. Cassini, obtained employment, @@ -8051,26 +8013,26 @@ a standard catalogue of 398 stars, re-edited by F. Baily (<i>Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society</i>, v. 93); Tabulae Solares (1758); <i>Coelum australe stelliferum</i> (1763) (edited by J. D. Maraldi), giving zone-observations of 10,000 stars, and describing fourteen new constellations; -“Observations sur 515 étoiles du Zodiaque” (published in t. -vi. of his <i>Éphémérides</i>, 1763); <i>Leçons élémentaires de Mathématiques</i> -(1741), frequently reprinted; ditto <i>de Mécanique</i> (1743), &c.; ditto +“Observations sur 515 étoiles du Zodiaque” (published in t. +vi. of his <i>Éphémérides</i>, 1763); <i>Leçons élémentaires de Mathématiques</i> +(1741), frequently reprinted; ditto <i>de Mécanique</i> (1743), &c.; ditto <i>d’Astronomie</i> (1746), 4th edition augmented by Lalande (1779); ditto <i>d’Optique</i> (1750), &c. Calculations by him of eclipses for eighteen -hundred years were inserted in <i>L’Art de vérifier les dates</i> (1750); he +hundred years were inserted in <i>L’Art de vérifier les dates</i> (1750); he communicated to the Academy in 1755 a classed catalogue of forty-two -southern nebulae, and gave in t. ii. of his <i>Éphémérides</i> (1755) +southern nebulae, and gave in t. ii. of his <i>Éphémérides</i> (1755) practical rules for the employment of the lunar method of longitudes, -proposing in his additions to Pierre Bouguer’s <i>Traité de Navigation</i> +proposing in his additions to Pierre Bouguer’s <i>Traité de Navigation</i> (1760) the model of a nautical almanac.</p> -<p>See G. de Fouchy, “Éloge de Lacaille,” <i>Hist. de l’Acad. des Sciences</i>, +<p>See G. de Fouchy, “Éloge de Lacaille,” <i>Hist. de l’Acad. des Sciences</i>, p. 197 (1762); G. Brotier, Preface to Lacaille’s <i>Coelum australe</i>; Claude Carlier, <i>Discours historique</i>, prefixed to Lacaille’s <i>Journal historique du voyage fait au Cap</i> (1763); J. J. Lalande, <i>Connoissance des temps</i>, p. 185 (1767); <i>Bibl. astr.</i> pp. 422, 456, 461, 482; J. -Delambre, <i>Hist. de l’astr. au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, pp. 457-542; J. S. Bailly, +Delambre, <i>Hist. de l’astr. au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, pp. 457-542; J. S. Bailly, <i>Hist. de l’astr. moderne</i>, tomes ii., iii., <i>passim</i>; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. -Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>; R. Grant, <i>Hist. of Physical Astronomy</i>, pp. +Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>; R. Grant, <i>Hist. of Physical Astronomy</i>, pp. 486, &c.; R. Wolf, <i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i>. A catalogue of 9766 stars, reduced from Lacaille’s observations by T. Henderson, under the supervision of F. Baily, was published in London in 1847.</p> @@ -8158,7 +8120,7 @@ d’Afrique</i>—who owned the concession for the fishery was suppressed in 1798 on the outbreak of war between France and Algeria. In 1806 the British consul-general at Algiers obtained the right to occupy Bona and La Calle for an annual -rent of £11,000; but though the money was paid for several +rent of £11,000; but though the money was paid for several years no practical effect was given to the agreement. The French regained possession in 1817, were expelled during the wars of 1827, when La Calle was burnt, but returned and rebuilt @@ -8169,22 +8131,22 @@ vessels away. For some years the industry was abandoned, but was restarted on a small scale in 1903.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Abbé Poiret, <i>Voyage en Barbarie</i> ... (Paris, 1789); E. +<p>See Abbé Poiret, <i>Voyage en Barbarie</i> ... (Paris, 1789); E. Broughton, <i>Six Years’ Residence in Algiers</i> (London, 1839) and Sir R. L. Playfair, <i>Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce</i> (London, 1877).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA CALPRENÈDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur de</span> +<p><span class="bold">LA CALPRENÈDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur de</span> (<i>c.</i> 1610-1663), French novelist and dramatist, was born at the -Château of Tolgou, near Sarlat (Dordogne), in 1609 or 1610. +Château of Tolgou, near Sarlat (Dordogne), in 1609 or 1610. After studying at Toulouse, he came to Paris and entered the regiment of the guards, becoming in 1650 gentleman-in-ordinary of the royal household. He died in 1663 in consequence of a kick from his horse. He was the author of several long heroic romances ridiculed by Boileau. They are: <i>Cassandre</i> (10 vols., -1642-1650); <i>Cléopatre</i> (1648); <i>Faramond</i> (1661); and <i>Les +1642-1650); <i>Cléopatre</i> (1648); <i>Faramond</i> (1661); and <i>Les Nouvelles, ou les Divertissements de la princesse Alcidiane</i> (1661) published under his wife’s name, but generally attributed to him. His plays lack the spirit and force that occasionally redeem @@ -8210,8 +8172,8 @@ agricultural experiment station, known as “Government Farm.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LACCADIVE ISLANDS,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a group of coral reefs and islands in -the Indian Ocean, lying between 10° and 12° 20′ N. and 71° -40′ and 74° E. The name Laccadives (<i>laksha dwipa</i>, the “hundred +the Indian Ocean, lying between 10° and 12° 20′ N. and 71° +40′ and 74° E. The name Laccadives (<i>laksha dwipa</i>, the “hundred thousand isles”) is that given by the people of the Malabar coast, and was probably meant to include the Maldives; they are called by the natives simply <i>Divi</i>, “islands,” or <i>Amendivi</i>, @@ -8261,13 +8223,13 @@ industry is the manufacture of coir. The various processes are entrusted to the women. The men employ themselves with boatbuilding and in conveying the island produce to the coast. The exports from the Laccadives are of the annual -value of about £17,000.</p> +value of about £17,000.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><i>History</i>.—No data exist for determining at what period the Laccadives were first colonized. The earliest mention of them as -distinguished from the Maldives seems to be by Albírúní (<i>c.</i> 1030), -who divides the whole archipelago (Díbaját) into the <i>Dívah Kúzah</i> +distinguished from the Maldives seems to be by AlbÃrúnà (<i>c.</i> 1030), +who divides the whole archipelago (DÃbaját) into the <i>DÃvah Kúzah</i> or Cowrie Islands (the Maldives), and the <i>Divah Kanbar</i> or Coir Islands (the Laccadives). (See <i>Journ. Asiat. Soc.</i>, September 1844, p. 265). The islanders were converted to Islam by an Arab apostle @@ -8499,7 +8461,7 @@ labour as was capable of being converted into lace-making. And from the 16th century onwards the stimulus to the industry in Europe was afforded by regular trade demand, coupled with the exertions of those who encouraged their dependents or -protegés to give their spare time to remunerative home occupations. +protegés to give their spare time to remunerative home occupations. Thus the origin and perpetuation of the industry have come to be associated with the women folk of peasants and fishermen in circumstances which present little dissimilarity @@ -8508,7 +8470,7 @@ whitewashed cottages and cabins at Youghal and Kenmare in the south of Ireland, or those who produced their “punti in aria” during the 16th century about the lagoons of Venice, or Frenchwomen who made the sumptuous “Points de France” at -Alençon and elsewhere in the 17th and 18th centuries; or pillow +Alençon and elsewhere in the 17th and 18th centuries; or pillow lace workers to be seen at the present day at little seaside villages tucked away in Devonshire dells, or those who were engaged more than four hundred years ago in “merletti a piombini” in @@ -8628,7 +8590,7 @@ Dornach (Alsace), and Paris</i>.)</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"> <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.—Portion of a Flounce of Needlepoint Lace, French, early 18th century, “Point de France.” The honeycomb ground is considered to be a peculiarity of “Point d’Argentan”: some of the -fillings are made in the manner of the “Point d’Alençon” <i>réseau</i>.</td></tr></table> +fillings are made in the manner of the “Point d’Alençon” <i>réseau</i>.</td></tr></table> <p>France and England were not far behind Venice and Flanders in making needle and pillow lace. Henry III. of France (1574-1589) @@ -8641,8 +8603,8 @@ of the French art of lace-making was the aid officially given it in the following century by Louis XIV., acting on the advice of his minister Colbert. Intrigue and diplomacy were put into action to secure the services of Venetian lace-workers; and by -an edict dated 1665 the lace-making centres at Alençon, Quesnoy, -Arras, Reims, Sedan, Château Thierry, Loudun and elsewhere +an edict dated 1665 the lace-making centres at Alençon, Quesnoy, +Arras, Reims, Sedan, Château Thierry, Loudun and elsewhere were selected for the operations of a company in aid of which the state made a contribution of 36,000 francs; at the same time the importation of Venetian, Flemish and other laces was @@ -8656,7 +8618,7 @@ is the minister Colbert on his way to bring the ‘lavori d’aria&rsquo perfection.” Six years later an Italian, Domenigo Contarini, alludes to the “punto in aria,” “which the French can now do to admiration.” The styles of design which emanated from -the chief of the French lace centre, Alençon, were more fanciful +the chief of the French lace centre, Alençon, were more fanciful and less severe than the Venetian, and it is evident that the Flemish lace-makers later on adopted many of these French patterns for their own use. The provision of French designs @@ -8708,7 +8670,7 @@ to in Spanish ordinances of the 15th, 16th or 17th centuries, but traditions which throw its origin back to the Moors or Saracens are still current in Seville and its neighbourhood, where a twisted and knotted arrangement of fine cords is often worked<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> -under the name of “Morisco” fringe, elsewhere called macramé +under the name of “Morisco” fringe, elsewhere called macramé lace. Black and white silk pillow laces, or “blondes,” date from the 18th century. They were made in considerable quantity in the neighbourhood of Chantilly, and imported for mantillas @@ -8763,7 +8725,7 @@ rate of wages. The production of hand-made laces in Belgium was in 1900 greater than that of France. The principal modern needle-made lace of Belgium is the “Point de Gaze”; “Duchesse” and Bruges laces are the chief pillow-made laces; -whilst “Point Appliqué” and “Plat Appliqué” are frequently +whilst “Point Appliqué” and “Plat Appliqué” are frequently the results not only of combining needle-made and pillow work, but also of using them in conjunction with machine-made net. Ireland is the best producer of that substantial looped-thread @@ -8835,7 +8797,7 @@ pseudo-blossoms and leafs are specially characteristic.</td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:411px; height:554px" src="images/img40h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—MME VERBIEST, WEARING PILLOW-MADE -LACE <i>À RÉSEAU</i>.</td></tr> +LACE <i>À RÉSEAU</i>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption">From the family group by <span class="sc">Gonzales Coquer</span>. Buckingham Palace. About 1664.</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption">(<i>By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., @@ -8843,7 +8805,7 @@ Dornach (Alsace), and Paris</i>.)</td></tr> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:402px; height:508px" src="images/img40j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—PIECE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE USUALLY -KNOWN AS “POINT DE FLANDRES À BRIDES.”</td></tr> +KNOWN AS “POINT DE FLANDRES À BRIDES.”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90">Of the middle of the 17th century, the designs for which were often adaptations from those made for such needlepoint lace as that of the Jabot in fig. 12.</td></tr></table> @@ -8859,7 +8821,7 @@ THAT IN FIG. 17. Dated 1695.</td></tr> (<i>Photo by Emery Walker</i>.)</td></tr> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:303px" src="images/img40k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—FLOUNCE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE <i>À RÉSEAU</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—FLOUNCE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE <i>À RÉSEAU</i>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90">Flemish, of the middle of the 17th century. This lace is usually thought to be the earliest type of “Point d’Angleterre” in contradistinction to the “Point de Flandres” (fig. 14).</td></tr> @@ -8928,10 +8890,10 @@ time were developed. But it was the application of the celebrated Jacquard apparatus to such machines that enabled manufacturers to produce all sorts of patterns in thread-work in imitation of the patterns for hand-made lace. A French -machine called the “dentellière” was devised (see La Nature +machine called the “dentellière” was devised (see La Nature for the 3rd of March 1881), and the patterns produced by it were of plaited threads. The expense, however, attending the -production of plaited lace by the “dentellière” is as great as +production of plaited lace by the “dentellière” is as great as that of pillow lace made by the hand, and so the machine has not succeeded for ordinary trade purposes. More successful results have been secured by the new patent circular lace machine @@ -8959,9 +8921,9 @@ with clusters of small loops. For the most part all this elaboration was brought to a high pitch of variety and finish by French designers and workers; and French terms are more usual in speaking of details in laces. Thus the solid part of the pattern -is called the <i>toilé</i> or clothing, the links or ties are called <i>brides</i>, -the meshed grounds are called <i>réseaux</i>, the outline to the edges -of a pattern is called <i>cordonnet</i> or <i>brodé</i>, the insertions of +is called the <i>toilé</i> or clothing, the links or ties are called <i>brides</i>, +the meshed grounds are called <i>réseaux</i>, the outline to the edges +of a pattern is called <i>cordonnet</i> or <i>brodé</i>, the insertions of fanciful devices <i>modes</i>, the little loops <i>picots</i>. These terms are applicable to the various portions of laces made with the needle, on the pillow or by the machine.</p> @@ -8971,12 +8933,12 @@ referring to figs. 1 to 23) is roughly as follows. From about 1540 to 1590 they were composed of geometric forms set within squares, or of crossed and radiating line devices, resulting in a very open fabric, stiff and almost wiry in effect, without -<i>brides</i> or <i>réseaux</i>. From 1590 may be dated the introduction +<i>brides</i> or <i>réseaux</i>. From 1590 may be dated the introduction into patterns of very conventional floral and even human and animal forms and slender scrolls, rendered in a tape-like texture, held together by <i>brides</i>. To the period from 1620 to 1670 belongs the development of long continuous scroll patterns -with <i>réseaux</i> and <i>brides</i>, accompanied in the case of needle-made +with <i>réseaux</i> and <i>brides</i>, accompanied in the case of needle-made laces with an elaboration of details, <i>e.g.</i> <i>cordonnet</i> with massings of <i>picots</i>. Much of these laces enriched with fillings or <i>modes</i> was made at this time. From 1650 to 1700 the scroll @@ -8986,7 +8948,7 @@ important schemes or designs were made (as in Pl. fig. 19, and in fig. 24 in text), into which were introduced naturalistic renderings of garlands, flowers, birds, trophies, architectural ornament and human figures. Grounds composed entirely -of varieties of <i>modes</i> as in the case of the <i>réseau rosacé</i> (Pl. V. +of varieties of <i>modes</i> as in the case of the <i>réseau rosacé</i> (Pl. V. fig. 21) were sometimes made then. From 1760 to 1800 small details consisting of bouquets, sprays of flowers, single flowers, leaves, buds, spots and such like were adopted, and sprinkled @@ -9011,13 +8973,13 @@ thread pattern (see left-hand part of fig. 30). Those portions which are to be represented as -the “clothing” or <i>toilé</i> +the “clothing” or <i>toilé</i> are usually worked as indicated in the enlarged diagram (fig. 29), and then edged as a rule with buttonhole stitching (fig. 28). -Between these <i>toilé</i> portions of the pattern are worked ties -(<i>brides</i>) or meshes (<i>réseaux</i>), and thus the various parts united into +Between these <i>toilé</i> portions of the pattern are worked ties +(<i>brides</i>) or meshes (<i>réseaux</i>), and thus the various parts united into one fabric are wrought on to the face of the parchment pattern and reproducing it (see right-hand part of fig. 30). A knife is <span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>42</span> @@ -9062,16 +9024,16 @@ appears capable of being put in making ornaments. But about 1660 came laces with <i>brides</i> or ties arranged in a honeycomb reticulation or regular ground. To them succeeded lace in which the compact relief gave place to daintier and lighter -material combined with a ground of meshes or <i>réseau</i>. The +material combined with a ground of meshes or <i>réseau</i>. The needle-made meshes were sometimes of single and sometimes of double threads. A diagram is given of an ordinary method of making such meshes (fig. 31). At the end of the 17th century the lightest of the Venetian needlepoint laces were made; and this class which was of the filmiest texture is usually -known as “point de Venise à réseau” +known as “point de Venise à réseau” (Pl. V. fig. 20<i>a</i>). It was contemporary -with the needle-made French laces of Alençon +with the needle-made French laces of Alençon and Argentan<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> that became famous towards the latter part of the 17th century (Pl. V. fig. 20<i>b</i>). “Point d’Argentan” has been thought to @@ -9079,28 +9041,28 @@ be especially distinguished on account of its delicate honeycomb ground of hexagonally arranged <i>brides</i> (fig. 32), a peculiarity already referred to in certain antecedent Venetian point laces. Often intermixed with this hexagonal <i>brides</i> ground is the fine-meshed -ground or <i>réseau</i> (fig. 20<i>b</i>), which has been held to be -distinctive of “point d’Alençon.” But the styles of patterns +ground or <i>réseau</i> (fig. 20<i>b</i>), which has been held to be +distinctive of “point d’Alençon.” But the styles of patterns and the methods of working them, with rich variety of insertions -or <i>modes</i>, with the <i>brodé</i> or <i>cordonnet</i> of raised buttonhole stitched -edging, are alike in Argentan and Alençon needle-made laces +or <i>modes</i>, with the <i>brodé</i> or <i>cordonnet</i> of raised buttonhole stitched +edging, are alike in Argentan and Alençon needle-made laces (Pl. V. fig. 20<i>b</i> and fig. 32). Besides the hexagonal <i>brides</i> ground and the ground of meshes another variety of grounding -(<i>réseau rosacé</i>) was used in certain Alençon designs. This ground +(<i>réseau rosacé</i>) was used in certain Alençon designs. This ground consisted of buttonhole-stitched skeleton hexagons within each -of which was worked a small hexagon of <i>toilé</i> connected with the +of which was worked a small hexagon of <i>toilé</i> connected with the outer surrounding hexagon by means of six little ties or <i>brides</i> (Pl. V. fig. 21). Lace with this particular ground has been called “Argentella,” and some writers have thought that it was a specialty of Genoese or Venetian work. But the character of the work and the style of the floral patterns are those of -Alençon laces. The industry at Argentan was virtually an offshoot -of that nurtured at Alençon, where “lacis,” “cut work” -and “vélin” (work on parchment) had been made for years -before the well-developed needle-made “point d’Alençon” +Alençon laces. The industry at Argentan was virtually an offshoot +of that nurtured at Alençon, where “lacis,” “cut work” +and “vélin” (work on parchment) had been made for years +before the well-developed needle-made “point d’Alençon” came into vogue under the favouring patronage of the state-aided lace company mentioned as having been formed in 1665. -Madame Despierre in her <i>Histoire du point d’Alençon</i> gives an +Madame Despierre in her <i>Histoire du point d’Alençon</i> gives an interesting and trustworthy account of the industry.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -9112,7 +9074,7 @@ France made at Argentan.</td></tr></table> <p>In Belgium, Brussels has acquired some celebrity for needle-made laces. These, however, are chiefly in imitation of those -made at Alençon, but the <i>toilé</i> is of less compact texture and +made at Alençon, but the <i>toilé</i> is of less compact texture and sharpness in definition of pattern. Brussels needlepoint lace is often worked with meshed grounds made on a pillow, and a plain thread is used as a <i>cordonnet</i> for their patterns instead of a thread @@ -9139,7 +9101,7 @@ DESIGN SHOWN IN FIG. 19. About 1730.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.—PORTION OF FLOUNCE, NEEDLEPOINT LACE COPIED AT THE BURANO LACE SCHOOL FROM THE ORIGINAL OF THE SO-CALLED “POINT DE VENISE -À BRIDES PICOTÉES.”</td></tr> +À BRIDES PICOTÉES.”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90">17th century. Formerly belonging to Pope Clement XIII., but now the property of the queen of Italy. The design and work, however, are indistinguishable from those of important flounces of @@ -9147,7 +9109,7 @@ however, are indistinguishable from those of important flounces of vertically-arranged groups of fantastic pine-apples and vases with flowers, intermixed with bold rococo bands and large leaf devices. The hexagonal meshes of the ground, although similar to the -Venetian “brides picotées,” are much akin to the buttonhole +Venetian “brides picotées,” are much akin to the buttonhole stitched ground of “Point d’Argentan.” (Victoria and Albert Museum.)</td></tr></table> </td> @@ -9156,18 +9118,18 @@ Museum.)</td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:924px" src="images/img42g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="scs">A</span>    <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.    <span class="scs">B</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="scs">A</span>.—A LAPPET OF “POINT DE VENISE À RÉSEAU.”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="scs">A</span>.—A LAPPET OF “POINT DE VENISE À RÉSEAU.”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90">The conventional character of the pseudo-leaf and floral forms contrasts with that of the realistic designs of contemporary French laces. Italian. Early 18th century.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption pt1"><span class="scs">B</span>.—A LAPPET OF FINE “POINT D’ALENÇON.”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption pt1"><span class="scs">B</span>.—A LAPPET OF FINE “POINT D’ALENÇON.”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90">Louis XV. period. The variety of the fillings of geometric design is particularly remarkable in this specimen, as is the buttonhole stitched cordonnat or outline to the various ornamental forms.</td></tr> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:114px" src="images/img42h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.—BORDER OF FRENCH NEEDLEPOINT LACE, -WITH GROUND OF “RÉSEAU ROSACÉ.” 18th century.</td></tr></table> +WITH GROUND OF “RÉSEAU ROSACÉ.” 18th century.</td></tr></table> </td></tr></table> <p class="pt2 noind f90"><span class="sc">Plate VI</span>.</p> @@ -9196,7 +9158,7 @@ to the study of designs for it. The lace-making school at Burano near Venice produces hand-made laces which are, to a great extent, careful reproductions of the more celebrated classes of point laces, such as “punto in aria,” “rose point de Venise,” “point de -Venise à réseau,” “point d’Alençon,” “point d’Argentan” +Venise à réseau,” “point d’Alençon,” “point d’Argentan” and others. Some good needlepoint lace is made in Bohemia and elsewhere in the Austrian empire.</p> @@ -9289,7 +9251,7 @@ in the Style of a Mechlin design of the latter part of the 18th century.</td></t <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:156px" src="images/img43e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 38—Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, from a design -similar to such as was used for point d’Alençon of the Louis XV. +similar to such as was used for point d’Alençon of the Louis XV. period.</td></tr></table> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -9301,7 +9263,7 @@ middle of the 17th century, patterns and particular plaitings came to be identified with certain localities. Mechlin, for instance, enjoyed a high reputation for her productions. The chief technical features of this pillow lace lie in the plaiting of -the meshes, and the outlining of the clothing or <i>toilé</i> with a +the meshes, and the outlining of the clothing or <i>toilé</i> with a thread <i>cordonnet</i>. The ordinary Mechlin mesh is hexagonal in shape. Four of the sides are of double twisted threads, two @@ -9318,7 +9280,7 @@ are of four threads plaited four times lace are remarkable for the fidelity and grace with which the botanical forms in many of its patterns are rendered (Pl. VI. fig. 23). These are mainly reproductions or -adaptations of designs for point d’Alençon, and the soft quality +adaptations of designs for point d’Alençon, and the soft quality imparted to them in the texture of pillow-made lace contrasts with the harder and more crisp appearance in needlepoint <span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>44</span> @@ -9341,23 +9303,23 @@ of which consist in part of slightly raised <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:523px" src="images/img44c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 42.—Portion of a Wedding Veil, 7 ft. 6 in. × 6 ft. 6 in., of +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 42.—Portion of a Wedding Veil, 7 ft. 6 in. × 6 ft. 6 in., of Pillow-made Lace, Brussels, late 18th century. The design consists of light leafy garlands of orange blossoms and other flowers daintily festooned. Little feathery spirals and stars are powdered over the -ground, which is of Brussels <i>vrai réseau</i>. In the centre upon a more +ground, which is of Brussels <i>vrai réseau</i>. In the centre upon a more open ground of pillow-made hexagonal <i>brides</i> is a group of two birds, one flying towards the other which appears ready to take wing from its nest; an oval frame containing two hearts pierced by an arrow, and a hymeneal torch. Throughout this veil is a profusion of pillow -renderings of various <i>modes</i>, the <i>réseau rosacé</i>, star devices, &c. The +renderings of various <i>modes</i>, the <i>réseau rosacé</i>, star devices, &c. The ornamental devices are partly applied and partly worked into the ground (Victoria and Albert Museum).</td></tr></table> <p class="pt2">Honiton pillow lace resembles Brussels lace, but in most of the English pillow laces (Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, -Bedfordshire) the <i>réseau</i> is of a simple +Bedfordshire) the <i>réseau</i> is of a simple character (fig. 43). As a rule, English lace is made with a rather coarser thread than that used in the older Flemish @@ -9396,7 +9358,7 @@ Valenciennes, about 1750. The peculiarity of Valenciennes lace is the filmy cambric-like texture and the absence of any cordonnet to define the separate parts of the ornament such as is used in needlepoint lace -of Alençon, and in pillow Mechlin and Brussels lace.</td></tr></table> +of Alençon, and in pillow Mechlin and Brussels lace.</td></tr></table> <p class="pt2"><i>Guipure</i>.—This name is often applied to needlepoint and pillow laces in which the ground consists of ties or <i>brides</i>, but @@ -9544,7 +9506,7 @@ both warp and weft threads compress the twistings. Thus the texture of the clothing or -<i>toilé</i> in machine-made lace may generally be detected by +<i>toilé</i> in machine-made lace may generally be detected by its ribbed appearance, due to the compressed twisted threads. Figs. 47 and 48 are intended to show effects obtained by varying the tensions of weft and warp threads. For instance, @@ -9600,7 +9562,7 @@ very fine gauge machines, thus enabling a very close imitation of the real lace to be made by securing a very -open and clear <i>réseau</i> or net, +open and clear <i>réseau</i> or net, such as would be made on a coarse machine, and at the same time to keep the pattern fine and solid and standing out well from the net, as is the case with the @@ -9666,7 +9628,7 @@ Needlepoint Lace, “Gros point de Venise.”</td></tr></table> <p>Collections of hand-made lace chiefly exist in museums and technical institutions, as for instance the Victoria and Albert -Museum in London, the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris, and +Museum in London, the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris, and museums at Lyons, Nuremberg, Berlin, Turin and elsewhere. In such places the opportunity is presented of tracing in chronological sequence the stages of pattern and texture development.</p> @@ -9687,8 +9649,8 @@ essays upon the same subject to the <i>Gazette des Beaux-Arts</i> A. Merli wrote a pamphlet (with illustrations) entitled <i>Origine ed uso delle trine a filo di rete</i>; Mons F. de Fertiault compiled a brief and rather fanciful <i>Histoire de la dentelle</i> in 1843, in which he reproduced -statements to be found in Diderot’s <i>Encyclopédie</i>, subsequently -quoted by Roland de la Platière. The first <i>Report of the Department +statements to be found in Diderot’s <i>Encyclopédie</i>, subsequently +quoted by Roland de la Platière. The first <i>Report of the Department of Practical Art</i> (1853) contains a “Report on Cotton Print Works and Lace-Making” by Octavius Hudson, and in the first <i>Report of the Department of Science and Art</i> are some “Observations on Lace.” @@ -9732,27 +9694,27 @@ Layard, and published at Venice by Signor Ongania. The <i>History of Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufacture</i> (London, 1867), by Felkin, has already been referred to. There is also a technological essay upon lace made by machinery, with diagrams of lace stitches -and patterns (<i>Technologische Studien im sächsischen Erzgebirge</i>, +and patterns (<i>Technologische Studien im sächsischen Erzgebirge</i>, Leipzig, 1878), by Hugo Fischer. In 1886 the Libraire Renouard, -Paris, published a <i>History of Point d’Alençon</i>, written by Madame +Paris, published a <i>History of Point d’Alençon</i>, written by Madame G. Despierres, which gives a close and interesting account of the industry, together with a list, compiled from local records, of makers and dealers from 1602 onwards.—<i>Embroidery and Lace: their manufacture and history from the remotest antiquity to the present day</i>, by -Ernest Lefebure, lace-maker and administrator of the École des Arts -Décoratifs, translated and enlarged with notes by Alan S. Cole, was +Ernest Lefebure, lace-maker and administrator of the École des Arts +Décoratifs, translated and enlarged with notes by Alan S. Cole, was published in London in 1888. It is a well-illustrated handbook for amateurs, collectors and general readers.—Irish laces made from modern designs are illustrated in a <i>Renascence of the Irish Art of Lace-making</i>, published in 1888 (London).—<i>Anciennes Dentelles belges formant la collection de feue madame Augusta Baronne Liedts et -données au Musée de Grunthuis à Bruges</i>, published at Antwerp in +données au Musée de Grunthuis à Bruges</i>, published at Antwerp in 1889, consists of a folio volume containing upwards of 181 phototypes—many full size—of fine specimens of lace. The ascriptions of country and date of origin are occasionally inaccurate, on account of a too obvious desire to credit Bruges with being the birthplace of all sorts of lace-work, much of which shown in this work is distinctly -Italian in style.—The <i>Encyclopaedia of Needlework</i>, by Thérèse de +Italian in style.—The <i>Encyclopaedia of Needlework</i>, by Thérèse de Dillmont-Dornach (Alsace, 1891), is a detailed guide to several kinds of embroidery, knitting, crochet, tatting, netting and most of the essential stitches for needlepoint lace. It is well illustrated with @@ -9768,8 +9730,8 @@ of Italian, Flemish, French and English laces, as well as with magnified details of lace, enabling any one to identify the plaits, the twists and loops of threads in the actual making of the fabric.—<i>L’Industrie</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>48</span> -<i>des tulles et dentelles mécaniques dans le Pas de Calais</i>, 1815-1900, -by Henri Hénon (Paris, 1900), is an important volume of over 600 +<i>des tulles et dentelles mécaniques dans le Pas de Calais</i>, 1815-1900, +by Henri Hénon (Paris, 1900), is an important volume of over 600 pages of letterpress, interspersed with abundant process blocks of the several kinds of machine nets and laces made at Calais since 1815. It opens with a short account of the Arras hand-made laces, the production @@ -9778,19 +9740,19 @@ benefit of a public subscription towards the erection of a statue in Calais to Jacquard, the inventor of the apparatus by means of which all figured textile fabrics are manufactured. It is of some interest to note that machine net and lace-making at Calais owe their origin to -Englishmen, amongst whom “le sieur R. Webster arrivé à St Pierre-les-Calais -en Décembre, 1816, venant d’Angleterre, est l’un des -premiers qui ont établi dans la communauté une fabrique de tulles,” +Englishmen, amongst whom “le sieur R. Webster arrivé à St Pierre-les-Calais +en Décembre, 1816, venant d’Angleterre, est l’un des +premiers qui ont établi dans la communauté une fabrique de tulles,” &c. <i>Lace-making in the Midlands: Past and Present</i>, by C. C. Channer and M. E. Roberts (London, 1900) upon the lace-making industry in Buckinghamshire, <span class="correction" title="amended from Bedforshire">Bedfordshire</span> and Northamptonshire contains many illustrations of laces made in these counties from the -17th century to the present time. <i>Musée rétrospectif. Dentelles à -l’exposition universelle internationale de 1900 à Paris. Rapport de +17th century to the present time. <i>Musée rétrospectif. Dentelles à +l’exposition universelle internationale de 1900 à Paris. Rapport de Mons. E. Lefebvre</i> contains several good illustrations, especially of important specimens of Point de France of the 17th and 18th centuries. <i>Le Point de France et les autres dentelliers au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> et au -XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i>, by Madame Laurence de Laprade (Paris, 1905), brings +XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i>, by Madame Laurence de Laprade (Paris, 1905), brings together much hitherto scattered information throwing light upon operations in many localities in France where the industry has been carried on for considerable periods. The book is well and usefully @@ -9814,7 +9776,7 @@ during the 16th century is marked by the number of pattern-books then published. In Venice a work of this class was issued by Alessandro Pagannino in 1527; another of a similar nature, printed by Pierre Quinty, appeared in the same year at Cologne; and La -<i>Fleur de la science de pourtraicture et patrons de broderie, façon arabicque +<i>Fleur de la science de pourtraicture et patrons de broderie, façon arabicque et ytalique</i>, was published at Paris in 1530. From these early dates until the beginning of the 17th century pattern-books for embroidery in Italy, France, Germany and England were published in great @@ -9827,18 +9789,18 @@ none but practised lace-workers, such as those who arose a century later, could be expected to undertake.</p> <p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A very complete account of how these conditions began and -developed at Alençon, for instance, is given in Madame Despierre’s -<i>Histoire du Point d’Alençon</i> (1886) to which is appended an interesting +developed at Alençon, for instance, is given in Madame Despierre’s +<i>Histoire du Point d’Alençon</i> (1886) to which is appended an interesting and annotated list of merchants, designers and makers of Point -d’Alençon.</p> +d’Alençon.</p> -<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> The family of Camusat at Alençon from 1602 until 1795.</p> +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> The family of Camusat at Alençon from 1602 until 1795.</p> <p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The picture, however, as Seguin has pointed out, was probably painted some thirty years later, and by Jean Matsys.</p> -<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See the poetical skit <i>Révolte des passements et broderies</i>, written -by Mademoiselle de la Tousse, cousin of Madame de Sévigné, in the +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See the poetical skit <i>Révolte des passements et broderies</i>, written +by Mademoiselle de la Tousse, cousin of Madame de Sévigné, in the middle of the 17th century, which marks the favour which foreign laces at that time commanded amongst the leaders of French fashion. It is fairly evident too that the French laces themselves, known @@ -9851,11 +9813,11 @@ present article on lace by Mrs B. Wishaw of Seville.</p> <p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See Felkin’s <i>Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures</i>.</p> -<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> After 1650 the lace-workers at Alençon and its neighbourhood +<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> After 1650 the lace-workers at Alençon and its neighbourhood produced work of a daintier kind than that which was being made by -the Venetians. As a rule the hexagonal <i>bride</i> grounds of Alençon +the Venetians. As a rule the hexagonal <i>bride</i> grounds of Alençon laces are smaller than similar details in Venetian laces. The average -size of a diagonal taken from angle to angle in an Alençon (or so-called +size of a diagonal taken from angle to angle in an Alençon (or so-called Argentan) hexagon was about one-sixth of an inch, and each side of the hexagon was about one-tenth of an inch. An idea of the minuteness of the work can be formed from the fact that a side of a @@ -9878,8 +9840,8 @@ Thymelaeaceae, and is grown in hothouses in Britain.</p> <span class="sc">Laconia</span> (<i>q.v.</i>). Homer uses only the former, and in some passages seems to denote by it the Achaean citadel, the Therapnae of later times, in contrast to the lower town Sparta (G. Gilbert, -<i>Studien zur altspartanischen Geschichte</i>, Göttingen, 1872, p. 34 -foll.). It is described by the epithets <span class="grk" title="koilê">κοίλη</span> (hollow) and <span class="grk" title="kêtôessa">κητώεσσα</span> +<i>Studien zur altspartanischen Geschichte</i>, Göttingen, 1872, p. 34 +foll.). It is described by the epithets <span class="grk" title="koilê">κοίλη</span> (hollow) and <span class="grk" title="kêtôessa">κητώεσσα</span> (spacious or hollow), and is probably connected etymologically with <span class="grk" title="lakkos">λάκκος</span>, <i>lacus</i>, any hollow place. Lacedaemon is now the name of a separate department, which had in 1907 a population @@ -9887,7 +9849,7 @@ of 87,106.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ÉTIENNE DE LA VILLE,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> +<p><span class="bold">LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ÉTIENNE DE LA VILLE,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1756-1825), French naturalist, was born at Agen in Guienne on the 26th of December 1756. His education was carefully conducted by his father, and the early perusal of @@ -9897,30 +9859,30 @@ devoted to music, in which, besides becoming a good performer on the piano and organ, he acquired considerable mastery of composition, two of his operas (which were never published) meeting with the high approval of Gluck; in 1781-1785 he also -brought out in two volumes his <i>Poétique de la musique</i>. Meantime -he wrote two treaties, <i>Essai sur l’électricité</i> (1781) and -<i>Physique générale et particulière</i> (1782-1784), which gained him +brought out in two volumes his <i>Poétique de la musique</i>. Meantime +he wrote two treaties, <i>Essai sur l’électricité</i> (1781) and +<i>Physique générale et particulière</i> (1782-1784), which gained him the friendship of Buffon, who in 1785 appointed him subdemonstrator in the Jardin du Roi, and proposed to him to become the continuator of his <i>Histoire naturelle</i>. This continuation -was published under the titles <i>Histoire des quadrupèdes ovipares +was published under the titles <i>Histoire des quadrupèdes ovipares et des serpents</i> (2 vols., 1788-1789) and <i>Histoire naturelle des -reptiles</i> (1789). After the Revolution Lacépède became a +reptiles</i> (1789). After the Revolution Lacépède became a member of the legislative assembly, but during the Reign of Terror he left Paris, his life having become endangered by his disapproval of the massacres. When the Jardin du Roi was -reorganized as the Jardin des Plantes, Lacépède was appointed +reorganized as the Jardin des Plantes, Lacépède was appointed to the chair allocated to the study of reptiles and fishes. In 1798 he published the first volume of <i>Histoire naturelle des poissons</i>, the fifth volume appearing in 1803; and in 1804 -appeared his <i>Histoire des cétacés</i>. From this period till his death +appeared his <i>Histoire des cétacés</i>. From this period till his death the part he took in politics prevented him making any further contribution of importance to science. In 1799 he became a senator, in 1801 president of the senate, in 1803 grand chancellor of the legion of honour, in 1804 minister of state, and at the Restoration in 1819 he was created a peer of France. He died at -Épinay on the 6th of October 1825. During the latter part of -his life he wrote <i>Histoire générale physique et civile de l’Europe</i>, +Épinay on the 6th of October 1825. During the latter part of +his life he wrote <i>Histoire générale physique et civile de l’Europe</i>, published posthumously in 18 vols., 1826.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -9941,16 +9903,16 @@ are commonly called golden-eye flies.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1624-1709), father confessor of -Louis XIV., was born at the château of Aix in Forey on the +<p><span class="bold">LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1624-1709), father confessor of +Louis XIV., was born at the château of Aix in Forey on the 25th of August 1624, being the son of Georges d’Aix, seigneur -de la Chaise, and of Renée de Rochefort. On his mother’s side -he was a grandnephew of Père Coton, the confessor of Henry IV. +de la Chaise, and of Renée de Rochefort. On his mother’s side +he was a grandnephew of Père Coton, the confessor of Henry IV. He became a novice of the Society of Jesus before completing his studies at the university of Lyons, where, after taking the final vows, he lectured on philosophy to students attracted by his fame from all parts of France. Through the influence of -Camille de Villeroy, archbishop of Lyons, Père de la Chaise was +Camille de Villeroy, archbishop of Lyons, Père de la Chaise was nominated in 1674 confessor of Louis XIV., who intrusted him during the lifetime of Harlay de Champvallon, archbishop of Paris, with the administration of the ecclesiastical patronage of @@ -9966,7 +9928,7 @@ at Versailles, but there is no reason for supposing that the subsequent coolness between him and Madame de Maintenon arose from his insistence on secrecy in this matter. During the long strife over the temporalities of the Gallican Church between -Louis XIV. and Innocent XI. Père de la Chaise supported the +Louis XIV. and Innocent XI. Père de la Chaise supported the royal prerogative, though he used his influence at Rome to conciliate the papal authorities. He must be held largely responsible for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but not @@ -9974,17 +9936,17 @@ for the brutal measures applied against the Protestants. He exercised a moderating influence on Louis XIV.’s zeal against the Jansenists, and Saint-Simon, who was opposed to him in most matters, does full justice to his humane and honourable -character. Père de la Chaise had a lasting and unalterable -affection for Fénelon, which remained unchanged by the papal +character. Père de la Chaise had a lasting and unalterable +affection for Fénelon, which remained unchanged by the papal condemnation of the <i>Maximes</i>. In spite of failing faculties he continued his duties as confessor to Louis XIV. to the end of his long life. He died on the 20th of January 1709. The -cemetery of Père-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired +cemetery of Père-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired by the Jesuits in 1826, and not, as is often stated, on property personally granted to him.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See R. Chantelauze, <i>Le Père de la Chaize. Études d’histoire religieuse</i> +<p>See R. Chantelauze, <i>Le Père de la Chaize. Études d’histoire religieuse</i> (Paris and Lyons, 1859).</p> </div> @@ -9997,7 +9959,7 @@ woods, 3500 ft. above the sea, preserves remains of its ramparts and some houses of the 14th and 15th centuries, but owes its celebrity to a church, which, after the cathedral of Clermont-Ferrand, is the most remarkable Gothic building in Auvergne. -The west façade, approached by a flight of steps, is flanked by +The west façade, approached by a flight of steps, is flanked by two massive towers. The nave and aisles are of equal height and are separated from the choir by a stone rood screen. The <span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>49</span> @@ -10015,9 +9977,9 @@ inhabitants of the town.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENÉ DE CARADEUC DE<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1701-1785), +<p><span class="bold">LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENÉ DE CARADEUC DE<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1701-1785), French jurist, was born at Rennes, on the 6th of March -1701. He was for 60 years procureur général at the parliament +1701. He was for 60 years procureur général at the parliament of Brittany. He was an ardent opponent of the Jesuits; drew up in 1761 for the parliament a memoir on the constitutions of the Order, which did much to secure its suppression @@ -10037,20 +9999,20 @@ members of the parliament but twelve resigned (October 1764 to May 1765). The government considered La Chalotais one of the authors of this affair. At this time the secretary of state who administered the affairs of the province, Louis Philypeaux, -duc de la Vrillière, comte de Saint-Florentin (1705-1777), received +duc de la Vrillière, comte de Saint-Florentin (1705-1777), received two anonymous and abusive letters. La Chalotais was suspected of having written them, and three experts in handwriting declared that they were by him. The government therefore arrested him, his son and four other members of the parliament. The arrest made a great sensation. There was much talk of -“despotism.” Voltaire stated that the procureur général, in +“despotism.” Voltaire stated that the procureur général, in his prison of Saint Malo, was reduced, for lack of ink, to write his defence with a toothpick dipped in vinegar—which was apparently pure legend; but public opinion all over France was strongly aroused against the government. On the 16th of November 1765 a commission of judges was named to take charge of the trial. La Chalotais maintained that the trial was illegal; -being procureur général he claimed the right to be judged by +being procureur général he claimed the right to be judged by the parliament of Rennes, or failing this by the parliament of Bordeaux, according to the custom of the province. The judges did not dare to pronounce a condemnation on the evidence of @@ -10075,8 +10037,8 @@ who was personally a violent, haughty and unsympathetic character, died at Rennes on the 12th of July 1785.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See, besides the <i>Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jésuites</i> and -the <i>Essai d’éducation nationale</i>, the <i>Mémoires de la Chalotais</i> (3 vols., +<p>See, besides the <i>Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jésuites</i> and +the <i>Essai d’éducation nationale</i>, the <i>Mémoires de la Chalotais</i> (3 vols., 1766-1767). Two works containing detailed bibliographies are Marion, <i>La Bretagne et le duc d’Aiguillon</i> (Paris, 1893), and B. Pocquet, <i>Le Duc d’Aiguillon et La Chalotais</i> (Paris, 1901). See also @@ -10086,10 +10048,10 @@ a controversy between these two authors in the <i>Bulletin critique</i> for <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA CHARITÉ,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a town of central France in the department -of Nièvre, on the right bank of the Loire, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nevers -on the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906) 3990. -La Charité possesses the remains of a fine Romanesque basilica, +<p><span class="bold">LA CHARITÉ,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a town of central France in the department +of Nièvre, on the right bank of the Loire, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nevers +on the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906) 3990. +La Charité possesses the remains of a fine Romanesque basilica, the church of Sainte-Croix, dating from the 11th and early 12th centuries. The plan consists of a nave, rebuilt at the end of the 17th century, transept and choir with ambulatory and side @@ -10102,7 +10064,7 @@ and other fabrics are among the industries; trade is chiefly in wood and iron.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>La Charité owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in +<p>La Charité owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in the 8th century and reorganized as a dependency of the abbey of Cluny in 1052. It became the parent of many priories and monasteries, some of them in England and Italy. The possession of @@ -10112,53 +10074,53 @@ the town was hotly contested during the wars of religion of the <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA CHAUSSÉE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1692-1754), +<p><span class="bold">LA CHAUSSÉE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1692-1754), French dramatist, was born in Paris in 1692. In 1731 -he published an <i>Épître à Clio</i>, a didactic poem in defence of -Lériget de la Faye in his dispute with Antoine Houdart de la +he published an <i>Épître à Clio</i>, a didactic poem in defence of +Lériget de la Faye in his dispute with Antoine Houdart de la Motte, who had maintained that verse was useless in tragedy. -La Chaussée was forty years old before he produced his first -play, <i>La Fausse Antipathie</i> (1734). His second play, <i>Le Préjugé -à la mode</i> (1735) turns on the fear of incurring ridicule felt by +La Chaussée was forty years old before he produced his first +play, <i>La Fausse Antipathie</i> (1734). His second play, <i>Le Préjugé +à la mode</i> (1735) turns on the fear of incurring ridicule felt by a man in love with his own wife, a prejudice dispelled in France, -according to La Harpe, by La Chaussée’s comedy. <i>L’École +according to La Harpe, by La Chaussée’s comedy. <i>L’École des amis</i> (1737) followed, and, after an unsuccessful attempt -at tragedy in <i>Maximinien</i>, he returned to comedy in <i>Mélanide</i> -(1741). In <i>Mélanide</i> the type known as <i>comédie larmoyante</i> +at tragedy in <i>Maximinien</i>, he returned to comedy in <i>Mélanide</i> +(1741). In <i>Mélanide</i> the type known as <i>comédie larmoyante</i> is fully developed. Comedy was no longer to provoke laughter, but tears. The innovation consisted in destroying the sharp distinction then existing between tragedy and comedy in French literature. Indications of this change had been already offered -in the work of Marivaux, and La Chaussée’s plays led naturally +in the work of Marivaux, and La Chaussée’s plays led naturally to the domestic drama of Diderot and of Sedaine. The new method found bitter enemies. Alexis Piron nicknames the -author “<i>le Révérend Père Chaussée</i>,” and ridiculed him in one +author “<i>le Révérend Père Chaussée</i>,” and ridiculed him in one of his most famous epigrams. Voltaire maintained that the -<i>comédie larmoyante</i> was a proof of the inability of the author +<i>comédie larmoyante</i> was a proof of the inability of the author to produce either of the recognized kinds of drama, though he himself produced a play of similar character in <i>L’Enfant prodigue</i>. The hostility of the critics did not prevent the public from shedding -tears nightly over the sorrows of La Chaussée’s heroine. -<i>L’École des mères</i> (1744) and <i>La Gouvernante</i> (1747) form, with +tears nightly over the sorrows of La Chaussée’s heroine. +<i>L’École des mères</i> (1744) and <i>La Gouvernante</i> (1747) form, with those already mentioned, the best of his work. The strict -moral aims pursued by La Chaussée in his plays seem hardly +moral aims pursued by La Chaussée in his plays seem hardly consistent with his private preferences. He frequented the same gay society as did the comte de Caylus and contributed -to the <i>Recueils de ces messieurs</i>. La Chaussée died on the 14th +to the <i>Recueils de ces messieurs</i>. La Chaussée died on the 14th of May 1754. Villemain said of his style that he wrote prosaic verses with purity, while Voltaire, usually an adverse critic of -his work, said he was “<i>un des premiers après ceux qui ont du -génie</i>.”</p> +his work, said he was “<i>un des premiers après ceux qui ont du +génie</i>.”</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>For the <i>comédie larmoyante</i> see G. Lanson, <i>Nivelle de la Chaussée -et la comédie larmoyante</i> (1887).</p> +<p>For the <i>comédie larmoyante</i> see G. Lanson, <i>Nivelle de la Chaussée +et la comédie larmoyante</i> (1887).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LACHES<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (from Anglo-French <i>lachesse</i>, negligence, from -<i>lasche</i>, modern <i>lâche</i>, unloosed, slack), a term for slackness +<i>lasche</i>, modern <i>lâche</i>, unloosed, slack), a term for slackness or negligence, used particularly in law to signify negligence on the part of a person in doing that which he is by law bound to do, or unreasonable lapse of time in asserting a right, seeking @@ -10219,19 +10181,19 @@ of many Cities</i>, both published by the Palestine Exploration Fund.</p> <p><span class="bold">LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1793-1851), German philologist and critic, was born at Brunswick on the 4th of March 1793. He studied at Leipzig and -Göttingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies. +Göttingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies. In 1815 he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer <i>chasseur</i> and accompanied his detachment to Paris, but did not encounter the enemy. In 1816 he became an assistant master in the Friedrich Werder gymnasium at Berlin, and a <i>privat-docent</i> at the university. The same summer he became one of the principal masters in -the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of Königsberg, where he assisted -his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl Köpke (1785-1865) +the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of Königsberg, where he assisted +his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl Köpke (1785-1865) with his edition of Rudolf von Ems’ <i>Barlaam und Josaphat</i> (1818), and also assisted his friend in a contemplated edition of the works of Walther von der Vogelweide. In January 1818 he became professor extraordinarius of classical philology in -the university of Königsberg, and at the same time began to +the university of Königsberg, and at the same time began to lecture on Old German grammar and the Middle High German poets. He devoted himself during the following seven years to an extraordinarily minute study of those subjects, and in @@ -10246,10 +10208,10 @@ He died on the 13th of March 1851.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Lachmann, who was the translator of the first volume of P. E. -Müller’s <i>Sagabibliothek des skandinavischen Altertums</i> (1816), is a +Müller’s <i>Sagabibliothek des skandinavischen Altertums</i> (1816), is a figure of considerable importance in the history of German philology (see Rudolf von Raumer, <i>Geschichte der germanischen Philologie</i>, 1870). -In his “Habilitationsschrift” <i>Über die ursprüngliche Gestalt des +In his “Habilitationsschrift” <i>Ãœber die ursprüngliche Gestalt des Gedichts der Nibelunge Not</i> (1816), and still more in his review of Hagen’s <i>Nibelungen</i> and Benecke’s <i>Bonerius</i>, contributed in 1817 to the <i>Jenaische Literaturzeitung</i> he had already laid down the rules of @@ -10260,12 +10222,12 @@ of his method becomes increasingly apparent in the <i>Auswahl aus den hochdeutschen Dichtern des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts</i> (1820), in the edition of Hartmann’s <i>Iwein</i> (1827), in those of Walther von der Vogelweide (1827) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (1833), in -the papers “Über das Hildebrandslied,” “Über althochdeutsche -Betonung und Verskunst,” “Über den Eingang des Parzivals,” and -“Über drei Bruchstücke niederrheinischer Gedichte” published in +the papers “Ãœber das Hildebrandslied,” “Ãœber althochdeutsche +Betonung und Verskunst,” “Ãœber den Eingang des Parzivals,” and +“Ãœber drei Bruchstücke niederrheinischer Gedichte” published in the <i>Abhandlungen</i> of the Berlin Academy, and in <i>Der Nibelunge Not und die Klage</i> (1826, 11th ed., 1892), which was followed by a critical -commentary in 1836. Lachmann’s <i>Betrachtungen über Homer’s +commentary in 1836. Lachmann’s <i>Betrachtungen über Homer’s Ilias</i>, first published in the <i>Abhandlungen</i> of the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841, in which he sought to show that the <i>Iliad</i> consists of sixteen independent “lays” variously enlarged and interpolated, @@ -10290,7 +10252,7 @@ long as the Latin language continues to be studied.” Lachmann also translated Shakespeare’s sonnets (1820) and <i>Macbeth</i> (1829).</p> <p>See M. Hertz, <i>Karl Lachmann, eine Biographie</i> (1851), where a full -list of Lachmann’s works is given; F. Leo, <i>Rede zur Säcularfeier +list of Lachmann’s works is given; F. Leo, <i>Rede zur Säcularfeier K. Lachmanns</i> (1893); J. Grimm, biography in <i>Kleine Schriften</i>; W. Scherer in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, xvii., and J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i>, iii. (1908), pp. 127-131.</p> @@ -10323,7 +10285,7 @@ Unteritalien und Sicilien</i> (Berlin 1899, 41).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA CIOTAT,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> a coast town of south-eastern France in the -department of Bouches-du-Rhône, on the west shore of the Bay +department of Bouches-du-Rhône, on the west shore of the Bay of La Ciotat, 26 m. S.E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,562. The port is easily accessible and well sheltered. The large shipbuilding yards and repairing docks of the Messageries @@ -10406,7 +10368,7 @@ on his return to England. Charles says that James is to communicate certain matters to Oliva, and come back at once. Oliva is to give James all the money he needs, and Charles will later make an ample donation to the Jesuits. He acknowledges -a debt to Oliva of £800, to be paid in six months. The +a debt to Oliva of £800, to be paid in six months. The reader will remark that the king has never paid a penny to James or to Oliva, and that Oliva has never communicated directly with Charles. The truth is that all of Charles’s letters @@ -10476,7 +10438,7 @@ separated from the rest and made his way from Quito down the Amazon, ultimately reaching Cayenne. His was the first scientific exploration of the Amazon. He returned to Paris in 1744 and published the results of his measurements and travels -with a map of the Amazon in <i>Mém. de l’académie des sciences</i>, +with a map of the Amazon in <i>Mém. de l’académie des sciences</i>, 1745 (English translation 1745-1747). On a visit to Rome La Condamine made careful measurements of the ancient buildings with a view to a precise determination of the length of the Roman @@ -10487,7 +10449,7 @@ America. He died at Paris on the 4th of February 1774.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LACONIA<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Lakônikê">Λακωνική</span>), the ancient name of the south-eastern +<p><span class="bold">LACONIA<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Lakônikê">Λακωνική</span>), the ancient name of the south-eastern district of the Peloponnese, of which Sparta was the capital. It has an area of some 1,048,000 acres, slightly greater than that of Somersetshire, and consists of three well-marked @@ -10508,7 +10470,7 @@ Parnon, consisting for the most part of barren limestone uplands scantily watered. The Eurotas valley, however, is fertile, and produces at the present day maize, olives, oranges and mulberries in great abundance. Laconia has no rivers of importance except -the Eurotas and its largest tributary the Oenus (mod. Kelefína). +the Eurotas and its largest tributary the Oenus (mod. KelefÃna). The coast, <span class="correction" title="amended from expecially">especially</span> on the east, is rugged and dangerous. Laconia has few good harbours, nor are there any islands lying off its shores with the exception of Cythera (Cerigo), S. of Cape @@ -10541,8 +10503,8 @@ were freed from Spartan rule by the Roman general T. Quinctius Flamininus, and became members of the Achaean League. When this was dissolved in 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, they remained independent under the title of the “Confederation of the Lacedaemonians” or -“of the Free-Laconians” (<span class="grk" title="koinon tôn Lakedaimoniôn">κοινὸν τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων</span> or <span class="grk" title="Eleutherolakônôn">Ἐλευθερολακώνων</span>), -the supreme officer of which was a <span class="grk" title="stratêgos">στρατηγός</span> (general) +“of the Free-Laconians” (<span class="grk" title="koinon tôn Lakedaimoniôn">κοινὸν τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων</span> or <span class="grk" title="Eleutherolakônôn">Ἐλευθερολακώνων</span>), +the supreme officer of which was a <span class="grk" title="stratêgos">στρατηγός</span> (general) assisted by a <span class="grk" title="tamias">ταμίας</span> (treasurer). Augustus seems to have reorganized the league in some way, for Pausanias (iii. 21, 6) speaks of him as its founder. Of the twenty-four cities which @@ -10553,7 +10515,7 @@ subsequently it was overrun by large bands of Slavic immigrants. Throughout the middle ages it was the scene of vigorous struggles between Slavs, Byzantines, Franks, Turks and Venetians, the chief memorials of which are the ruined strongholds of Mistra -near Sparta, Geráki (anc. Geronthrae) and Monemvasia, “the +near Sparta, Geráki (anc. Geronthrae) and Monemvasia, “the Gibraltar of Greece,” on the east coast, and Passava near Gythium. A prominent part in the War of Independence was played by the Maniates or Mainotes, the inhabitants of the @@ -10570,13 +10532,13 @@ Gythium respectively. Pop. of Laconia (1907) 61,522.</p> was carried on only sporadically. Besides the excavations undertaken at Sparta, Gythium and Vaphio (<i>q.v.</i>), the most important were those at the Apollo sanctuary of Amyclae carried out by -C. Tsountas in 1890 (<span class="grk" title="Ephêm. archaiol.">Ἐφημ. ἀρχαιολ.</span> 1892, 1 ff.) and in 1904 by -A. Furtwängler. At Kampos, on the western side of Taygetus, +C. Tsountas in 1890 (<span class="grk" title="Ephêm. archaiol.">Ἐφημ. ἀρχαιολ.</span> 1892, 1 ff.) and in 1904 by +A. Furtwängler. At Kampos, on the western side of Taygetus, a small domed tomb of the “Mycenean” age was excavated in 1890 and yielded two leaden statuettes of great interest, while at Arkina a similar tomb of poor construction was unearthed in the previous year. Important inscriptions were found at -Geronthrae (Geráki), notably five long fragments of the <i>Edictum +Geronthrae (Geráki), notably five long fragments of the <i>Edictum Diocletiani</i>, and elsewhere. In 1904 the British Archaeological school at Athens undertook a systematic investigation of the ancient and medieval remains in Laconia. The results, of which @@ -10594,19 +10556,19 @@ works cited under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sparta</a></span>, see W. (Leipzig, 1868), ii. 102 ff.; Strabo viii. 5; Pausanias iii. and the commentary in J. G. Frazer, <i>Pausanias’s Description of Greece</i> (London, 1898), vol. iii.; W. G. Clark, <i>Peloponnesus</i> (London, 1858), -155 ff.; E. P. Boblaye, <i>Recherches géographiques sur les ruines de la -Morée</i> (Paris, 1835), 65 ff.; L. Ross, <i>Reisen im Peloponnes</i> (Berlin, -1841), 158 ff.; W. Vischer, <i>Erinnerungen u. Eindrücke aus Griechenland</i> +155 ff.; E. P. Boblaye, <i>Recherches géographiques sur les ruines de la +Morée</i> (Paris, 1835), 65 ff.; L. Ross, <i>Reisen im Peloponnes</i> (Berlin, +1841), 158 ff.; W. Vischer, <i>Erinnerungen u. Eindrücke aus Griechenland</i> (Basel, 1857), 360 ff.; J. B. G. M. Bory de Saint-Vincent, -<i>Relation du voyage de l’expédition scientifique de Morée</i> (Paris, 1836), -cc. 9, 10; G. A. Blouet, <i>Expédition scientifique de Morée</i> (Paris, +<i>Relation du voyage de l’expédition scientifique de Morée</i> (Paris, 1836), +cc. 9, 10; G. A. Blouet, <i>Expédition scientifique de Morée</i> (Paris, 1831-1838), ii. 58 ff.; A. Philippson, <i>Der Peloponnes</i> (Berlin, 1892), 155 ff.; <i>Annual</i> of British School at Athens, 1907-8.</p> -<p><i>Inscriptions</i>: Le Bas-Foucart, <i>Voyage archéologique: Inscriptions</i>, +<p><i>Inscriptions</i>: Le Bas-Foucart, <i>Voyage archéologique: Inscriptions</i>, Nos. 160-290; <i>Inscriptiones Graecae</i>, v.; <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum</i> (Berlin, 1828), Nos. 1237-1510; Collitz-Bechtel, <i>Sammlung -der griech. Dialektinschriften</i>, iii. 2 (Göttingen, 1898), Nos. 4400-4613. +der griech. Dialektinschriften</i>, iii. 2 (Göttingen, 1898), Nos. 4400-4613. <i>Coins</i>: <i>Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum: Peloponnesus</i> (London, 1887), xlvi. ff., 121 ff.; B. V. Head, <i>Historia Numorum</i> (Oxford, 1887), 363 ff. <i>Cults</i>: S. Wide, <i>Lakonische Kulte</i> @@ -10688,17 +10650,17 @@ still exist in the so-called Arco di Giambella.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1802-1861), French -ecclesiastic and orator, was born at Recey-sur-Ource, Côte d’Or, +ecclesiastic and orator, was born at Recey-sur-Ource, Côte d’Or, on the 12th of March 1802. He was the second of a family of -four, the eldest of whom, Jean Théodore (1801-1870), travelled +four, the eldest of whom, Jean Théodore (1801-1870), travelled a great deal in his youth, and was afterwards professor of comparative -anatomy at Liége. For several years Lacordaire studied +anatomy at Liége. For several years Lacordaire studied at Dijon, showing a marked talent for rhetoric; this led him to the pursuit of law, and in the local debates of the advocates he attained a high celebrity. At Paris he thought of going on the stage, but was induced to finish his legal training and began to practise as an advocate (1817-1824). Meanwhile Lamennais -had published his <i>Essai sur l’Indifférence</i>,—a passionate plea +had published his <i>Essai sur l’Indifférence</i>,—a passionate plea for Christianity and in particular for Roman Catholicism as necessary for the social progress of mankind. Lacordaire read, and his ardent and believing nature, weary of the theological @@ -10718,9 +10680,9 @@ instruction, opened an independent free school. It was closed in two days, and the teachers fined before the court of peers. These reverses Lacordaire accepted with quiet dignity; but they brought his relationship with Lamennais to a close. He now -began the course of Christian <i>conférences</i> at the Collége Stanislas, +began the course of Christian <i>conférences</i> at the Collége Stanislas, which attracted the art and intellect of Paris; thence he went -to Nôtre Dame, and for two years his sermons were the delight +to Nôtre Dame, and for two years his sermons were the delight of the capital. His presence was dignified, his voice capable of indefinite modulation, and his gestures animated and attractive. He still preached the gospel of the people’s sovereignty in civil @@ -10732,11 +10694,11 @@ to take a chair in the university of Louvain, but he declined both appointments, and in 1838 set out for Rome, revolving a great scheme for christianizing France by restoring the old order of St Dominic. At Rome he donned the habit of the preaching -friar and joined the monastery of Minerva. His <i>Mémoire pour -le rétablissement en France de l’ordre des frères prêcheurs</i> was then +friar and joined the monastery of Minerva. His <i>Mémoire pour +le rétablissement en France de l’ordre des frères prêcheurs</i> was then prepared and dedicated to his country; at the same time he collected the materials for the life of St Dominic. When he -returned to France in 1841 he resumed his preaching at Nôtre +returned to France in 1841 he resumed his preaching at Nôtre Dame, but he had small success in re-establishing the order of which he ever afterwards called himself monk. His funeral orations are the most notable in their kind of any delivered @@ -10748,35 +10710,35 @@ superiors for declaring himself a republican, he resigned his seat ten days after his election. In 1850 he went back to Rome and was made provincial of the order, and for four years laboured to make the Dominicans a religious power. In 1854 he retired -to Sorrèze to become director of a private lyceum, and remained +to Sorrèze to become director of a private lyceum, and remained there until he died on the 22nd of November 1861. He had been elected to the Academy in the preceding year.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The best edition of Lacordaire’s works is the <i>Œuvres complètes</i> +<p>The best edition of Lacordaire’s works is the <i>Œuvres complètes</i> (6 vols., Paris, 1872-1873), published by C. Poussielgue, which contains, -besides the <i>Conférences</i>, the exquisitely written, but uncritical, -Vie de Saint Dominique and the beautiful <i>Lettres à un jeune homme sur -la vie chrétienne</i>. For a complete list of his published correspondence -see L. Petit de Julleville’s <i>Histoire de la langue et de la littérature -française</i>, vii. 598.</p> +besides the <i>Conférences</i>, the exquisitely written, but uncritical, +Vie de Saint Dominique and the beautiful <i>Lettres à un jeune homme sur +la vie chrétienne</i>. For a complete list of his published correspondence +see L. Petit de Julleville’s <i>Histoire de la langue et de la littérature +française</i>, vii. 598.</p> <p>The authoritative biography is by Ch. Foisset (2 vols., Paris, 1870). -The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Père B. Chocarne’s -<i>Vie du Père Lacordaire</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1866—English translation +The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Père B. Chocarne’s +<i>Vie du Père Lacordaire</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1866—English translation by A. Th. Drane, London, 1868); see also Count C. F. R. de Montalembert’s -<i>Un Moine au XIX<span class="sp">ème</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1862—English translation +<i>Un Moine au XIX<span class="sp">ème</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1862—English translation by F. Aylward, London, 1867). There are lives by Mrs H. L. -Lear (London, 1882); by A. Ricard (1 vol. of <i>L’École menaisienne</i>, +Lear (London, 1882); by A. Ricard (1 vol. of <i>L’École menaisienne</i>, Paris, 1883); by Comte O. d’Haussonville (1 vol., <i>Les Grands -écrivains Français</i> series, Paris, 1897); by Gabriel Ledos (Paris, +écrivains Français</i> series, Paris, 1897); by Gabriel Ledos (Paris, 1901); by Dora Greenwell (1867); and by the duc de Broglie -(Paris, 1889). The <i>Correspondance inédite du Père Lacordaire</i>, edited +(Paris, 1889). The <i>Correspondance inédite du Père Lacordaire</i>, edited by H. Villard (Paris, 1870), may also be consulted. See also Saint-Beuve -in <i>Causeries de Lundi</i>. Several of Lacordaire’s <i>Conférences</i> have +in <i>Causeries de Lundi</i>. Several of Lacordaire’s <i>Conférences</i> have been translated into English, among these being, <i>Jesus Christ</i> (1869); <i>God</i> (1870); <i>God and Man</i> (1872); <i>Life</i> (1875). For a theological -study of the <i>Conférences de Nôtre Dame</i>, see an article by Bishop +study of the <i>Conférences de Nôtre Dame</i>, see an article by Bishop J. C. Hedley in <i>Dublin Review</i> (October 1870).</p> </div> @@ -10792,29 +10754,29 @@ tin, with prepared varnishes which will give them a golden, bronze-like or other lustre as desired. Throughout the East Indies the lacquering of wooden surfaces is universally practised, large articles of household furniture, as well as small boxes, trays, -toys and papier-mâché objects, being decorated with bright-coloured +toys and papier-mâché objects, being decorated with bright-coloured and variegated lacquer. The lacquer used in the East is, in general, variously coloured sealing-wax, applied, smoothed and polished in a heated condition; and by various devices intricate marbled, streaked and mottled designs are produced. Quite distinct from these, and from all other forms of lacquer, -is the lacquer work of Japan, for which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Japan</a></span>, § <i>Art</i>.</p> +is the lacquer work of Japan, for which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Japan</a></span>, § <i>Art</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1751-1824), French politician and writer, was born at Metz on the 9th of October 1751. He practised as a barrister in Paris; and under the -Revolution was elected as a <i>député suppléant</i> in the Constituent +Revolution was elected as a <i>député suppléant</i> in the Constituent Assembly, and later as deputy in the Legislative Assembly. He belonged to the moderate party known as the “Feuillants,” but after the 10th of August 1792 he ceased to take part in public life. In 1803 he became a member of the Institute, taking the place of La Harpe. Under the Restoration he was -one of the chief editors of the <i>Minerve française</i>; he wrote also +one of the chief editors of the <i>Minerve française</i>; he wrote also an essay, <i>Sur le 18 Brumaire</i> (1799), some <i>Fragments politiques -et littéraires</i> (1817), and a treatise <i>Des partis politiques et des -factions de la prétendue aristocratie d’aujourd’hui</i> (1819).</p> +et littéraires</i> (1817), and a treatise <i>Des partis politiques et des +factions de la prétendue aristocratie d’aujourd’hui</i> (1819).</p> <p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">Jean Charles Dominique de Lacretelle</span>, called Lacretelle <i>le jeune</i> (1766-1855), historian and @@ -10824,25 +10786,25 @@ Revolution belonged, like him, to the party of the <i>Feuillants</i>. He was for some time secretary to the duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, the celebrated philanthropist, and afterwards joined the staff of the <i>Journal de Paris</i>, then managed by Suard, and -where he had as colleagues André Chénier and Antoine Roucher. +where he had as colleagues André Chénier and Antoine Roucher. He made no attempt to hide his monarchist sympathies, and this, together with the way in which he reported the trial and death of Louis XVI., brought him in peril of his life; to avoid this <span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>54</span> danger he enlisted in the army, but after Thermidor he returned to Paris and to his newspaper work. He was involved in the -royalist movement of the 13th Vendémiaire, and condemned to +royalist movement of the 13th Vendémiaire, and condemned to deportation after the 18th Fructidor; but, thanks to powerful influence, he was left “forgotten” in prison till after the 18th Brumaire, -when he was set at liberty by Fouché. Under the Empire -he was appointed a professor of history in the <i>Faculté des lettres</i> -of Paris (1809), and elected as a member of the Académie française +when he was set at liberty by Fouché. Under the Empire +he was appointed a professor of history in the <i>Faculté des lettres</i> +of Paris (1809), and elected as a member of the Académie française (1811). In 1827 he was prime mover in the protest made by the French Academy against the minister Peyronnet’s law on the press, which led to the failure of that measure, but this step cost him, as it did Villemain, his post as <i>censeur royal</i>. Under Louis Philippe he devoted himself entirely to his teaching and literary -work. In 1848 he retired to Mâcon; but there, as in Paris, he +work. In 1848 he retired to Mâcon; but there, as in Paris, he was the centre of a brilliant circle, for he was a wonderful causeur, and an equally good listener, and had many interesting experiences to recall. He died on the 26th of March 1855. @@ -10851,11 +10813,11 @@ politician of purely contemporary interest.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>J. C. Lacretelle’s chief work is a series of histories of the 18th -century, the Revolution and its sequel: <i>Précis historique de la -Révolution française</i>, appended to the history of Rabaud St Étienne, +century, the Revolution and its sequel: <i>Précis historique de la +Révolution française</i>, appended to the history of Rabaud St Étienne, and partly written in the prison of La Force (5 vols., 1801-1806); -<i>Histoire de France pendant le XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (6 vols., 1808); <i>Histoire -de l’Assemblée Constituante</i> (2 vols., 1821); <i>L’Assemblée Législative</i> +<i>Histoire de France pendant le XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (6 vols., 1808); <i>Histoire +de l’Assemblée Constituante</i> (2 vols., 1821); <i>L’Assemblée Législative</i> (1822); <i>La Convention Nationale</i> (3 vols., 1824-1825); <i>Histoire de France depuis la restauration</i> (1829-1835); <i>Histoire du consulat et de l’empire</i> (4 vols., 1846). The author was a moderate and fair-minded @@ -10870,23 +10832,23 @@ testimony must be accepted with caution.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1863-  ), -French mineralogist and geologist, was born at Mâcon, Saône et +<p><span class="bold">LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1863-  ), +French mineralogist and geologist, was born at Mâcon, Saône et Loire, on the 4th of February 1863. He took the degree of -D. ès Sc. in Paris, 1889. In 1893 he was appointed professor of +D. ès Sc. in Paris, 1889. In 1893 he was appointed professor of mineralogy at the <i>Jardin des Plantes</i>, Paris, and in 1896 director -of the mineralogical laboratory in the <i>École des Hautes Études</i>. +of the mineralogical laboratory in the <i>École des Hautes Études</i>. He paid especial attention to minerals connected with volcanic phenomena and igneous rocks, to the effects of metamorphism, and to mineral veins, in various parts of the world, notably in the Pyrenees. In his numerous contributions to scientific journals he dealt with the mineralogy and petrology of Madagascar, and published an elaborate and exhaustive volume -on the eruptions in Martinique, <i>La Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions</i> +on the eruptions in Martinique, <i>La Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions</i> (1904). He also issued an important work entitled <i>Mineralogie de la France et de ses Colonies</i> (1893-1898), and other works -in conjunction with A. Michel Lévy. He was elected member -of the Académie des sciences in 1904.</p> +in conjunction with A. Michel Lévy. He was elected member +of the Académie des sciences in 1904.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -10899,8 +10861,8 @@ extremely prolific and varied writer. Over twenty historical romances alone came from his pen, and he also wrote a variety of serious historical works, including a history of Napoleon III., and the life and times of the Tsar Nicholas I. of Russia. He -was the joint author with Ferdinand Séré of a five-volume work, -<i>Le Moyen Âge et La Renaissance</i> (1847), a standard work on the +was the joint author with Ferdinand Séré of a five-volume work, +<i>Le Moyen Âge et La Renaissance</i> (1847), a standard work on the manners, customs and dress of those times, the chief merit of which lies in the great number of illustrations it contains. He also wrote many monographs on phases of the history of culture. @@ -10916,18 +10878,18 @@ Arsenal Library, Paris. He died in Paris on the 16th of October <p><span class="bold">LACROMA<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (Serbo-Croatian <i>Lokrum</i>), a small island in the Adriatic Sea, forming part of the Austrian kingdom of Dalmatia, and lying less than half a mile south of Ragusa. Though barely -1¼ m. in length, Lacroma is remarkable for the beauty of its subtropical +1¼ m. in length, Lacroma is remarkable for the beauty of its subtropical vegetation. It was a favourite resort of the archduke Maximilian, afterwards emperor of Mexico (1832-1867), who -restored the château and park; and of the Austrian crown prince +restored the château and park; and of the Austrian crown prince Rudolph (1857-1889). It contains an 11th-century Benedictine monastery; and the remains of a church, said by a very doubtful local tradition to have been founded by Richard I. of England -(1157-1199), form part of the imperial château.</p> +(1157-1199), form part of the imperial château.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See <i>Lacroma</i>, an illustrated descriptive work by the crown princess -Stéphanie (afterwards Countess Lónyay) (Vienna, 1892).</p> +Stéphanie (afterwards Countess Lónyay) (Vienna, 1892).</p> </div> @@ -10947,7 +10909,7 @@ Quincy, the La Crosse & South Eastern, and the Green Bay & Western railways, and by river steamboat lines on the Mississippi. The river is crossed here by a railway bridge (C.M. & St P.) and wagon bridge. The city is situated on a prairie, extending back -from the river about 2½ m. to bluffs, from which fine views may +from the river about 2½ m. to bluffs, from which fine views may be obtained. Among the city’s buildings and institutions are the Federal Building (1886-1887), the County Court House (1902-1903), the Public Library (with more than 20,000 volumes), @@ -10975,7 +10937,7 @@ products, copper and iron products, cooperage, pearl buttons, brooms and brushes. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $8,139,432, as against $7,676,581 in 1900. The city owns and operates its water-works system, the wagon -bridge (1890-1891) across the Mississippi, and a toll road (2½ m. +bridge (1890-1891) across the Mississippi, and a toll road (2½ m. long) to the village of La Crescent, Minn.</p> <p>Father Hennepin and du Lhut visited or passed the site of @@ -10992,7 +10954,7 @@ curved netted stick, to a bishop’s crozier. It was borrowed from the Indian tribes of North America. In the old days, according to Catlin, the warriors of two tribes in their war-paint would form the sides, often 800 or 1000 strong. The goals were -placed from 500 yds. to ½ m. apart with practically no side +placed from 500 yds. to ½ m. apart with practically no side boundaries. A solemn dance preceded the game, after which the ball was tossed into the air and the two sides rushed to catch it on “crosses,” similar to those now in use. The medicine-men @@ -11040,7 +11002,7 @@ A match between England and Ireland was played annually from <div class="condensed"> <p>Implements of the Game.—The ball is made of india-rubber sponge, -weighs between 4¼ and 4½ oz., and measures 8 to 8½ in. in circumference. +weighs between 4¼ and 4½ oz., and measures 8 to 8½ in. in circumference. The “crosse” is formed of a light staff of hickory wood, the top being bent to form a kind of hook, from the tip of which a thong is drawn and made fast to the shaft about 2 ft. from the other end. @@ -11104,7 +11066,7 @@ by George Catlin.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1731-1794), Spanish dramatist, was +<p><span class="bold">LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1731-1794), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on the 28th of March 1731. He was a clerk in the ministry of finance, and is the author of three hundred <i>sainetes</i>, little farcical sketches of city life, written to be played between @@ -11114,8 +11076,8 @@ best of his pieces, such as <i>Las Tertulias de Madrid</i>, are delightful specimens of satiric observation.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See E. Cotardo y Mori, <i>Don Ramón de la Cruz y sus obras</i> (Madrid, -1899); C. Cambronero, <i>Sainetes inédites existentes en la Biblioteca +<p>See E. Cotardo y Mori, <i>Don Ramón de la Cruz y sus obras</i> (Madrid, +1899); C. Cambronero, <i>Sainetes inédites existentes en la Biblioteca Municipal de Madrid</i> (Madrid, 1900).</p> </div> @@ -11142,7 +11104,7 @@ of the Scriptures was equally slight. About 290 he went to Nicomedia in Bithynia while Diocletian was emperor, to teach rhetoric, but found little work to do in that Greek-speaking city. In middle age he became a convert to Christianity, and -about 306 he went to Gaul (Trèves) on the invitation of Constantine +about 306 he went to Gaul (Trèves) on the invitation of Constantine the Great, and became tutor to his eldest son, Crispus. He probably died about 340.</p> @@ -11218,8 +11180,8 @@ guides to the copious literature on the subject.</p> acids are known, differing from each other in the position occupied by the hydroxyl group in the molecule; they are known respectively as α-hydroxypropionic acid (fermentation or -inactive lactic acid), CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, and β-hydroxypropionic -acid (hydracrylic acid), (<i>q.v.</i>), CH<span class="su">2</span>(OH)·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H. Although +inactive lactic acid), CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, and β-hydroxypropionic +acid (hydracrylic acid), (<i>q.v.</i>), CH<span class="su">2</span>(OH)·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H. Although on structural grounds there should be only two hydroxypropionic acids, as a matter of fact four lactic acids are known. The third isomer (sarcolactic acid) is found in meat extract (J. v. Liebig), @@ -11255,14 +11217,14 @@ the reduction of pyruvic acid with sodium amalgam; or from acetaldehyde by the cyanhydrin reaction (J. Wislicenus, <i>Ann.</i>, 1863, 128, p. 13)</p> -<p class="center">CH<span class="su">3</span>·CHO → CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CN → CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CO<span class="su">2</span>H.</p> +<p class="center">CH<span class="su">3</span>·CHO → CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CN → CH<span class="su">3</span>·CH(OH)·CO<span class="su">2</span>H.</p> -<p class="noind">It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1.2485 (15°/4°), and +<p class="noind">It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1.2485 (15°/4°), and decomposes on distillation under ordinary atmospheric pressure; -but at very low pressures (about 1 mm.) it distils at about 85° C., and -then sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about 18° C. It +but at very low pressures (about 1 mm.) it distils at about 85° C., and +then sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about 18° C. It possesses the properties both of an acid and of an alcohol. When -heated with dilute sulphuric acid to 130° C., under pressure, it is +heated with dilute sulphuric acid to 130° C., under pressure, it is resolved into formic acid and acetaldehyde. Chromic acid oxidizes it to acetic acid and carbon dioxide; potassium permanganate oxidizes it to pyruvic acid; nitric acid to oxalic acid, and a mixture @@ -11272,7 +11234,7 @@ and hydriodic acid into propionic acid.</p> <p><i>Lactide</i>, <img style="width:179px; height:35px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img56a.jpg" alt="" />, a crystalline solid, of melting-point -124° C., is one of the products obtained by the distillation of lactic +124° C., is one of the products obtained by the distillation of lactic acid.</p> </div> @@ -11284,7 +11246,7 @@ carboxyl groups, this reaction taking place when the hydroxy acid is liberated from its salts by a mineral acid. The α and β-hydroxy acids do not form lactones, the tendency for lactone formation appearing first with the γ-hydroxy acids, thus γ-hydroxybutyric -acid, CH<span class="su">2</span>OH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, yields γ-butyrolactone, +acid, CH<span class="su">2</span>OH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, yields γ-butyrolactone, <img style="width:177px; height:34px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img56b.jpg" alt="" /> These compounds may also be prepared by the distillation of the γ-halogen fatty acids, or by @@ -11301,11 +11263,11 @@ They are easily saponified by the caustic alkalis.</p> hydrazine hydrate, see R. Meyer, <i>Ber.</i>, 1893, 26, p. 1273; L. Gattermann, <i>Ber.</i>, 1899, 32, p. 1133, E. Fischer, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 1889.</p> -<p>γ-<i>Butyrolactone</i> is a liquid which boils at 206° C. It is miscible +<p>γ-<i>Butyrolactone</i> is a liquid which boils at 206° C. It is miscible with water in all proportions and is volatile in steam, γ-<i>valerolactone</i>, <img style="width:198px; height:29px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img56c.jpg" alt="" />, -is a liquid which boils at 207-208° +is a liquid which boils at 207-208° C. δ-<i>lactones</i> are also known, and may be prepared by distilling the δ-chlor acids.</p> </div> @@ -11326,21 +11288,21 @@ of the 17th century. A peculiar interest attaches to <i>El Infamador</i>, a play in which the character of Leucino anticipates the classic type of Don Juan. As an initiative force, Cueva is a figure of great historical importance; his epic poem, <i>La Conquista -de Bética</i> (1603), shows his weakness as an artist. The last -work to which his name is attached is the <i>Ejemplar poético</i> +de Bética</i> (1603), shows his weakness as an artist. The last +work to which his name is attached is the <i>Ejemplar poético</i> (1609), and he is believed to have died shortly after its publication.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See the editions of <i>Saco de Roma</i> and <i>El Infamador</i>, by E. de Ochoa, -in the <i>Tesoro del teatro español</i> (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285; -and of <i>Ejemplar poético</i>, by J. J. López de Sedano, in the <i>Parnaso -español</i>, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, “Juan de la Cueva et -son Ejemplar poético” in the <i>Acta Universitatis Lundensis</i> (Lund, -1904), vol. xxix.; “Poèmes inédits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de +in the <i>Tesoro del teatro español</i> (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285; +and of <i>Ejemplar poético</i>, by J. J. López de Sedano, in the <i>Parnaso +español</i>, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, “Juan de la Cueva et +son Ejemplar poético” in the <i>Acta Universitatis Lundensis</i> (Lund, +1904), vol. xxix.; “Poèmes inédits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de Sannio,)” edited by F. A. Wulff, in the <i>Acta Universitatis Lundensis</i> (Lund, 1886-1887), vol. xxiii.; F. A. Wulff, “De la rimas de Juan -de la Cueva, Primera Parte” in the <i>Homenaje á Menéndez y Pelayo</i> +de la Cueva, Primera Parte” in the <i>Homenaje á Menéndez y Pelayo</i> (Madrid, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 143-148.</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. F.-K.)</div> @@ -11362,7 +11324,7 @@ the French invaded Burgundy in 1636, harrying the French <span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>57</span> troops from the castles of Montaigu and St Laurent-la-Roche, and devastating the frontier districts of Bresse and Bugey with -fire and sword (1640-1642). In the first invasion of Franche-Comté +fire and sword (1640-1642). In the first invasion of Franche-Comté by Louis XIV. in 1668 Lacuzon was unable to make any effective resistance, but he played an important part in Louis’s second invasion. In 1673 he defended Salins for some time; @@ -11500,7 +11462,7 @@ Euander and Telecles. Apart from a number of anecdotes distinguished rather for sarcastic humour than for probability, Lacydes exists for us as a man of refined character, a hard worker and an accomplished orator. According to Athenaeus (x. 438) -and Diogenes Laërtius (iv. 60) he died from excessive drinking, +and Diogenes Laërtius (iv. 60) he died from excessive drinking, but the story is discredited by the eulogy of Eusebius (<i>Praep. Ev.</i> xiv. 7), that he was in all things moderate.</p> @@ -11516,7 +11478,7 @@ The name Ladak, commonly but less correctly spelt Ladakh, and sometimes Ladag, belongs primarily to the broad valley of the upper Indus in West Tibet, but includes several surrounding districts in political connexion with it; the present limits are -between 75° 40′ and 80° 30′ E., and between 32° 25′ and 36° N. +between 75° 40′ and 80° 30′ E., and between 32° 25′ and 36° N. It is bounded N. by the Kuenlun range and the slopes of the Karakoram, N.W. and W. by the dependency of Baltistan or Little Tibet, S.W. by Kashmir proper, S. by British Himalayan @@ -11539,7 +11501,7 @@ The former predominates in the east, diminishing gradually westwards. There, although the vast alluvial deposits which once filled the valley to a remarkably uniform height of about 15,000 ft. have left their traces on the mountain sides, they have -undergone immense denudation, and their débris now forms +undergone immense denudation, and their débris now forms secondary deposits, flat bottoms or shelving slopes, the only spots available for cultivation or pasture. These masses of alluvium are often either metamorphosed to a subcrystalline @@ -11601,20 +11563,20 @@ crossing the divide between these rivers north of Lake Manasarowar.</p> <p>The observatory at Leh is the most elevated observatory in Asia. “The atmosphere of the Indus valley is remarkably clear and transparent, and the heat of the sun is very great. -There is generally a difference of more than 60° between the reading +There is generally a difference of more than 60° between the reading of the exposed sun thermometer <i>in vacuo</i> and the air temperature in the shade, and this difference has occasionally exceeded -90°.... The mean annual temperature at Leh is 40°, that of -the coldest months (January and February) only 18° and 19°, +90°.... The mean annual temperature at Leh is 40°, that of +the coldest months (January and February) only 18° and 19°, but it rises rapidly from February to July, in which month it -reaches 62° with a mean diurnal maximum of 80° both in that -month and August, and an average difference of 29° or 30° +reaches 62° with a mean diurnal maximum of 80° both in that +month and August, and an average difference of 29° or 30° between the early morning and afternoon. The mean highest -temperature of the year is 90°, varying between 84° and 93° +temperature of the year is 90°, varying between 84° and 93° in the twelve years previous to 1893. On the other hand, in the winter the minimum thermometer falls occasionally below -0°, and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme -range of recorded temperature is therefore not less than 110°. +0°, and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme +range of recorded temperature is therefore not less than 110°. The air is as dry as Quetta, and rather more uniformly so.... The amount of rain and snow is insignificant. The average rain (and snow) fall is only 2.7 in. in the year.”<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The winds are @@ -11664,7 +11626,7 @@ it to be a great trade mart.</p> <p>The adjoining territory of Baltistan forms the west extremity of Tibet, whose natural limits here are the Indus from its abrupt southward -bend in 74° 45′ E., and the mountains to the north and west, +bend in 74° 45′ E., and the mountains to the north and west, separating a comparatively peaceful Tibetan population from the fiercer Aryan tribes beyond. Mahommedan writers about the 16th century speak of Baltistan as “Little Tibet,” and of Ladakh as @@ -11808,7 +11770,7 @@ as a guarantee for their safe delivery to the consignee. (See <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LADISLAUS [I.],<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> Saint (1040-1095), king of Hungary, the -son of Béla I., king of Hungary, and the Polish princess Richeza, +son of Béla I., king of Hungary, and the Polish princess Richeza, was born in Poland, whither his father had sought refuge, but was recalled by his elder brother Andrew I. to Hungary (1047) and brought up there. He succeeded to the throne @@ -11833,9 +11795,9 @@ the 11th century. Ladislaus himself had fought valiantly in his youth against the Pechenegs, and to defend the land against the Kumanians, who now occupied Moldavia and Wallachia as far as the Alt, he built the fortresses of Turnu-Severin and -Gyula Féhervár. He also planted in Transylvania the Szeklers, +Gyula Féhervár. He also planted in Transylvania the Szeklers, the supposed remnant of the ancient Magyars from beyond the -Dnieper, and founded the bishoprics of Nagy-Várad, or Gross-Wardein, +Dnieper, and founded the bishoprics of Nagy-Várad, or Gross-Wardein, and of Agram, as fresh foci of Catholicism in south Hungary and the hitherto uncultivated districts between the Drave and the Save. He subsequently conquered Croatia, @@ -11848,8 +11810,8 @@ saint long before his canonization. A whole cycle of legends is associated with his name.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See J. Babik, <i>Life of St Ladislaus</i> (Hung.) (Eger, 1892); György -Pray, <i>Dissertatio de St Ladislao</i> (Pressburg, 1774); Antál Gánóczy, +<p>See J. Babik, <i>Life of St Ladislaus</i> (Hung.) (Eger, 1892); György +Pray, <i>Dissertatio de St Ladislao</i> (Pressburg, 1774); Antál Gánóczy, <i>Diss. hist. crit. de St Ladislao</i> (Vienna, 1775).</p> </div> <div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> @@ -11879,14 +11841,14 @@ itself a large party was in favour of the Germans, but the civil wars which raged between the two factions from 1276 to 1278 did not prevent Ladislaus, at the head of 20,000 Magyars and Kumanians, from co-operating with Rudolph of Habsburg in the -great battle of Durnkrüt (August 26th, 1278), which destroyed, +great battle of Durnkrüt (August 26th, 1278), which destroyed, once for all, the empire of the Přemyslidae. A month later a papal legate arrived in Hungary to inquire into the conduct of the king, who was accused by his neighbours, and many of his own subjects, of adopting the ways of his Kumanian kinsfolk and thereby undermining Christianity. Ladislaus was not really a pagan, or he would not have devoted his share of the spoil of -Durnkrüt to the building of the Franciscan church at Pressburg, +Durnkrüt to the building of the Franciscan church at Pressburg, nor would he have venerated as he did his aunt St Margaret. Political enmity was largely responsible for the movement against him, yet the result of a very careful investigation (1279-1281) @@ -11897,7 +11859,7 @@ Christians; wore, and made his court wear, Kumanian dress; surrounded himself with Kumanian concubines, and neglected and ill-used his ill-favoured Neapolitan consort. He was finally compelled to take up arms against his Kumanian friends, whom -he routed at Hodmézö (May 1282) with fearful loss; but, +he routed at Hodmézö (May 1282) with fearful loss; but, previously to this, he had arrested the legate, whom he subsequently attempted to starve into submission, and his conduct generally was regarded as so unsatisfactory that, after repeated @@ -11916,8 +11878,8 @@ at Korosszeg by the Kumanians, who never forgave him for deserting them.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Karoly Szabó, <i>Ladislaus the Cumanian</i> (Hung.), (Budapest, -1886); and Acsády, <i>History of the Hungarian Realm</i>, i. 2 (Budapest, +<p>See Karoly Szabó, <i>Ladislaus the Cumanian</i> (Hung.), (Budapest, +1886); and Acsády, <i>History of the Hungarian Realm</i>, i. 2 (Budapest, 1903). The latter is, however, too favourable to Ladislaus.</p> </div> <div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> @@ -11926,13 +11888,13 @@ deserting them.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LADISLAUS V.<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1440-1457), king of Hungary and Bohemia, the only son of Albert, king of Hungary, and Elizabeth, daughter -of the emperor Sigismund, was born at Komárom on the 22nd +of the emperor Sigismund, was born at Komárom on the 22nd of February 1440, four months after his father’s death, and was hence called Ladislaus Posthumus. The estates of Hungary had already elected Wladislaus III. of Poland their king, but Ladislaus’s mother caused the holy crown to be stolen from its guardians at Visegrad, and compelled the primate to crown the -infant king at Székesfejérvár on the 15th of May 1440; whereupon, +infant king at Székesfejérvár on the 15th of May 1440; whereupon, for safety’s sake, she placed the child beneath the guardianship of his uncle the emperor Frederick III. On the death of Wladislaus III. (Nov. 10th, 1444), Ladislaus V. was elected @@ -11951,7 +11913,7 @@ defensive preparations of the great Hunyadi, and fled from the country on the tidings of the siege of Belgrade. On the death of Hunyadi he made Cillei governor of Hungary at the diet of Futtak (October 1456), and when that traitor paid with his life -for his murderous attempt on Laszló Hunyadi at Belgrade, +for his murderous attempt on Laszló Hunyadi at Belgrade, Ladislaus procured the decapitation of young Hunyadi (16th of March 1457), after a mock trial which raised such a storm in Hungary that the king fled to Prague, where he died suddenly @@ -11961,8 +11923,8 @@ supposed to have been poisoned by his political opponents in Bohemia.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See F. Palacky, <i>Zeugenverhör über den Tod König Ladislaus von -Ungarn u. Böhmen</i> (Prague, 1856); Ignacz Acsády, <i>History of the +<p>See F. Palacky, <i>Zeugenverhör über den Tod König Ladislaus von +Ungarn u. Böhmen</i> (Prague, 1856); Ignacz Acsády, <i>History of the Hungarian State</i> (Hung.), vol. i. (Budapest, 1903).</p> </div> @@ -11973,10 +11935,10 @@ French man of letters, was born at Lamothe (Haute-Marne). While still young he removed to Paris, where the rest of his life was spent in literary activity. He died on the 26th of November 1791. His numerous works include <i>Contes philosophiques -et moraux</i> (1765), <i>Les Deux Âges du goût et du génie +et moraux</i> (1765), <i>Les Deux Âges du goût et du génie sous Louis XIV. et sous Louis XV.</i> (1769), a parallel and contrast, in which the decision is given in favour of the latter; <i>L’Espagne -littéraire</i> (1774); <i>Éloge de Voltaire</i> (1779) and <i>Éloge de Montaigne</i> +littéraire</i> (1774); <i>Éloge de Voltaire</i> (1779) and <i>Éloge de Montaigne</i> (1781).</p> @@ -11989,9 +11951,9 @@ of Bari, Madi, Kuku and other Nilotic Negroes. The enclave is bounded S.E. by the north-west shores of Albert Nyanza—as far south as the port of Mahagi—E. by the western bank of the Nile (Bahr-el-Jebel) to the point where the river is intersected -by 5° 30′ N., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the -Nile westward to 30° E. This meridian forms the west frontier -to 4° N., the frontier thence being the Nile-Congo watershed to +by 5° 30′ N., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the +Nile westward to 30° E. This meridian forms the west frontier +to 4° N., the frontier thence being the Nile-Congo watershed to the point nearest to Mahagi and from that point direct to Albert Nyanza.</p> @@ -12004,12 +11966,12 @@ direction. One chain, the Kuku Mountains (average height 2000 ft.), approaches close to the Nile and presents, as seen from the river, several apparently isolated peaks. At other places these mountains form precipices which stretch in a continuous -line like a huge wall. From Dufile in 3° 34′ N. to below the -Bedden Rapids in 4° 40′ N. the bed of the Nile is much obstructed +line like a huge wall. From Dufile in 3° 34′ N. to below the +Bedden Rapids in 4° 40′ N. the bed of the Nile is much obstructed and the river throughout this reach is unnavigable (see Nile). Below the Bedden Rapids rises the conical hill of Rejaf, and north of that point the Nile valley becomes flat. Ranges of hill, -however, are visible farther westwards, and a little north of 5° N. +however, are visible farther westwards, and a little north of 5° N. is Jebel Lado, a conspicuous mountain 2500 ft. high and some 12 m. distant from the Nile. It has given its name to the district, being the first hill seen from the Nile in the ascent of some @@ -12056,7 +12018,7 @@ May of the same year Great Britain granted to Leopold II., as sovereign of the Congo State, a lease of large areas lying west of the upper Nile inclusive of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Fashoda. Pressed however by France, Leopold II. agreed to occupy only -that part of the leased area east of 30° E. and south of 5° 30′ N., +that part of the leased area east of 30° E. and south of 5° 30′ N., and in this manner the actual limits of the Lado Enclave, as it was thereafter called, were fixed. Congo State forces had penetrated to the Nile valley as early as 1891, but it was not @@ -12066,21 +12028,21 @@ occupation of the Lado Enclave was assured. After the withdrawal of the French from Fashoda, Leopold II. revived (1899) his claim to the whole of the area, leased to him in 1894. In this claim he was unsuccessful, and the lease, by a new agreement -made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>, § 5). +made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>, § 5). The king however retained the enclave, with the stipulation that six months after the termination of his reign it should be handed over to the Anglo-Sudanese government (see <i>Treaty Series</i>, No. 4, 1906).</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Le Mouvement géographique</i> (Brussels) <i>passim</i>, and especially +<p>See <i>Le Mouvement géographique</i> (Brussels) <i>passim</i>, and especially articles in the 1910 issues.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LADOGA<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (formerly <span class="sc">Nevo</span>), a lake of northern Russia, between -59° 56′ and 61° 46′ N., and 29° 53′ and 32° 50′ E., surrounded +59° 56′ and 61° 46′ N., and 29° 53′ and 32° 50′ E., surrounded by the governments of St Petersburg and Olonets, and of Viborg in Finland. It has the form of a quadrilateral, elongated from N.W. to S.E. Its eastern and southern shores are flat and @@ -12105,7 +12067,7 @@ afford a variety of granites and crystalline slates of the Laurentian system, whilst Valamo island is made up of a rock which Russian geologists describe as orthoclastic hypersthenite. The granite and marble of Serdobol, and the sandstone of Putilovo, are much used -for buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkäranta +for buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkäranta mine are exported.</p> <p>No fewer than seventy rivers enter Ladoga, pouring into it the @@ -12120,9 +12082,9 @@ corner into the Gulf of Finland, rolling down its broad channel 104,000 cubic ft. of water per second.</p> <p>The water of Ladoga is very pure and cold; in May the surface -temperature does not exceed 36° Fahr., and even in August it reaches -only 50° and 53°, the average yearly temperature of the air at -Valamo being 36.8°. The lake begins to freeze in October, but it is +temperature does not exceed 36° Fahr., and even in August it reaches +only 50° and 53°, the average yearly temperature of the air at +Valamo being 36.8°. The lake begins to freeze in October, but it is only about the end of December that it is frozen in its deeper parts; and it remains ice-bound until the end of March, though broad icefields continue to float in the middle of the lake until broken up by @@ -12152,17 +12114,17 @@ two directions from St Petersburg—to the monasteries of Konnevitz and Valamo, and to the mouth of the Svir, whence they go up that river to Lake Onega and Petrozavodsk; and small vessels transport timber, firewood, planks, iron, kaolin, granite, marble, fish, hay and -various small wares from the northern shore to Schlüsselburg, and +various small wares from the northern shore to Schlüsselburg, and thence to St Petersburg. Navigation on the lake being too dangerous for small craft, canals with an aggregate length of 104 m. were dug in 1718-1731, and others in 1861-1886 having an aggregate length of 101 m. along its southern shore, uniting with the Neva at -Schlüsselburg the mouths of the rivers Volkhov, Syas and Svir, all +Schlüsselburg the mouths of the rivers Volkhov, Syas and Svir, all links in the elaborate system of canals which connect the upper Volga with the Gulf of Finland.</p> <p>The population (35,000) on the shores of the lake is sparse, and the -towns—Schlüsselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga +towns—Schlüsselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga (4144); Kexholm (1325) and Serdobol—are small. The monasteries of Valamo, founded in 992, on the island of the same name, and Konnevskiy, on Konnevitz island, founded in 1393, are visited every @@ -12172,8 +12134,8 @@ year by many thousands of pilgrims.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LADY<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hlaéfdige</i>, Mid. Eng. <i>láfdi</i>, <i>lāvedi</i>; the first part -of the word is <i>hláf</i>, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding <i>hláford</i>, +<p><span class="bold">LADY<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hlaéfdige</i>, Mid. Eng. <i>láfdi</i>, <i>lāvedi</i>; the first part +of the word is <i>hláf</i>, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding <i>hláford</i>, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in “dough”; the sense development from bread-kneader, bread-maker, to the ordinary meaning, though @@ -12185,7 +12147,7 @@ The primary meaning of mistress of a household is, if not obsolete, in present usage only a vulgarism. The special use of the word as a title of the Virgin Mary, usually “Our Lady,” represents the Lat. <i>Domina Nostra</i>. In Lady Day and Lady Chapel the -word is properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. <i>hlaéfdigan</i>. +word is properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. <i>hlaéfdigan</i>. As a title of nobility the uses of “lady” are mainly paralleled by those of “lord.” It is thus a less formal alternative to the full title giving the specific rank, of marchioness, countess, viscountess @@ -12222,15 +12184,15 @@ It is the general word for any woman of a certain social position <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LADYBANK,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 5½ m. -S.W. of Cupar by the North British railway, ½ m. from the left +<p><span class="bold">LADYBANK,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 5½ m. +S.W. of Cupar by the North British railway, ½ m. from the left bank of the Eden. Pop. (1901) 1340. Besides having a station on the main line to Dundee, it is also connected with Perth and Kinross and is a railway junction of some importance and possesses a locomotive depot. It is an industrial centre, linen weaving, coal mining and malting being the principal industries. <span class="sc">Kettle</span>, a village 1 m. S., has prehistoric barrows and a fort. -At <span class="sc">Collessie</span>, 2½ m. N. by W., a standing stone, a mound and +At <span class="sc">Collessie</span>, 2½ m. N. by W., a standing stone, a mound and traces of ancient camps exist, while urns and coins have been found. Between the parishes of Collessie and Monimail the boundary line takes the form of a crescent known as the Bow @@ -12576,8 +12538,8 @@ Laevius Milissus there referred to is the same person. Definite references do not occur before the 2nd century (Fronto, <i>Ep. ad M. Caes.</i> i. 3; Aulus Gellius, <i>Noct. Att.</i> ii. 24, xii. 10, xix. 9; Apuleius, <i>De magia</i>, 30; Porphyrion, <i>Ad Horat. carm.</i> iii. 1, 2). -Some sixty miscellaneous lines are preserved (see Bährens, -<i>Fragm. poët. rom.</i> pp. 287-293), from which it is difficult to see +Some sixty miscellaneous lines are preserved (see Bährens, +<i>Fragm. poët. rom.</i> pp. 287-293), from which it is difficult to see how ancient critics could have regarded him as the master of Ovid or Catullus. Gellius and Ausonius state that he composed an <i>Erotopaegnia</i>, and in other sources he is credited with <i>Adonis</i>, @@ -12587,20 +12549,20 @@ They were not serious poems, but light and often licentious skits on the heroic myths.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See O. Ribbeck, <i>Geschichte der römischen Dichtung</i>, i.; H. de la -Ville de Mirmont, <i>Étude biographique et littéraire sur le poète Laevius</i> +<p>See O. Ribbeck, <i>Geschichte der römischen Dichtung</i>, i.; H. de la +Ville de Mirmont, <i>Étude biographique et littéraire sur le poète Laevius</i> (Paris, 1900), with critical ed. of the fragments, and remarks on -vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, <i>Poëtarum latinorum reliquiae</i> -(Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, <i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</i> +vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, <i>Poëtarum latinorum reliquiae</i> +(Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, <i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</i> (2nd ed.), pt. i. p. 163; W. Teuffel, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i> (Eng. -tr.), § 150, 4; a convenient summary in F. Plessis, <i>La Poésie latine</i> +tr.), § 150, 4; a convenient summary in F. Plessis, <i>La Poésie latine</i> (1909), pp. 139-142.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAEVULINIC ACID<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (β-acetopropionic acid), C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">3</span> or -CH<span class="su">3</span>CO·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose, +CH<span class="su">3</span>CO·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose, inulin, starch, &c., by boiling them with dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acids. It may be synthesized by condensing sodium acetoacetate with monochloracetic ester, the acetosuccinic ester @@ -12612,7 +12574,7 @@ produced being then hydrolysed with dilute hydrochloric acid <p class="noind">It may also be prepared by heating the anhydride of γ-methyloxy-glutaric acid with concentrated sulphuric acid, and by oxidation of methyl heptenone and of geraniol. It crystallizes in plates, -which melt at 32.5-33° C. and boil at 148-149° (15 mm.) (A. +which melt at 32.5-33° C. and boil at 148-149° (15 mm.) (A. Michael, <i>Jour. prak. Chem.</i>, 1891 [2], 44, p. 114). It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and water. The acid, when distilled slowly, is decomposed and yields α- and β-angelica lactones. @@ -12620,7 +12582,7 @@ When heated with hydriodic acid and phosphorus, it yields n-valeric acid; and with iodine and caustic soda solution it gives iodoform, even in the cold. With hydroxylamine it yields an oxime, which by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid -rearranges itself to N-methylsuccinimide [CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO]<span class="su">2</span>N·CH<span class="su">3</span>.</p> +rearranges itself to N-methylsuccinimide [CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO]<span class="su">2</span>N·CH<span class="su">3</span>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -12692,7 +12654,7 @@ del 1848-1849</i>, and in 1851-1852 his <i>Storia d’ Italia dal 1815 al 1848</i>, in 6 vols. He returned to Italy in 1854 and settled at Turin, and in 1856 he founded the <i>Piccolo Corriere d’ Italia</i>, an organ which had great influence in propagating the political -sentiments of the Società Nazionale Italiana, of which he ultimately +sentiments of the Società Nazionale Italiana, of which he ultimately was chosen president. With Daniele Manin (<i>q.v.</i>), one of the founders of that society, he advocated the unity of Italy under Victor Emmanuel even before Cavour, with whom at @@ -12721,7 +12683,7 @@ of Bourbon. He served under Marshal Boucicaut in Italy, and on his return to France after the evacuation of Genoa in 1409 became seneschal of the Bourbonnais. In the English wars he was with John I., 4th duke of Bourbon, at the capture of Soubise -in 1413, and of Compiègne in 1415. The duke then made him +in 1413, and of Compiègne in 1415. The duke then made him lieutenant-general in Languedoc and Guienne. He failed to defend Caen and Falaise in the interest of the dauphin (afterwards Charles VII.) against Henry V. in 1417 and 1418, but in @@ -12731,14 +12693,14 @@ Peur, duke of Burgundy. A series of successes over the English and Burgundians on the Loire was rewarded in 1420 with the government of Dauphiny and the office of marshal of France. La Fayette commanded the Franco-Scottish troops at the battle -of Baugé (1422), though he did not, as has been sometimes stated, +of Baugé (1422), though he did not, as has been sometimes stated, slay Thomas, duke of Clarence, with his own hand. In 1424 he was taken prisoner by the English at Verneuil, but was released shortly afterwards, and fought with Joan of Arc at Orleans and Patay in 1429. The marshal had become a member of the grand council of Charles VII., and with the exception of a short disgrace about 1430, due to the ill-will of Georges de la -Trémouille, he retained the royal favour all his life. He took +Trémouille, he retained the royal favour all his life. He took an active part in the army reform initiated by Charles VII., and the establishment of military posts for the suppression of brigandage. His last campaign was against the English in Normandy @@ -12771,20 +12733,20 @@ of her death in January 1665 Mlle de La Fayette was superior of a convent of her order which she had founded at Chaillot.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Mémoires de Madame de Motteville</i>; Victor Cousin, <i>Madame de -Hautefort</i> (Paris, 1868); L’Abbé Sorin, <i>Louise-Angèle de La Fayette</i> +<p>See <i>Mémoires de Madame de Motteville</i>; Victor Cousin, <i>Madame de +Hautefort</i> (Paris, 1868); L’Abbé Sorin, <i>Louise-Angèle de La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1893).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA FAYETTE, MARIE JOSEPH PAUL YVES ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER.<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> -<span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1757-1834), was born at the château +<span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1757-1834), was born at the château of Chavaniac in Auvergne, France, on the 6th of September 1757. His father<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> was killed at Minden in 1759, and his mother and his grandfather died in 1770, and thus at the age of thirteen he was left an orphan with a princely fortune. He married at sixteen -Marie Adrienne Françoise de Noailles (d. 1807), daughter of the +Marie Adrienne Françoise de Noailles (d. 1807), daughter of the duc d’Ayen and granddaughter of the duc de Noailles, then one of the most influential families in the kingdom. La Fayette chose to follow the career of his father, and entered the Guards.</p> @@ -12909,7 +12871,7 @@ the British West India Islands, of which he had been appointed chief of staff, and a formidable fleet assembled at Cadiz, but the armistice signed on the 20th of January 1783 between the belligerents put a stop to the expedition. He had been promoted -(1781) to the rank of <i>maréchal de camp</i> (major-general) +(1781) to the rank of <i>maréchal de camp</i> (major-general) in the French army, and he received every token of regard from his sovereign and his countrymen. He visited the United States again in 1784, and remained some five months as the @@ -12929,7 +12891,7 @@ part in its proceedings. He was chosen vice-president of the National Assembly, and on the 11th of July 1789 presented a declaration of rights, modelled on Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence in 1776. On the 15th of July, the second day of -the new régime, La Fayette was chosen by acclamation colonel-general +the new régime, La Fayette was chosen by acclamation colonel-general of the new National Guard of Paris. He also proposed the combination of the colours of Paris, red and blue, and the royal white, into the famous tricolour cockade of modern France @@ -12955,17 +12917,17 @@ command of the National Guard of the kingdom. In May he founded the “Society of 1789” which afterwards became the Feuillants Club. He took a prominent part in the celebration of July 14, 1790, the first anniversary of the destruction of the -Bastille. After suppressing an <i>émeute</i> in April 1791 he again +Bastille. After suppressing an <i>émeute</i> in April 1791 he again resigned his commission, and was again compelled to retain it. He was the friend of liberty as well as of order, and when Louis XVI. fled to Varennes he issued orders to stop him. Shortly afterwards he was made lieutenant-general in the army. He -commanded the troops in the suppression of another <i>émeute</i>, +commanded the troops in the suppression of another <i>émeute</i>, on the occasion of the proclamation of the constitution (September 18, 1791), after which, feeling that his task was done, he retired into private life. This did not prevent his friends from proposing him for the mayoralty of Paris in -opposition to Pétion.</p> +opposition to Pétion.</p> <p>When, in December 1791, three armies were formed on the western frontier to attack Austria, La Fayette was placed in @@ -12976,7 +12938,7 @@ in danger, he definitely opposed himself to the further advance of the Jacobin party, intending eventually to use his army for the restoration of a limited monarchy. On the 19th of August 1792 the Assembly declared him a traitor. He was compelled -to take refuge in the neutral territory of Liége, whence as one +to take refuge in the neutral territory of Liége, whence as one of the prime movers in the Revolution he was taken and held as a prisoner of state for five years, first in Prussian and afterwards in Austrian prisons, in spite of the intercession of @@ -13032,7 +12994,7 @@ He was away from Paris during the revolution of July 1830, but he took an active part in the “campaign of the banquets,” which led up to that of 1848. He died in December of the next year. His son, <span class="sc">Oscar Thomas Gilbert Motier de La Fayette</span> -(1815-1881), was educated at the École Polytechnique, and +(1815-1881), was educated at the École Polytechnique, and served as an artillery officer in Algeria. He entered the Chamber of Representatives in 1846 and voted, like his father, with the extreme Left. After the revolution of 1848 he received a post @@ -13047,18 +13009,18 @@ opinions. He was one of the secretaries of the Constituent Assembly, and a member of the senate from 1876 to 1888.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Mémoires historiques et pièces authentiques sur M. de La -Fayette pour servir à l’histoire des révolutions</i> (Paris, An II., 1793-1794); -B. Sarrans, <i>La Fayette et la Révolution de 1830, histoire des -choses et des hommes de Juillet</i> (Paris, 1834); <i>Mémoires, correspondances +<p>See <i>Mémoires historiques et pièces authentiques sur M. de La +Fayette pour servir à l’histoire des révolutions</i> (Paris, An II., 1793-1794); +B. Sarrans, <i>La Fayette et la Révolution de 1830, histoire des +choses et des hommes de Juillet</i> (Paris, 1834); <i>Mémoires, correspondances et manuscrits de La Fayette</i>, published by his family (6 vols., -Paris, 1837-1838); Regnault Warin, <i>Mémoires pour servir à la vie du -général La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1824); A. Bardoux, <i>La jeunesse de La -Fayette</i> (Paris, 1892); <i>Les Dernières années de La Fayette</i> (Paris, -1893); E. Charavaray, <i>Le Général La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1895); A. -Levasseur, <i>La Fayette en Amérique</i> 1824 (Paris, 1829); J. Cloquet, -<i>Souvenirs de la vie privée du général La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1836); Max -Büdinger, <i>La Fayette in Oesterreich</i> (Vienna, 1898); and M. M. +Paris, 1837-1838); Regnault Warin, <i>Mémoires pour servir à la vie du +général La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1824); A. Bardoux, <i>La jeunesse de La +Fayette</i> (Paris, 1892); <i>Les Dernières années de La Fayette</i> (Paris, +1893); E. Charavaray, <i>Le Général La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1895); A. +Levasseur, <i>La Fayette en Amérique</i> 1824 (Paris, 1829); J. Cloquet, +<i>Souvenirs de la vie privée du général La Fayette</i> (Paris, 1836); Max +Büdinger, <i>La Fayette in Oesterreich</i> (Vienna, 1898); and M. M. Crawford, <i>The Wife of Lafayette</i> (1908); Bayard Tuckerman, <i>Life of Lafayette</i> (New York, 1889); Charlemagne Tower, <i>The Marquis de La Fayette in the American Revolution</i> (Philadelphia, 1895).</p> @@ -13079,14 +13041,14 @@ baptized in Paris, on the 18th of March 1634. Her father, Marc Pioche de la Vergne, commandant of Havre, died when she was sixteen, and her mother seems to have been more occupied with her own than her daughter’s interests. Mme de la Vergne -married in 1651 the chevalier de Sévigné, and Marie thus became -connected with Mme de Sévigné, who was destined to be a +married in 1651 the chevalier de Sévigné, and Marie thus became +connected with Mme de Sévigné, who was destined to be a lifelong friend. She studied Greek, Latin and Italian, and inspired -in one of her tutors, Gilles de Ménage, an enthusiastic +in one of her tutors, Gilles de Ménage, an enthusiastic admiration which he expressed in verse in three or four languages. -Marie married in 1655 François Motier, comte de La Fayette. +Marie married in 1655 François Motier, comte de La Fayette. They lived on the count’s estates in Auvergne, according to her -own account (in a letter to Ménage) quite happily; but after +own account (in a letter to Ménage) quite happily; but after the birth of her two sons her husband disappeared so effectually that it was long supposed that he died about 1660, though he really lived until 1683. Mme de La Fayette had returned @@ -13098,12 +13060,12 @@ died Mme de La Fayette received the sincerest sympathy. Her first novel, <i>La Princesse de Montpensier</i>, was published anonymously in 1662; <i>Zayde</i> appeared in 1670 under the name of J. R. de Segrais; and in 1678 her masterpiece, <i>La Princesse -de Clèves</i>, also under the name of Segrais. The history of the -modern novel of sentiment begins with the <i>Princesse de Clèves</i>. -The interminable pages of Mlle de Scudéry with the <i>Précieuses</i> +de Clèves</i>, also under the name of Segrais. The history of the +modern novel of sentiment begins with the <i>Princesse de Clèves</i>. +The interminable pages of Mlle de Scudéry with the <i>Précieuses</i> and their admirers masquerading as Persians or ancient Romans had already been discredited by the burlesques of Paul Scarron -and Antoine Furetière. It remained for Mme de La Fayette +and Antoine Furetière. It remained for Mme de La Fayette to achieve the more difficult task of substituting something more satisfactory than the disconnected episodes of the <i>roman comique</i>. This she accomplished in a story offering in its shortness @@ -13114,8 +13076,8 @@ They act in a perfectly reasonable way and their motives are analysed with the finest discrimination. No doubt the semi-autobiographical character of the material partially explains Mme de La Fayette’s refusal to acknowledge the book. Contemporary -critics, even Mme de Sévigné amongst them, found -fault with the avowal made by Mme de Clèves to her husband. +critics, even Mme de Sévigné amongst them, found +fault with the avowal made by Mme de Clèves to her husband. In answer to these criticisms, which her anonymity prevented her from answering directly, Mme de La Fayette wrote her last novel, the <i>Comtesse de Tende</i>.</p> @@ -13136,10 +13098,10 @@ Madame de La Fayette died on the 25th of May 1692.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Sainte-Beuve, <i>Portraits de femmes</i>; the comte d’Haussonville, -<i>Madame de La Fayette</i> (1891), in the series of <i>Grands écrivains -français</i>; M. de Lescure’s notice prefixed to an edition of the -<i>Princesse de Clèves</i> (1881); and a critical edition of the historical -memoirs by Eugène Asse (1890). See also L. Rea, <i>Marie Madeleine, +<i>Madame de La Fayette</i> (1891), in the series of <i>Grands écrivains +français</i>; M. de Lescure’s notice prefixed to an edition of the +<i>Princesse de Clèves</i> (1881); and a critical edition of the historical +memoirs by Eugène Asse (1890). See also L. Rea, <i>Marie Madeleine, comtesse de La Fayette</i> (1908).</p> </div> @@ -13207,34 +13169,34 @@ Lafayette was incorporated.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA FERTÉ<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span>, the name of a number of localities in France, -differentiated by agnomens. La Ferté Imbault (department of -Loir-et-Cher) was in the possession of Jacques d’Étampes +<p><span class="bold">LA FERTÉ<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span>, the name of a number of localities in France, +differentiated by agnomens. La Ferté Imbault (department of +Loir-et-Cher) was in the possession of Jacques d’Étampes (1590-1668), marshal of France and ambassador in England, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>68</span> -who was known as the marquis of La Ferté Imbault. La -Ferté Nabert (the modern La Ferté Saint Aubin, department +who was known as the marquis of La Ferté Imbault. La +Ferté Nabert (the modern La Ferté Saint Aubin, department of Loiret) was acquired in the 16th century by the house of Saint Nectaire (corrupted to Senneterre), and erected into a duchy -in the peerage of France (<i>duché-pairie</i>) in 1665 for Henri de Saint -Nectaire, marshal of France. It was called La Ferté Lowendal +in the peerage of France (<i>duché-pairie</i>) in 1665 for Henri de Saint +Nectaire, marshal of France. It was called La Ferté Lowendal after it had been acquired by Marshal Lowendal in 1748.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA FERTÉ-BERNARD<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span>, a town of western France, in the +<p><span class="bold">LA FERTÉ-BERNARD<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span>, a town of western France, in the department of Sarthe, on the Huisne, 27 m. N.E. of Le Mans, on the railway from Paris to that town. Pop. (1906) 4358. -La Ferté carries on cloth manufacture and flour-milling and -has trade in horses and cattle. Its church of Nôtre Dame has +La Ferté carries on cloth manufacture and flour-milling and +has trade in horses and cattle. Its church of Nôtre Dame has a choir (16th century) with graceful apse-chapels of Renaissance architecture and remarkable windows of the same period; the remainder of the church is in the Flamboyant Gothic style. The town hall occupies the superstructure and flanking towers of a fortified gateway of the 15th century.</p> -<p>La Ferté-Bernard owes its origin and name to a stronghold -(<i>fermeté</i>) built about the 11th century and afterwards held by +<p>La Ferté-Bernard owes its origin and name to a stronghold +(<i>fermeté</i>) built about the 11th century and afterwards held by the family of Bernard. In 1424 it did not succumb to the English troops till after a four months’ siege. It belonged in the 16th century to the family of Guise and supported the League, but @@ -13242,7 +13204,7 @@ was captured by the royal forces in 1590.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA FERTÉ-MILON<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span>, a town of northern France in the department +<p><span class="bold">LA FERTÉ-MILON<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span>, a town of northern France in the department of Aisne on the Ourcq, 47 m. W. by S. of Reims by rail. Pop. (1906) 1563. The town has imposing remains comprising one side flanked by four towers of an unfinished castle built @@ -13292,7 +13254,7 @@ Louis Philippe’s oath to the new constitution. The clamour of the Paris mob for the death of the imprisoned ministers of Charles X., which in October culminated in riots, induced the more moderate members of the government—including Guizot, -the duc de Broglie and Casimir-Périer—to hand over the +the duc de Broglie and Casimir-Périer—to hand over the administration to a ministry which, possessing the confidence of the revolutionary Parisians, should be in a better position to save the ministers from their fury. On the 5th of November, @@ -13330,82 +13292,82 @@ as long as he lived, but failed in 1848. He died in Paris on the <p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Apollinaire Antoine Maurice, comte d’Argout (1782-1858), afterwards reconciled to the July monarchy, and a member of the Laffitte -Casimir-Périer and Thiers cabinets.</p> +Casimir-Périer and Thiers cabinets.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAFFITTE, PIERRE<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1823-1903), French Positivist, was -born on the 21st of February 1823 at Béguey (Gironde). Residing +born on the 21st of February 1823 at Béguey (Gironde). Residing at Paris as a teacher of mathematics, he became a disciple of Comte, who appointed him his literary executor. On the schism of the Positivist body which followed Comte’s death, he was recognized as head of the section which accepted the full -Comtian doctrine; the other section adhering to Littré, who +Comtian doctrine; the other section adhering to Littré, who rejected the religion of humanity as inconsistent with the materialism of Comte’s earlier period. From 1853 Laffitte delivered Positivist lectures in the room formerly occupied by Comte in the rue Monsieur le Prince. He published <i>Les Grands -Types de l’humanité</i> (1875) and <i>Cours de philosophie première</i> +Types de l’humanité</i> (1875) and <i>Cours de philosophie première</i> (1889). In 1893 he was appointed to the new chair founded -at the Collège de France for the exposition of the general history +at the Collège de France for the exposition of the general history of science, and it was largely due to his inspiration that a statue to Comte was erected in the Place de la Sorbonne in 1902. He died on the 4th of January 1903.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA FLÈCHE<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span>, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement +<p><span class="bold">LA FLÈCHE<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span>, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Sarthe on the Loire, 31 m. S.S.W. of Le Mans by rail. Pop. (1906) town 7800; commune 10,663. -The chief interest of the town lies in the Prytanée, a famous +The chief interest of the town lies in the Prytanée, a famous school for the sons of officers, originally a college founded for the Jesuits in 1607 by Henry IV. The buildings, including a fine chapel, were erected from 1620 to 1653 and are surrounded by a park. A bronze statue of Henry IV. stands in the marketplace. -La Flèche is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal +La Flèche is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of first instance, and carries on tanning, flour-milling, and the manufacture of paper, starch, wooden shoes and gloves. It is an agricultural market.</p> -<p>The lords of La Flèche became counts of Maine about 1100, +<p>The lords of La Flèche became counts of Maine about 1100, but the lordship became separate from the county and passed in the 16th century to the family of Bourbon and thus to Henry IV.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1797-1873), French actor, was +<p><span class="bold">LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1797-1873), French actor, was born at Bordeaux on the 15th of May 1797. Abandoning his profession as assistant ship’s doctor in the navy, he went to Paris to study singing and acting. He had some experience at -a small theatre, and was preparing to appear at the Opéra +a small theatre, and was preparing to appear at the Opéra Comique when the director of the Vaudeville offered him an -engagement. Here he made his <i>début</i> in 1821 in <i>La Somnambule</i>, +engagement. Here he made his <i>début</i> in 1821 in <i>La Somnambule</i>, and his good looks and excellent voice soon brought him into <span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>69</span> -public favour. After several years at the Nouveautés and the +public favour. After several years at the Nouveautés and the Vaudeville, on the burning of the latter in 1838 he went to England, and married, at Gretna Green, Jenny Colon, from whom he was soon divorced. On his return to Paris he joined -the Variétés, where he acted for fifteen years in such plays as -<i>Le Chevalier de Saint Georges</i>, <i>Le Lion empaillé</i>, <i>Une dernière -conquête</i>, &c. Another engagement at the Vaudeville followed, -and one at the Gaiété, and he ended his brilliant career at the +the Variétés, where he acted for fifteen years in such plays as +<i>Le Chevalier de Saint Georges</i>, <i>Le Lion empaillé</i>, <i>Une dernière +conquête</i>, &c. Another engagement at the Vaudeville followed, +and one at the Gaiété, and he ended his brilliant career at the Gymnase in the part of the noble father in such plays as Les -<i>Vieux Garçons</i> and <i>Nos bons villageois</i>. He died in Paris on the +<i>Vieux Garçons</i> and <i>Nos bons villageois</i>. He died in Paris on the 19th of April 1873.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1621-1695), French poet, was -born at Château Thierry in Champagne, probably on the 8th of -July 1621. His father was Charles de La Fontaine, “maître -des eaux et forêts”—a kind of deputy-ranger—of the duchy of -Château Thierry; his mother was Françoise Pidoux. On +born at Château Thierry in Champagne, probably on the 8th of +July 1621. His father was Charles de La Fontaine, “maître +des eaux et forêts”—a kind of deputy-ranger—of the duchy of +Château Thierry; his mother was Françoise Pidoux. On both sides his family was of the highest provincial middle class, but was not noble; his father was also fairly wealthy. -Jean, the eldest child, was educated at the <i>collège</i> (grammar-school) +Jean, the eldest child, was educated at the <i>collège</i> (grammar-school) of Reims, and at the end of his school days he entered the Oratory in May 1641, and the seminary of Saint-Magloire in October of the same year; but a very short sojourn proved @@ -13414,7 +13376,7 @@ studied law, and is said to have been admitted as <i>avocat</i>, though there does not seem to be actual proof of this. He was, however, settled in life, or at least might have been so, somewhat early. In 1647 his father resigned his rangership in his favour, and -arranged a marriage for him with Marie Héricart, a girl of sixteen, +arranged a marriage for him with Marie Héricart, a girl of sixteen, who brought him twenty thousand livres, and expectations. She seems to have been both handsome and intelligent, but the two did not get on well together. There appears to be absolutely @@ -13425,12 +13387,12 @@ her is that she was a negligent housewife and an inveterate novel reader; La Fontaine himself was constantly away from home, was certainly not strict in point of conjugal fidelity, and was so bad a man of business that his affairs became involved -in hopeless difficulty, and a <i>séparation de biens</i> had to take +in hopeless difficulty, and a <i>séparation de biens</i> had to take place in 1658. This was a perfectly amicable transaction for the benefit of the family; by degrees, however, the pair, still without any actual quarrel, ceased to live together, and for the greater part of the last forty years of La Fontaine’s life he lived -in Paris while his wife dwelt at Château Thierry, which, however, +in Paris while his wife dwelt at Château Thierry, which, however, he frequently visited. One son was born to them in 1653, and was educated and taken care of wholly by his mother.</p> @@ -13459,7 +13421,7 @@ to him. In the same year he wrote a ballad, <i>Les Rieurs du Beau-Richard</i>, and this was followed by many small pieces of occasional poetry addressed to various personages from the king downwards. Fouquet soon incurred the royal displeasure, but -La Fontaine, like most of his literary protégés, was not unfaithful +La Fontaine, like most of his literary protégés, was not unfaithful to him, the well-known elegy <i>Pleurez, nymphes de Vaux</i>, being by no means the only proof of his devotion. Indeed it is thought not improbable that a journey to Limoges in 1663 in company @@ -13471,7 +13433,7 @@ to which they were not strictly entitled, and, some old edicts on the subject having been put in force, an informer procured a sentence against the poet fining him 2000 livres. He found, however, a new protector in the duke and still more in the -duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors at Château Thierry, +duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors at Château Thierry, and nothing more is heard of the fine. Some of La Fontaine’s liveliest verses are addressed to the duchess, Anne Mancini, the youngest of Mazarin’s nieces, and it is even probable that @@ -13483,7 +13445,7 @@ had been comparatively trivial, though much of his work was handed about in manuscript long before it was regularly published. It was about this time that the quartette of the Rue du Vieux Colombier, so famous in French literary history, was formed. -It consisted of La Fontaine, Racine, Boileau and Molière, the +It consisted of La Fontaine, Racine, Boileau and Molière, the last of whom was almost of the same age as La Fontaine, the other two considerably younger. Chapelle was also a kind of outsider in the coterie. There are many anecdotes, some pretty @@ -13499,7 +13461,7 @@ regularly commissioned and sworn in as gentleman to the duchess dowager of Orleans, and was installed in the Luxembourg. He still retained his rangership, and in 1666 we have something like a reprimand from Colbert suggesting that he should look -into some malpractices at Château Thierry. In the same year +into some malpractices at Château Thierry. In the same year appeared the second book of the <i>Contes</i>, and in 1668 the first six books of the <i>Fables</i>, with more of both kinds in 1671. In this latter year a curious instance of the docility with which the @@ -13510,7 +13472,7 @@ his situation, which had for some time been decidedly flourishing, showed signs of changing very much for the worse. The duchess of Orleans died, and he apparently had to give up his rangership, probably selling it to pay debts. But there was -always a providence for La Fontaine. Madame de la Sablière, +always a providence for La Fontaine. Madame de la Sablière, a woman of great beauty, of considerable intellectual power and of high character, invited him to make his home in her house, where he lived for some twenty years. He seems to have had @@ -13519,7 +13481,7 @@ devote himself to his two different lines of poetry, as well as to that of theatrical composition.</p> <p>In 1682 he was, at more than sixty years of age, recognized -as one of the first men of letters of France. Madame de Sévigné, +as one of the first men of letters of France. Madame de Sévigné, one of the soundest literary critics of the time, and by no means given to praise mere novelties, had spoken of his second collection of <i>Fables</i> published in the winter of 1678 as divine; and it is @@ -13541,12 +13503,12 @@ and the election was left pending. Another vacancy occurred, however, some months later, and to this Boileau was elected. The king hastened to approve the choice effusively, adding, “Vous pouvez incessamment recevoir La Fontaine, il a promis -d’être sage.” His admission was indirectly the cause of the +d’être sage.” His admission was indirectly the cause of the only serious literary quarrel of his life. A dispute took place -between the Academy and one of its members, Antoine Furetière, +between the Academy and one of its members, Antoine Furetière, on the subject of the latter’s French dictionary, which was decided to be a breach of the Academy’s corporate privileges. -Furetière, a man of no small ability, bitterly assailed those whom +Furetière, a man of no small ability, bitterly assailed those whom he considered to be his enemies, and among them La Fontaine, whose unlucky <i>Contes</i> made him peculiarly vulnerable, his second collection of these tales having been the subject of a @@ -13562,8 +13524,8 @@ of the last of his many hosts and protectors, Monsieur and Madame d’Hervart, and fell in love with a certain Madame Ulrich, a lady of some position but of doubtful character. This acquaintance was accompanied by a great familiarity with -Vendôme, Chaulieu and the rest of the libertine coterie of the -Temple; but, though Madame de la Sablière had long given +Vendôme, Chaulieu and the rest of the libertine coterie of the +Temple; but, though Madame de la Sablière had long given herself up almost entirely to good works and religious exercises, La Fontaine continued an inmate of her house until her death in 1693. What followed is told in one of the best known of @@ -13577,14 +13539,14 @@ M. Poucet, had brought him, not indeed to understand, but to acknowledge the impropriety of the <i>Contes</i>, and it is said that the destruction of a new play of some merit was demanded and submitted to as a proof of repentance. A pleasant story is told -of the young duke of Burgundy, Fénelon’s pupil, who was then +of the young duke of Burgundy, Fénelon’s pupil, who was then only eleven years old, sending 50 louis to La Fontaine as a present of his own motion. But, though La Fontaine recovered for the time, he was broken by age and infirmity, and his new hosts had to nurse rather than to entertain him, which they did very carefully and kindly. He did a little more work, completing his <i>Fables</i> among other things; but he did not survive -Madame de la Sablière much more than two years, dying on the +Madame de la Sablière much more than two years, dying on the 13th of April 1695, at the age of seventy-three. He was buried in the cemetery of the Holy Innocents. His wife survived him nearly fifteen years.</p> @@ -13592,7 +13554,7 @@ nearly fifteen years.</p> <p>The curious personal character of La Fontaine, like that of some other men of letters, has been enshrined in a kind of legend by literary tradition. At an early age his absence of mind and -indifference to business gave a subject to Tallemant des Réaux. +indifference to business gave a subject to Tallemant des Réaux. His later contemporaries helped to swell the tale, and the 18th century finally accepted it, including the anecdotes of his meeting his son, being told who he was, and remarking, “Ah, yes, I @@ -13602,15 +13564,15 @@ him to visit at his house just as before; of his going into company with his stockings wrong side out, &c., with, for a contrast, those of his awkwardness and silence, if not positive rudeness, in company. It ought to be remembered, as a comment on the -unfavourable description by La Bruyère, that La Fontaine was a -special friend and ally of Benserade, La Bruyère’s chief literary +unfavourable description by La Bruyère, that La Fontaine was a +special friend and ally of Benserade, La Bruyère’s chief literary enemy. But after all deductions much will remain, especially when it is remembered that one of the chief authorities for these anecdotes is Louis Racine, a man who possessed intelligence and moral worth, and who received them from his father, La Fontaine’s attached friend for more than thirty years. Perhaps the best worth recording of all these stories is one of the Vieux -Colombier quartette, which tells how Molière, while Racine +Colombier quartette, which tells how Molière, while Racine and Boileau were exercising their wits upon “le bonhomme” or “le bon” (by both which titles La Fontaine was familiarly known), remarked to a bystander, “Nos beaux esprits ont beau @@ -13630,9 +13592,9 @@ It was thought by contemporary judges who were both competent and friendly that La Fontaine attempted too many styles, and there is something in the criticism. His dramatic efforts are especially weak. The best pieces usually published under his name—<i>Ragotin</i>, -<i>Le Florentin</i>, <i>La Coupe enchantée</i>, were originally fathered not by -him but by Champmeslé, the husband of the famous actress who -captivated Racine and Charles de Sévigné. His avowed work was +<i>Le Florentin</i>, <i>La Coupe enchantée</i>, were originally fathered not by +him but by Champmeslé, the husband of the famous actress who +captivated Racine and Charles de Sévigné. His avowed work was chiefly in the form of opera, a form of no great value at its best. <i>Psyche</i> has all the advantages of its charming story and of La Fontaine’s style, but it is perhaps principally interesting nowadays @@ -13646,7 +13608,7 @@ but its best things, such as the description of night—</p> though as in this case sometimes very beautiful conceits. The elegies, the epistles, the epigrams, the ballades, contain many things which would be very creditable to a minor poet or a writer of vers de -société, but even if they be taken according to the wise rule of modern +société, but even if they be taken according to the wise rule of modern criticism, each in its kind, and judged simply according to their rank in that kind, they fall far below the merits of the two great collections of verse narratives which have assured La Fontaine’s immortality.</p> @@ -13664,7 +13626,7 @@ a writer who does not choose indecent subjects from a deliberate knowledge that they are considered indecent, and with a deliberate desire to pander to a vicious taste. No one who followed him in the style can claim this excuse; he can, and the way in which contemporaries -of stainless virtue such as Madame de Sévigné speak of his work +of stainless virtue such as Madame de Sévigné speak of his work shows that, though the new public opinion was growing up, it was not finally accepted. In the <i>Contes</i> La Fontaine for the most part attempts little originality of theme. He takes his stories (varying @@ -13677,12 +13639,12 @@ certain drawbacks. They are not penetrated by the half pagan ardour for physical beauty and the delights of sense which animates and excuses the early Italian Renaissance. They have not the subtle mixture of passion and sensuality, of poetry and appetite, which -distinguishes the work of Marguerite and of the Pléiade. They are +distinguishes the work of Marguerite and of the Pléiade. They are emphatically <i>contes pour rire</i>, a genuine expression of the <i>esprit gaulois</i> of the fabliau writers and of Rabelais, destitute of the grossness of envelope which had formerly covered that spirit. A comparison -of “La Fiancée du roi de Garbe” with its original in -Boccaccio (especially if the reader takes M. Émile Montégut’s admirable +of “La Fiancée du roi de Garbe” with its original in +Boccaccio (especially if the reader takes M. Émile Montégut’s admirable essay as a commentary) will illustrate better than anything else what they have and what they have not. Some writers have pleaded hard for the admission of actual passion of the poetical sort @@ -13725,15 +13687,15 @@ like Lamartine, denied that the moral tone of the whole is as fresh and healthy as its literary interest is vivid. The book has therefore naturally become the standard reading book of French both at home and abroad, a position which it shares in verse with the -<i>Télémaque</i> of Fénelon in prose. It is no small testimony to its merit +<i>Télémaque</i> of Fénelon in prose. It is no small testimony to its merit that not even this use or misuse has interfered with its popularity.</p> <p>The general literary character of La Fontaine is, with allowance made for the difference of subject, visible equally in the <i>Fables</i> and in the <i>Contes</i>. Perhaps one of the hardest sayings in French literature for an English student is the dictum of Joubert to the effect that -“<i>Il y a dans La Fontaine une plénitude de poésie qu’on ne trouve nulle -part dans les autres auteurs français.</i>” The difficulty arises from the +“<i>Il y a dans La Fontaine une plénitude de poésie qu’on ne trouve nulle +part dans les autres auteurs français.</i>” The difficulty arises from the ambiguity of the terms. For inventiveness of fancy and for diligent observation of the rules of art La Fontaine deserves, if not the first, almost the first place among French poets. In his hands the oldest @@ -13745,10 +13707,10 @@ his licences in rhyme and orthography, were merely ingenious devices for the sake of easy writing, intended to evade the trammels of the stately couplet and <i>rimes difficiles</i> enjoined by Boileau. Lamartine in the attack already mentioned affects contempt of the “vers -boiteux, disloqués, inégaux, sans symmétrie ni dans l’oreille ni sur la +boiteux, disloqués, inégaux, sans symmétrie ni dans l’oreille ni sur la page.” This opinion may be said to have been finally exploded by the most accurate metrical critic and one of the most skilful metrical -practitioners that France has ever had, Théodore de Banville; and +practitioners that France has ever had, Théodore de Banville; and it is only surprising that it should ever have been entertained by any professional maker of verse. La Fontaine’s irregularities are strictly regulated, his cadences carefully arranged, and the whole effect may @@ -13775,9 +13737,9 @@ never likely to be surpassed.</p> <p>La Fontaine did not during his life issue any complete edition of his works, nor even of the two greatest and most important divisions of them. The most remarkable of his separate publications have -already been noticed. Others were the <i>Poëme de la captivité de St +already been noticed. Others were the <i>Poëme de la captivité de St Malc</i> (1673), one of the pieces inspired by the Port-Royalists, the -<i>Poëme du Quinquina</i> (1692), a piece of task work also, though of a +<i>Poëme du Quinquina</i> (1692), a piece of task work also, though of a very different kind, and a number of pieces published either in small pamphlets or with the works of other men. Among the latter may be singled out the pieces published by the poet with the works of @@ -13789,24 +13751,24 @@ and published as <i>Œuvres diverses</i> (1729). During the 18th century two of the most magnificent illustrated editions ever published of any poet reproduced the two chief works of La Fontaine. The <i>Fables</i> were illustrated by Oudry (1755-1759), the <i>Contes</i> by Eisen -(1762). This latter under the title of “Edition des Fermiers-Généraux” +(1762). This latter under the title of “Edition des Fermiers-Généraux” fetches a high price. During the first thirty years of the 19th century Walckenaer, a great student of French 17th-century classics, published for the house of Didot three successive editions of La Fontaine, the last (1826-1827) being perhaps entitled to the rank of the standard edition, as his <i>Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de La Fontaine</i> is the standard biography and bibliography. The later -editions of M. Marty-Laveaux in the <i>Bibliothèque elzévirienne</i>, A. -Pauly in the <i>Collection des classiques françaises</i> of M. Lemerre and +editions of M. Marty-Laveaux in the <i>Bibliothèque elzévirienne</i>, A. +Pauly in the <i>Collection des classiques françaises</i> of M. Lemerre and L. Moland in that of M. Garnier supply in different forms all that can be wished. The second is the handsomest, the third, which is complete, perhaps the most generally useful. Editions, selections, translations, &c., of the <i>Fables</i>, especially for school use, are innumerable; but an illustrated edition published by the <i>Librairie des Bibliophiles</i> (1874) deserves to be mentioned as not unworthy of its 18th-century -predecessors. The works of M. Grouchy, <i>Documents inédits sur +predecessors. The works of M. Grouchy, <i>Documents inédits sur La Fontaine</i> (1893); of G. Lafenestre, <i>Jean de La Fontaine</i> (1895); -and of Émile Faguet, <i>Jean de La Fontaine</i> (1900), should be +and of Émile Faguet, <i>Jean de La Fontaine</i> (1900), should be mentioned.</p> </div> <div class="author">(G. Sa.)</div> @@ -13814,13 +13776,13 @@ mentioned.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Bart.</span> (1807-1864), -Canadian statesman and judge, third son of Antoine Ménard +Canadian statesman and judge, third son of Antoine Ménard LaFontaine (1772-1813) and Marie-J-Fontaine Bienvenue, was born at Boucherville in the province of Quebec on the 4th of -October 1807. LaFontaine was educated at the Collège de -Montréal under the direction of the Sulpicians, and was called +October 1807. LaFontaine was educated at the Collège de +Montréal under the direction of the Sulpicians, and was called to the bar of the province of Lower Canada on the 18th of August -1829. He married firstly Adèle, daughter of A. Berthelot of +1829. He married firstly Adèle, daughter of A. Berthelot of Quebec; and, secondly, Jane, daughter of Charles Morrison, of Berthier, by whom he had two sons. In 1830 he was elected a member of the House of Assembly for the county of Terrebonne, @@ -13864,7 +13826,7 @@ law; he reasoned closely and presented his conclusions with directness. He was upright in his conduct, sincerely attached to the traditions of his race, and laboured conscientiously to establish responsible government in Canada. His principal works are: <i>L’Analyse de l’ordonnance -du conseil spécial sur les bureaux d’hypothèques</i> (Montreal, 1842); +du conseil spécial sur les bureaux d’hypothèques</i> (Montreal, 1842); <i>Observations sur les questions seigneuriales</i> (Montreal, 1854); see <i>LaFontaine</i>, by A. DeCelles (Toronto, 1906).</p> </div> @@ -13903,7 +13865,7 @@ he died on the 13th of December 1716.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1827-1891), German biblical scholar and orientalist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of -November 1827. His real name was Bötticher, Lagarde being +November 1827. His real name was Bötticher, Lagarde being his mother’s name. At Berlin (1844-1846) and Halle (1846-1847) he studied theology, philosophy and oriental languages. In 1852 his studies took him to London and Paris. In 1854 he @@ -13912,7 +13874,7 @@ interrupt his biblical studies. He edited the <i>Didascalia apostolorum syriace</i> (1854), and other Syriac texts collected in the British Museum and in Paris. In 1866 he received three years’ leave of absence to collect fresh materials, and in 1869 succeeded -Heinrich Ewald as professor of oriental languages at Göttingen. +Heinrich Ewald as professor of oriental languages at Göttingen. Like Ewald, Lagarde was an active worker in a variety of subjects and languages; but his chief aim, the elucidation of the Bible, was almost always kept in view. He edited the @@ -13938,10 +13900,10 @@ should also be made of the valuable <i>Onomastica sacra</i> (1870; 2nd ed., 1887). Lagarde also took some part in politics. He belonged to the Prussian Conservative party, and was a violent anti-Semite. The bitterness which he felt appeared in his -writings. He died at Göttingen on the 22nd of December 1891.</p> +writings. He died at Göttingen on the 22nd of December 1891.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>; and cf. Anna +<p>See the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>; and cf. Anna de Lagarde, <i>Paul de Lagarde</i> (1894).</p> </div> @@ -14027,7 +13989,7 @@ objects found at Tello are the most valuable art treasures up to this time discovered in Babylonia.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See E. de Sarzec, <i>Découvertes en Chaldée</i> (1887 foll.).</p> +<p>See E. de Sarzec, <i>Découvertes en Chaldée</i> (1887 foll.).</p> </div> <div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div> @@ -14072,14 +14034,14 @@ being the former colony of Lagos; (2) small native states adjacent to the colony; and (3) the Yoruba country, farther inland. The total area is some 27,000 sq. m., or about the size of Scotland. The province is bounded S. by the Gulf of Guinea, -(from 2° 46′ 55″ to 4° 30′ E.); W. by the French colony of +(from 2° 46′ 55″ to 4° 30′ E.); W. by the French colony of Dahomey; N. and E. by other provinces of Nigeria.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The coast is low, marshy and malarious, and all along the shore the great Atlantic billows cause a dangerous surf. Behind the coast-line stretches a series of lagoons, in which are small -islands, that of Lagos having an area of 3¾ sq. m. Beyond the +islands, that of Lagos having an area of 3¾ sq. m. Beyond the lagoons and mangrove swamps is a broad zone of dense primeval forest—“the bush”—which completely separates the arable lands from the coast lagoons. The water-parting of the streams flowing @@ -14114,8 +14076,8 @@ In the northern districts it is probably considerably less than at Lagos, where it is about 70 in. a year. The variation is, however, very great. In 1901 the rainfall was 112 in., in 1902 but 47, these figures being respectively the highest and lowest recorded in a period of -seventeen years. The mean temperature at Lagos is 82.5° F., the -range being from 68° to 91°. At certain seasons sudden heavy squalls +seventeen years. The mean temperature at Lagos is 82.5° F., the +range being from 68° to 91°. At certain seasons sudden heavy squalls of wind and rain that last for a few hours are common. The hurricane and typhoon are unknown. The principal diseases are malarial fever, smallpox, rheumatism, peripheral neuritis, dysentery, chest @@ -14167,7 +14129,7 @@ large areas are covered with timber trees, the wood chiefly cut for commercial purposes being a kind of mahogany. The destruction of immature trees and the fluctuations in price render this a very uncertain trade. The rubber industry was started in 1894, -and in 1896 the rubber exported was valued at £347,000. In +and in 1896 the rubber exported was valued at £347,000. In 1899, owing to reckless methods of tapping the vines, 75% of the rubber plants died. Precautions were then taken to preserve the remainder and allow young plants to grow. The collection @@ -14195,9 +14157,9 @@ minerals in the country.</p> is native to the country, the soil of which is capable of producing the very finest grades of cotton. The Egba branch of the Yoruba have always grown the plant. In 1869 the cotton exported was -valued at £76,957, but owing to low prices the natives ceased to +valued at £76,957, but owing to low prices the natives ceased to grow cotton for export, so that in 1879 the value of exported -cotton was only £526. In 1902 planting for export was recommenced +cotton was only £526. In 1902 planting for export was recommenced by the Egba on scientific lines, and was started in the Abeokuta district with encouraging results.</p> @@ -14228,10 +14190,10 @@ called “alcohol,” introduced (1901) to meet the growing taste of the people for stronger liquor. This stuff contained 90% of pure alcohol and sometimes over 4% of fusel oil. To hinder the sale of this noxious compound legislation was passed in 1903 -prohibiting the import of liquor containing more than ½% +prohibiting the import of liquor containing more than ½% of fusel oil, whilst the states of Abeokuta and Ibadan prohibited the importation of liquor stronger than proof. The total trade -of the country in 1905 was valued at £2,224,754, the imports +of the country in 1905 was valued at £2,224,754, the imports slightly exceeding the exports. There is a large transit trade with Dahomey.</p> @@ -14241,12 +14203,12 @@ A 3 ft. 6 in. gauge railway starts from Iddo Island, and extends past Abeokuta, 64 m. from Lagos, Ibadan (123 m.), Oshogbo (175 m.), to Illorin (247 m.) in Northern Nigeria, whence the line is continued to Jebba and Zunguru (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>). Abeokuta is served -by a branch line, 1½ m. long, from Aro on the main line. Railway +by a branch line, 1½ m. long, from Aro on the main line. Railway bridges connect Iddo Island both with the mainland and with Lagos Island (see Lagos, town). This line was begun in 1896 and opened to Ibadan in 1901. In 1905 the building of the section Ibadan-Illorin was undertaken. The railway was built by the government -and cost about £7000 per mile. The lagoons offer convenient channels +and cost about £7000 per mile. The lagoons offer convenient channels for numerous small craft, which, with the exception of steam-launches, are almost entirely native-built canoes. Branch steamers run between the Forcados mouth of the Niger and Lagos, and also @@ -14273,9 +14235,9 @@ from the duties on imported spirits. From the railways, a government monopoly, a considerable net profit is earned. Expenditure is mainly under the heads of railway administration, other public works, military and police, health, and education. The -revenue increased in the ten years 1895-1905 from £142,049 to -£410,250. In the same period the expenditure rose from £144,484 -to £354,254.</p> +revenue increased in the ten years 1895-1905 from £142,049 to +£410,250. In the same period the expenditure rose from £144,484 +to £354,254.</p> <p>The defence of the province is entrusted to the Lagos battalion of the West African Frontier Force, a body under the control of the @@ -14315,7 +14277,7 @@ under which Akitoye bound himself to put down the slave trade. This treaty was not adhered to, and in 1861 Akitoye’s son and successor, King Docemo, was induced to give up his territorial jurisdiction and accept a pension of 1200 bags of -cowries, afterwards commuted to £1000 a year, which pension +cowries, afterwards commuted to £1000 a year, which pension he drew until his death in 1885. Immediately after the proclamation of the British annexation, a steady current of immigration from the mainland set in, and a flourishing town arose on Lagos @@ -14369,7 +14331,7 @@ Office, London; A. B. Ellis, <i>The Yoruba-speaking Peoples</i> (London, <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAGOS<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span>, a seaport of West Africa, capital of the British colony -and protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in 6° 26′ N., 3° 23′ E. on +and protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in 6° 26′ N., 3° 23′ E. on an island in a lagoon named Lagos also. Between Lagos and the mainland is Iddo Island. An iron bridge for road and railway traffic 2600 ft. long connects Lagos and Iddo Islands, and @@ -14383,7 +14345,7 @@ police quarters. There are many substantial villas that serve as quarters for the officers of the civil service, as well as numerous solidly-built handsome private buildings. The streets are well kept; the town is supplied with electric light, and there is a -good water service. The chief stores and depôts for goods are +good water service. The chief stores and depôts for goods are <span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>75</span> all on the banks of the lagoon. The swamps of which originally Lagos Island entirely consisted have been reclaimed. In @@ -14438,9 +14400,9 @@ a large part of the city.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA GRÂCE,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Les Grâces</span>, a game invented in France during +<p><span class="bold">LA GRÂCE,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Les Grâces</span>, a game invented in France during the first quarter of the 19th century and called there <i>le jeu des -Grâces</i>. It is played with two light sticks about 16 in. long and +Grâces</i>. It is played with two light sticks about 16 in. long and a wicker ring, which is projected into the air by placing it over the sticks crossed and then separating them rapidly. The ring is caught upon the stick of another player and thrown back, @@ -14449,7 +14411,7 @@ the object being to prevent it from falling to the ground.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA GRAND’ COMBE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a town of southern France, in the department -of Gard on the Gardon, 39 m. N.N.W. of Nîmes by rail. +of Gard on the Gardon, 39 m. N.N.W. of Nîmes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 6406; commune, 11,292. There are extensive coal mines in the vicinity.</p> @@ -14509,8 +14471,8 @@ of echoes and the mixture of sounds, and explained the phenomenon of grave harmonics as due to the occurrence of beats so rapid as to generate a musical note. This was followed, in the second volume of the <i>Miscellanea Taurinensia</i> (1762) by his -“Essai d’une nouvelle méthode pour déterminer les maxima et -les minima des formules intégrales indéfinies,” together with the +“Essai d’une nouvelle méthode pour déterminer les maxima et +les minima des formules intégrales indéfinies,” together with the application of this important development of analysis to the solution of several dynamical problems, as well as to the demonstration of the mechanical principle of “least action.” The @@ -14550,7 +14512,7 @@ theory of cometary perturbations.</p> <p>He had in the meantime gratified a long felt desire by a visit to Paris, where he enjoyed the stimulating delight of conversing with such mathematicians as A. C. Clairault, d’Alembert, -Condorcet and the Abbé Marie. Illness prevented him from +Condorcet and the Abbé Marie. Illness prevented him from visiting London. The post of director of the mathematical department of the Berlin Academy (of which he had been a member since 1759) becoming vacant by the removal of Euler @@ -14577,7 +14539,7 @@ of medical knowledge, to her care.</p> <p>The long series of memoirs—some of them complete treatises of great moment in the history of science—communicated by Lagrange to the Berlin Academy between the years 1767 and -1787 were not the only fruits of his exile. His <i>Mécanique +1787 were not the only fruits of his exile. His <i>Mécanique analytique</i>, in which his genius most fully displayed itself, was produced during the same period. This great work was the perfect realization of a design conceived by the author almost @@ -14616,11 +14578,11 @@ title of “veteran pensioner” in lieu of that of “foreign assoc Academy. In the midst of these distinctions, a profound melancholy seized upon him. His mathematical enthusiasm was for the time completely quenched, and during two years -the printed volume of his <i>Mécanique</i>, which he had seen only in +the printed volume of his <i>Mécanique</i>, which he had seen only in manuscript, lay unopened beside him. He relieved his dejection with miscellaneous studies, especially with that of chemistry, -which, in the new form given to it by Lavoisier, he found “aisée -comme l’algèbre.” The Revolution roused him once more to +which, in the new form given to it by Lavoisier, he found “aisée +comme l’algèbre.” The Revolution roused him once more to activity and cheerfulness. Curiosity impelled him to remain and watch the progress of such a novel phenomenon; but curiosity was changed into dismay as the terrific character of the @@ -14648,9 +14610,9 @@ specially exempted from the operation of the decree of October at the fate of J. S. Bailly and A. L. Lavoisier, and prepared to resume his former situation in Berlin. His design was frustrated by the establishment of and his official connexion with -the École Normale, and the École Polytechnique. The former +the École Normale, and the École Polytechnique. The former institution had an ephemeral existence; but amongst the -benefits derived from the foundation of the École Polytechnique +benefits derived from the foundation of the École Polytechnique one of the greatest, it has been observed,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> was the restoration of Lagrange to mathematics. The remembrance of his teachings was long treasured by such of his auditors—amongst whom @@ -14661,7 +14623,7 @@ and ascended with them by almost insensible gradations from elementary to abstruse conceptions. He seemed, not a professor amongst students, but a learner amongst learners; pauses for thought alternated with luminous exposition; invention -accompanied demonstration; and thus originated his <i>Théorie +accompanied demonstration; and thus originated his <i>Théorie des fonctions analytiques</i> (Paris, 1797). The leading idea of this work was contained in a paper published in the <i>Berlin Memoirs</i> for 1772.<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Its object was the elimination of the, to some minds, @@ -14676,7 +14638,7 @@ that the attempt was successful. The validity of his fundamental position was impaired by the absence of a well-constituted theory of series; the notation employed was inconvenient, and was abandoned by its inventor in the second edition of his -<i>Mécanique</i>; while his scruples as to the admission into analytical +<i>Mécanique</i>; while his scruples as to the admission into analytical investigations of the idea of limits or vanishing ratios have long since been laid aside as idle. Nowhere, however, were the keenness and clearness of his intellect more conspicuous than @@ -14685,7 +14647,7 @@ was highly effective in secondary results. His purely abstract mode of regarding functions, apart from any mechanical or geometrical considerations, led the way to a new and sharply characterized development of the higher analysis in the hands -of A. Cauchy, C. G. Jacobi, and others.<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The <i>Théorie des +of A. Cauchy, C. G. Jacobi, and others.<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The <i>Théorie des fonctions</i> is divided into three parts, of which the first explains the general doctrine of functions, the second deals with its <span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>77</span> @@ -14704,23 +14666,23 @@ residence in Turin, to congratulate him on the merits of his son, whom they declared “to have done honour to mankind by his genius, and whom Piedmont was proud to have produced, and France to possess.” Bonaparte, who styled him “la haute -pyramide des sciences mathématiques,” loaded him with personal +pyramide des sciences mathématiques,” loaded him with personal favours and official distinctions. He became a senator, a count of the empire, a grand officer of the legion of honour, and just -before his death received the grand cross of the order of réunion.</p> +before his death received the grand cross of the order of réunion.</p> -<p>The preparation of a new edition of his <i>Mécanique</i> exhausted +<p>The preparation of a new edition of his <i>Mécanique</i> exhausted his already falling powers. Frequent fainting fits gave presage of a speedy end, and on the 8th of April 1813 he had a final -interview with his friends B. Lacépède, G. Monge and J. A. +interview with his friends B. Lacépède, G. Monge and J. A. Chaptal. He spoke with the utmost calm of his approaching -death; “c’est une dernière fonction,” he said, “qui n’est ni -pénible ni désagréable.” He nevertheless looked forward to a +death; “c’est une dernière fonction,” he said, “qui n’est ni +pénible ni désagréable.” He nevertheless looked forward to a future meeting, when he promised to complete the autobiographical details which weakness obliged him to interrupt. They remained untold, for he died two days later on the 10th of April, and was buried in the Pantheon, the funeral oration being -pronounced by Laplace and Lacépède.</p> +pronounced by Laplace and Lacépède.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Amongst the brilliant group of mathematicians whose magnanimous @@ -14782,7 +14744,7 @@ rotation of the planets by external action on their equatorial protuberances, but was anticipated by Poisson, who gave formulae for the variation of the elements of rotation strictly corresponding with those found by Lagrange for the variation of the elements of revolution. -The revision of the <i>Mécanique analytique</i> was undertaken +The revision of the <i>Mécanique analytique</i> was undertaken mainly for the purpose of embodying in it these new methods and final results, but was interrupted, when two-thirds completed, by the death of its author.</p> @@ -14863,34 +14825,34 @@ embodiment denied to them in the troubled world of politics.</p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Lagrange’s numerous scattered memoirs have been collected and published in seven 4to volumes, under the title <span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>78</span> -<i>Œuvres de Lagrange, publiées sous les soins de M. J. A. Serret</i> (Paris, +<i>Œuvres de Lagrange, publiées sous les soins de M. J. A. Serret</i> (Paris, 1867-1877). The first, second and third sections of this publication comprise respectively the papers communicated by him to the Academies of Sciences of Turin, Berlin and Paris; the fourth includes his miscellaneous contributions to other scientific collections, -together with his additions to Euler’s <i>Algebra</i>, and his <i>Leçons -élémentaires</i> at the École Normale in 1795. Delambre’s notice of his -life, extracted from the <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, 1812, is prefixed to the -first volume. Besides the separate works already named are <i>Résolution -des équations numériques</i> (1798, 2nd ed., 1808, 3rd ed., 1826), -and <i>Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions</i> (1805, 2nd ed., 1806), designed -as a commentary and supplement to the first part of the <i>Théorie des -fonctions</i>. The first volume of the enlarged edition of the <i>Mécanique</i> +together with his additions to Euler’s <i>Algebra</i>, and his <i>Leçons +élémentaires</i> at the École Normale in 1795. Delambre’s notice of his +life, extracted from the <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, 1812, is prefixed to the +first volume. Besides the separate works already named are <i>Résolution +des équations numériques</i> (1798, 2nd ed., 1808, 3rd ed., 1826), +and <i>Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions</i> (1805, 2nd ed., 1806), designed +as a commentary and supplement to the first part of the <i>Théorie des +fonctions</i>. The first volume of the enlarged edition of the <i>Mécanique</i> appeared in 1811, the second, of which the revision was completed by MM Prony and Binet, in 1815. A third edition, in 2 vols., 4to, was -issued in 1853-1855, and a second of the <i>Théorie des fonctions</i> in 1813.</p> +issued in 1853-1855, and a second of the <i>Théorie des fonctions</i> in 1813.</p> -<p>See also J. J. Virey and Potel, <i>Précis historique</i> (1813); Th. +<p>See also J. J. Virey and Potel, <i>Précis historique</i> (1813); Th. Thomson’s <i>Annals of Philosophy</i> (1813-1820), vols. ii. and iv.; -H. Suter, <i>Geschichte der math. Wiss.</i> (1873); E. Dühring, <i>Kritische +H. Suter, <i>Geschichte der math. Wiss.</i> (1873); E. Dühring, <i>Kritische Gesch. der allgemeinen Principien der Mechanik</i> (1877, 2nd ed.); -A. Gautier, <i>Essai historique sur le problème des trois corps</i> (1817); -R. Grant, <i>History of Physical Astronomy</i>, &c.; Pietro Cossali, <i>Éloge</i> -(Padua, 1813); L. Martini, <i>Cenni biográfici</i> (1840); <i>Moniteur du 26 -Février</i> (1814); W. Whewell, <i>Hist. of the Inductive Sciences</i>, ii. +A. Gautier, <i>Essai historique sur le problème des trois corps</i> (1817); +R. Grant, <i>History of Physical Astronomy</i>, &c.; Pietro Cossali, <i>Éloge</i> +(Padua, 1813); L. Martini, <i>Cenni biográfici</i> (1840); <i>Moniteur du 26 +Février</i> (1814); W. Whewell, <i>Hist. of the Inductive Sciences</i>, ii. <i>passim</i>; J. Clerk Maxwell, <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>, ii. 184; A. Berry, <i>Short Hist. of Astr.</i>, p. 313; J. S. Bailly, <i>Hist. de l’astr. -moderne</i>, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>.</p> +moderne</i>, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>.</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> @@ -14898,16 +14860,16 @@ moderne</i>, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch <p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, i. 15.</p> -<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Méc. An.</i>, Advertisement to 1st ed.</p> +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Méc. An.</i>, Advertisement to 1st ed.</p> -<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> E. Dühring, <i>Kritische Gesch. der Mechanik</i>, 220, 367; Lagrange, -<i>Méc. An.</i> i. 166-172, 3rd ed.</p> +<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> E. Dühring, <i>Kritische Gesch. der Mechanik</i>, 220, 367; Lagrange, +<i>Méc. An.</i> i. 166-172, 3rd ed.</p> <p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Notice by J. Delambre, <i>Œuvres de Lagrange</i>, i. p. xlii.</p> <p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Œuvres</i>, iii. 441.</p> -<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Théorie des fonctions</i>, p. 6.</p> +<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Théorie des fonctions</i>, p. 6.</p> <p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> H. Suter, <i>Geschichte der math. Wiss.</i> ii. 222-223.</p> @@ -14920,8 +14882,8 @@ moderne</i>, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAGRANGE-CHANCEL<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Chancel</span>], <span class="bold">FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</span> -(1677-1758), French dramatist and satirist, was born at Périgueux +<p><span class="bold">LAGRANGE-CHANCEL<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Chancel</span>], <span class="bold">FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</span> +(1677-1758), French dramatist and satirist, was born at Périgueux on the 1st of January 1677. He was an extremely precocious boy, and at Bordeaux, where he was educated, he produced a play when he was nine years old. Five years later his mother @@ -14930,11 +14892,11 @@ de Conti, to whom he dedicated his tragedy of <i>Jugurtha</i> or, as it was called later, <i>Adherbal</i> (1694). Racine had given him advice and was present at the first performance, although he had long lived in complete retirement. Other plays followed: <i>Oreste et -Pylade</i> (1697), <i>Méléagre</i> (1699), <i>Amasis</i> (1701), and <i>Ino et Mélicerte</i> +Pylade</i> (1697), <i>Méléagre</i> (1699), <i>Amasis</i> (1701), and <i>Ino et Mélicerte</i> (1715). Lagrange hardly realized the high hopes raised by his precocity, although his only serious rival on the tragic stage was Campistron, but he obtained high favour at court, becoming -<i>maître d’hôtel</i> to the duchess of Orleans. This prosperity ended +<i>maître d’hôtel</i> to the duchess of Orleans. This prosperity ended with the publication in 1720 of his <i>Philippiques</i>, odes accusing the regent, Philip, duke of Orleans, of the most odious crimes. He might have escaped the consequences of this libel but for @@ -14945,11 +14907,11 @@ and sent as a prisoner to the isles of Sainte Marguerite. He contrived, however, to escape to Sardinia and thence to Spain and Holland, where he produced his fourth and fifth <i>Philippiques</i>. On the death of the Regent he was able to return to France. -He was part author of a <i>Histoire de Périgord</i> left unfinished, and +He was part author of a <i>Histoire de Périgord</i> left unfinished, and made a further contribution to history, or perhaps, more exactly, -to romance, in a letter to Élie Fréron on the identity of the Man +to romance, in a letter to Élie Fréron on the identity of the Man with the Iron Mask. Lagrange’s family life was embittered -by a long lawsuit against his son. He died at Périgueux at the +by a long lawsuit against his son. He died at Périgueux at the end of December 1758.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -14971,7 +14933,7 @@ nearly resembles the highlands of northern Europe than any other part of Spain. La Granja has an almost alpine climate, with a clear, cool atmosphere and abundant sunshine. Above the palace rise the wooded summits of the Guadarrama, culminating -in the peak of Peñalara (7891 ft.); in front of it the wide +in the peak of Peñalara (7891 ft.); in front of it the wide plains of Segovia extend northwards. The village of San Ildefonso, the oldest part of the estate, was founded in 1450 by Henry IV., who built a hunting lodge and chapel here. In @@ -14982,7 +14944,7 @@ was purchased in 1719 by Philip V., after the destruction of his summer palace at Valsain, the ancient <i>Vallis Sapinorum</i>, 2 m. S. Philip determined to convert the estate into a second Versailles. The palace was built between 1721 and 1723. Its -façade is fronted by a colonnade in which the pillars reach to the +façade is fronted by a colonnade in which the pillars reach to the roof. The state apartments contain some valuable 18th-century furniture, but the famous collection of sculptures was removed to Madrid in 1836, and is preserved there in the Museo del Prado. @@ -15019,7 +14981,7 @@ Christina to restore the constitution of 1812.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1724-1805), French +<p><span class="bold">LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1724-1805), French painter, was a pupil of Carle Vanloo. Born at Paris on the 30th of December 1724, in 1755 he became a member of the Royal Academy, presenting as his diploma picture the “Rape of @@ -15035,7 +14997,7 @@ honorary keeper.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LA GUAIRA<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">La Guayra</span> (sometimes <span class="sc">Laguaira</span>, &c.), a town and port of Venezuela, in the Federal district, 23 m. -by rail and 6½ m. in a direct line N. of Caracas. Pop. (1904, +by rail and 6½ m. in a direct line N. of Caracas. Pop. (1904, estimate) 14,000. It is situated between a precipitous mountain side and a broad, semicircular indentation of the coast line which forms the roadstead of the port. The anchorage was long considered @@ -15043,8 +15005,8 @@ one of the most dangerous on the Caribbean coast, and landing was attended with much danger. The harbour has been improved by the construction of a concrete breakwater running out from the eastern shore line 2044 ft., built up from an extreme -depth of 46 ft. or from an average depth of 29½ ft., and rising -19½ ft. above sea-level. This encloses an area of 76½ acres, +depth of 46 ft. or from an average depth of 29½ ft., and rising +19½ ft. above sea-level. This encloses an area of 76½ acres, having an average depth of nearly 28 ft. The harbour is further improved by 1870 ft. of concrete quays and 1397 ft. of retaining sea-wall, with several piers (three covered) projecting into deep @@ -15062,7 +15024,7 @@ entries of that year numbered 217, of which 203 entered with general cargo and 14 with coal exclusively. The exports included 152,625 bags coffee, 114,947 bags cacao and 152,891 hides. For 1905-1906 the imports at La Guaira were valued officially -at £767,365 and the exports at £663,708. The city stands on +at £767,365 and the exports at £663,708. The city stands on sloping ground stretching along the circular coast line with a varying width of 130 to 330 ft. and having the appearance of an amphitheatre. The port improvements added 18 acres of @@ -15073,7 +15035,7 @@ cabins, and narrow, badly-paved streets, but with good business houses on its principal street. From the mountain side, reddish-brown in colour and bare of vegetation, the solar heat is reflected with tremendous force, the mean annual temperature -being 84° F. The seaside towns of Maiquetia, 2 m. W. and +being 84° F. The seaside towns of Maiquetia, 2 m. W. and Macuto, 3 m. E., which have better climatic and sanitary conditions and are connected by a narrow-gauge railway, are the residences of many of the wealthier merchants of La Guaira.</p> @@ -15088,7 +15050,7 @@ Guaira was blockaded by a British-German-Italian fleet.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, LOUIS ÉTIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HÉLION<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span>, +<p><span class="bold">LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, LOUIS ÉTIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HÉLION<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Vicomte de</span> (1816-1875), French politician, was the scion of a noble Poitevin family. Although by birth and education attached to Legitimist principles, he became closely @@ -15096,19 +15058,19 @@ associated with Lamartine, to whose organ, <i>Le Bien Public</i>, he was a principal contributor. After the stoppage of this paper he wrote for <i>La Presse</i>, and in 1850 edited <i>Le Pays</i>. A character sketch of Louis Napoleon in this journal caused differences with -Lamartine, and La Guéronnière became more and more closely +Lamartine, and La Guéronnière became more and more closely identified with the policy of the prince president. Under the Empire he was a member of the council of state (1853), senator (1861), ambassador at Brussels (1868), and at Constantinople (1870), and grand officer of the legion of honour (1866). He -died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1875. Besides his <i>Études +died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1875. Besides his <i>Études et portraits politiques contemporains</i> (1856) his most important works are those on the foreign policy of the Empire: <i>La France, Rome et Italie</i> (1851), <i>L’Abandon de Rome</i> (1862), <i>De la politique -intérieure et extérieure de la France</i> (1862).</p> +intérieure et extérieure de la France</i> (1862).</p> -<p>His elder brother, <span class="sc">Alfred Dubreuil Hélion</span>, Comte de La -Guéronnière (1810-1884), who remained faithful to the Legitimist +<p>His elder brother, <span class="sc">Alfred Dubreuil Hélion</span>, Comte de La +Guéronnière (1810-1884), who remained faithful to the Legitimist party, was also a well-known writer and journalist. He was consistent in his opposition to the July Monarchy and the Empire, but in a series of books on the crisis of 1870-1871 showed a @@ -15124,7 +15086,7 @@ defending Prince Kropotkine at Lyons in 1883, Louise Michel in the same year; and in 1886, with A. Millerand as colleague he defended Ernest Roche and Duc Quercy, the instigators of the Decazeville strike. His strictures on the <i>procureur de la -République</i> on this occasion being declared libellous he was suspended +République</i> on this occasion being declared libellous he was suspended for six months and in 1890 he again incurred suspension for an attack on the attorney-general, Quesnay de Beaurepaire. He also pleaded in the greatest criminal cases of his time, though @@ -15152,7 +15114,7 @@ capital of the island of Teneriffe, in the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands. Pop. (1900) 13,074. Laguna is 4 m. N. by W. of Santa Cruz, in a plain 1800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by mountains. Snow is unknown here, and the mean -annual temperature exceeds 63° F.; but the rainfall is very +annual temperature exceeds 63° F.; but the rainfall is very heavy, and in winter the plain is sometimes flooded. The humidity of the atmosphere, combined with the warm climate and rich volcanic soil, renders the district exceptionally fertile; @@ -15168,13 +15130,13 @@ plants.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1739-1803), French critic, +<p><span class="bold">LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1739-1803), French critic, was born in Paris of poor parents on the 20th of November 1739. His father, who signed himself Delharpe, was a descendant of a noble family originally of Vaud. Left an orphan at the age of nine, La Harpe was taken care of for six months by the sisters of charity, and his education was provided for by a scholarship -at the Collège d’Harcourt. When nineteen he was imprisoned +at the Collège d’Harcourt. When nineteen he was imprisoned for some months on the charge of having written a satire against his protectors at the college. La Harpe always denied his guilt, but this culminating misfortune of an early life spent entirely @@ -15184,8 +15146,8 @@ of <i>Warwick</i> was played before the court. This, his first play, was perhaps the best he ever wrote. The many authors whom he afterwards offended were always able to observe that the critic’s own plays did not reach the standard of excellence he set up. -<i>Timoléon</i> (1764), <i>Pharamond</i> (1765) and <i>Gustave Wasa</i> (1766) were -failures. <i>Mélanie</i> was a better play, but was never represented. +<i>Timoléon</i> (1764), <i>Pharamond</i> (1765) and <i>Gustave Wasa</i> (1766) were +failures. <i>Mélanie</i> was a better play, but was never represented. The success of <i>Warwick</i> led to a correspondence with Voltaire, who conceived a high opinion of La Harpe, even allowing him to correct his verses. In 1764 La Harpe married the daughter @@ -15209,11 +15171,11 @@ disposition. The speech was punctuated by the applause of the audience, who chose to regard it as a series of sarcasms on the new member. Eventually La Harpe was compelled to resign from the <i>Mercure</i>, which he had edited from 1770. On the -stage he produced <i>Les Barmécides</i> (1778), <i>Philoctète</i>, <i>Jeanne de +stage he produced <i>Les Barmécides</i> (1778), <i>Philoctète</i>, <i>Jeanne de Naples</i> (1781), <i>Les Brames</i> (1783), <i>Coriolan</i> (1784), <i>Virginie</i> (1786). In 1786 he began a course of literature at the newly-established -Lycée. In these lectures, published as the <i>Cours de -littérature ancienne et moderne</i>, La Harpe is at his best, for he +Lycée. In these lectures, published as the <i>Cours de +littérature ancienne et moderne</i>, La Harpe is at his best, for he found a standpoint more or less independent of contemporary polemics. He is said to be inexact in dealing with the ancients, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>80</span> @@ -15228,16 +15190,16 @@ But in April 1794 he was nevertheless seized as a “suspect.” In prison he underwent a spiritual crisis which he described in convincing language, and he emerged an ardent Catholic and a reactionist in politics. When he resumed his chair at the -Lycée, he attacked his former friends in politics and literature. +Lycée, he attacked his former friends in politics and literature. He was imprudent enough to begin the publication (1801-1807) -of his <i>Correspondance littéraire</i> (1774-1791) with the grand-duke, +of his <i>Correspondance littéraire</i> (1774-1791) with the grand-duke, afterwards the emperor Paul of Russia. In these letters he surpassed the brutalities of the <i>Mercure</i>. He contracted a second marriage, which was dissolved after a few weeks by his wife. He died on the 11th of February 1803 in Paris, leaving in his will an incongruous exhortation to his fellow countrymen to maintain peace and concord. Among his posthumous works -was a <i>Prophétie de Cazotte</i> which Sainte-Beuve pronounces his +was a <i>Prophétie de Cazotte</i> which Sainte-Beuve pronounces his best work. It is a sombre description of a dinner-party of notables long before the Revolution, when Jacques Cazotte is made to prophesy the frightful fates awaiting the various @@ -15245,12 +15207,12 @@ individuals of the company.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Among his works not already mentioned are:—<i>Commentaire sur -Racine</i> (1795-1796), published in 1807; <i>Commentaire sur le théâtre de +Racine</i> (1795-1796), published in 1807; <i>Commentaire sur le théâtre de Voltaire</i> of earlier date (published posthumously in 1814), and an epic -poem <i>La Religion</i> (1814). His <i>Cours de littérature</i> has been often +poem <i>La Religion</i> (1814). His <i>Cours de littérature</i> has been often reprinted. To the edition of 1825-1826 is prefixed a notice by Pierre Daunou. See also Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. v.; -G. Peignot, <i>Recherches historiques, bibliographiques et littéraires ... +G. Peignot, <i>Recherches historiques, bibliographiques et littéraires ... sur La Harpe</i> (1820).</p> </div> @@ -15272,13 +15234,13 @@ of which the British Museum possesses a fine example, “Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple,” are treated as seriously as his paintings, and sometimes show simplicity and dignity of effect. The example of the Capuchins, for whom he executed -several other works in Paris, Rouen and Fécamp, was followed +several other works in Paris, Rouen and Fécamp, was followed by the goldsmiths’ company, for whom he produced in 1635 “St Peter healing the Sick” (Louvre) and the “Conversion of St Paul” in 1637. In 1646, with eleven other artists, he founded the French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. Richelieu -called Lahire to the Palais Royal; Chancellor Séguier, Tallemant -de Réaux and many others entrusted him with important +called Lahire to the Palais Royal; Chancellor Séguier, Tallemant +de Réaux and many others entrusted him with important works of decoration; for the Gobelins he designed a series of large compositions. Lahire painted also a great number of portraits, and in 1654 united in one work for the town-hall of @@ -15431,7 +15393,7 @@ to be known by the name of La Hogue.</p> <p>Sufficient accounts of the battle may be found in Lediard’s <i>Naval History</i> (London, 1735), and for the French side in Tronde’s <i>Batailles navales de la France</i> (Paris, 1867). The escape of D’Amfreville’s -squadron is the subject of Browning’s poem “Hervé Riel.”</p> +squadron is the subject of Browning’s poem “Hervé Riel.”</p> </div> <div class="author">(D. H.)</div> @@ -15439,13 +15401,13 @@ squadron is the subject of Browning’s poem “Hervé Riel.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAHORE,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> an ancient city of British India, the capital of the Punjab, which gives its name to a district and division. It lies -in 31° 35′ N. and 74° 20′ E. near the left bank of the River Ravi, +in 31° 35′ N. and 74° 20′ E. near the left bank of the River Ravi, 1706 ft. above the sea, and 1252 m. by rail from Calcutta. It is thus in about the same latitude as Cairo, but owing to its inland position is considerably hotter than that city, being one of the hottest places in India in the summer time. In the cold season the climate is pleasantly cool and bright. The native -city is walled, about 1¼ m. in length W. to E. and about ¾ m. +city is walled, about 1¼ m. in length W. to E. and about ¾ m. in breadth N. to S. Its site has been occupied from early times, and much of it stands high above the level of the surrounding country, raised on the remains of a succession of former habitations. @@ -15460,7 +15422,7 @@ of mention of Lahore by Alexander’s historians, and the fact that coins of the Graeco-Bactrian kings are not found among the ruins, lead to the belief that it was not a place of any importance during the earliest period of Indian history. On the other -hand, Hsüan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist, notices the city in +hand, Hsüan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist, notices the city in his <i>Itinerary</i> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 630); and it seems probable, therefore, that Lahore first rose into prominence between the 1st and 7th centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Governed originally by a family of Chauhan @@ -15566,11 +15528,11 @@ rural population and of artisans is Punjabi; while Urdu or Hindustani is spoken by the educated classes. So far from the seaboard, the range between extremes of winter and summer temperature in the sub-tropics is great. The mean temperature -in the shade in June is about 92° F., in January about 50°. In -midsummer the thermometer sometimes rises to 115° in the -shade, and remains on some occasions as high as 105° throughout +in the shade in June is about 92° F., in January about 50°. In +midsummer the thermometer sometimes rises to 115° in the +shade, and remains on some occasions as high as 105° throughout the night. In winter the morning temperature is sometimes -as low as 20°. The rainfall is uncertain, ranging from 8 in. to +as low as 20°. The rainfall is uncertain, ranging from 8 in. to 25, with an average of 15 in. The country as a whole is parched and arid, and greatly dependent on irrigation.</p> @@ -15587,8 +15549,8 @@ to have died in the following year. Hoz is not remarkable for originality of conception, but his recasts of plays by earlier writers are distinguished by an adroitness which accounts for the esteem in which he was held by his contemporaries. -<i>El Montañés Juan Pascal</i> and <i>El castigo de la miseria</i>, reprinted -in the <i>Biblioteca de Autores Españoles</i>, give a just idea of his +<i>El Montañés Juan Pascal</i> and <i>El castigo de la miseria</i>, reprinted +in the <i>Biblioteca de Autores Españoles</i>, give a just idea of his adaptable talent.</p> @@ -15605,7 +15567,7 @@ in 1803.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Stein, <i>Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Lahr</i> (Lahr, 1827); -and Sütterlin, <i>Lahr und seine Umgebung</i> (Lahr, 1904).</p> +and Sütterlin, <i>Lahr und seine Umgebung</i> (Lahr, 1904).</p> </div> @@ -15855,7 +15817,7 @@ and it is related that, on recovering consciousness, he looked about and asked if a proof of Wyntoun had been sent from the printers. He died a few days afterwards, on the 18th of October, in his eighty-sixth year. His library was sold by auction, and -realized £16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he bequeathed +realized £16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he bequeathed his collection of MSS.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -16009,7 +15971,7 @@ death.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAÏS,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distinguished +<p><span class="bold">LAÃS,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distinguished as follows. (1) The elder, a native of Corinth, born <i>c.</i> 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was famous for her greed and hardheartedness, which gained her the nickname of <i>Axinē</i> (the axe). Among her lovers @@ -16024,7 +15986,7 @@ water from the fountain of Peirene, was struck by her beauty, and took her as a model. Having followed a handsome Thessalian to his native land, she was slain in the temple of Aphrodite by women who were jealous of her beauty. Many anecdotes are -told of a Laïs by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she forms +told of a Laïs by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she forms the subject of many epigrams in the Greek Anthology; but, owing to the similarity of names, there is considerable uncertainty to whom they refer. The name itself, like Phryne, was used @@ -16038,7 +16000,7 @@ as a general term for a courtesan.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1841-  ), French politician, was born at Nantes on the 1st of November 1841, and was -educated at the École Polytechnique as a military engineer. +educated at the École Polytechnique as a military engineer. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>85</span> He defended the fort of Issy at the siege of Paris, and served in Corsica and in Algeria in 1873. In 1876 he resigned his @@ -16055,21 +16017,21 @@ He was elected Boulangist deputy for the 18th Parisian arrondissement in 1889. He did not seek re-election in 1893, but devoted himself thenceforward to mathematics, helping to make known in France the theories of Giusto Bellavitis. He was -attached to the staff of the École Polytechnique, and in 1903-1904 +attached to the staff of the École Polytechnique, and in 1903-1904 was president of the French Association for the Advancement of Science.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>In addition to his political pamphlets <i>Pourquoi et comment je suis Boulangiste</i> (1887) and <i>L’Anarchie bourgeoise</i> (1887), he published -mathematical works, among them <i>Introduction à l’étude des quarternions</i> -(1881) and <i>Théorie et applications des équipollences</i> (1887).</p> +mathematical works, among them <i>Introduction à l’étude des quarternions</i> +(1881) and <i>Théorie et applications des équipollences</i> (1887).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAI-YANG,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a city in the Chinese province of Shan-tung, -in 37° N., 120° 55′ E., about the middle of the eastern peninsula, +in 37° N., 120° 55′ E., about the middle of the eastern peninsula, on the highway running south from Chi-fu to Kin-Kia or Ting-tsu harbour. It is surrounded by well-kept walls of great antiquity, and its main streets are spanned by large <i>pailous</i> @@ -16084,7 +16046,7 @@ the la-shu or wax-tree insect is largely carried on in the vicinity.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAKANAL, JOSEPH<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1762-1845), French politician, was born -at Serres (Ariège) on the 14th of July 1762. His name, originally +at Serres (Ariège) on the 14th of July 1762. His name, originally Lacanal, was altered to distinguish him from his Royalist brothers. He joined one of the teaching congregations, and for fourteen years taught in their schools. When elected by his @@ -16098,13 +16060,13 @@ of the Committee of Public Instruction early in 1793, and after carrying many useful decrees on the preservation of national monuments, on the military schools, on the reorganization of the Museum of Natural History and other matters, he brought -forward on the 26th of June his <i>Projet d’éducation nationale</i> +forward on the 26th of June his <i>Projet d’éducation nationale</i> (printed at the Imprimerie Nationale), which proposed to lay the burden or primary education on the public funds, but to leave secondary education to private enterprise. Provision was also made for public festivals, and a central commission was to be entrusted with educational questions. The scheme, in the -main the work of Sieyès, was refused by the Convention, who +main the work of Sieyès, was refused by the Convention, who submitted the whole question to a special commission of six, which under the influence of Robespierre adopted a report by Michel le Peletier de Saint Fargeau shortly before his tragic @@ -16130,19 +16092,19 @@ of Louisiana. He returned to France in 1834, and shortly afterwards, in spite of his advanced age, married a second time. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1845; his widow survived till 1881. Lakanal was an original member of the -Institute of France. He published in 1838 an <i>Exposé sommaire +Institute of France. He published in 1838 an <i>Exposé sommaire des travaux de Joseph Lakanal</i>.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His <i>éloge</i> at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which -he was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Rémusat +<p>His <i>éloge</i> at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which +he was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Rémusat (February 16, 1845), and a <i>Notice historique</i> by F. A. M. Mignet was -read on the 2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Émile Darnaud +read on the 2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Émile Darnaud (Paris, 1874), “Marcus” (Paris, 1879), P. Legendre in <i>Hommes de la -révolution</i> (Paris, 1882), E. Guillon, <i>Lakanal et l’instruction publique</i> +révolution</i> (Paris, 1882), E. Guillon, <i>Lakanal et l’instruction publique</i> (Paris, 1881). For details of the reports submitted by him to the government see M. Tourneux, “Histoire de l’instruction publique, -actes et déliberations de la convention, &c.” in <i>Bibliog. de l’hist. de +actes et déliberations de la convention, &c.” in <i>Bibliog. de l’hist. de Paris</i> (vol. iii., 1900); also A. Robert and G. Cougny, <i>Dictionnaire des parlementaires</i> (vol. ii., 1890).</p> </div> @@ -16227,7 +16189,7 @@ J. Grant Duff, <i>History of the Mahrattas</i> (1873); short memoir in <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAKE.<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> Professor Forel of Switzerland, the founder of the -science of limnology (Gr. <span class="grk" title="limnê">λίμνη</span>, a lake), defines a lake (Lat. +science of limnology (Gr. <span class="grk" title="limnê">λίμνη</span>, a lake), defines a lake (Lat. <i>lacus</i>) as a mass of still water situated in a depression of the ground, without direct communication with the sea. The term is sometimes applied to widened parts of rivers, and sometimes @@ -16287,7 +16249,7 @@ dormant volcanoes may be from a few yards to several miles in width, have generally a circular form, and are often without visible outlet. Excellent examples of such lakes are to be seen in the province of Rome (Italy) and in the central plateau of France, where -M. Delebecque found the Lake of Issarlès 329 ft. in depth. The most +M. Delebecque found the Lake of Issarlès 329 ft. in depth. The most splendid crater-lake is found on the summit of the Cascade range of Southern Oregon (U.S.A.). This lake is 2000 ft. in depth.</p> @@ -16317,7 +16279,7 @@ and Pyrenees are formed by a river being dammed back in this way.</p> <p>2. <i>By a Glacier.</i>—In Alaska, in Scandinavia and in the Alps a glacier often bars the mouth of a tributary valley, the stream flowing therein is dammed back, and a lake is thus formed. The best-known -lake of this kind is the Märjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great +lake of this kind is the Märjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great Aletsch Glacier. Lake Castain in Alaska is barred by the Malaspina Glacier; it is 2 or 3 m. long and 1 m. in width when at its highest level; it discharges through a tunnel 9 m. in length beneath the ice-sheet. @@ -16411,12 +16373,12 @@ subsequently became divided into three different basins by the deposition of sediment. Loch Doine has been separated from Loch Voil by alluvial cones laid down by two opposite streams. At the head of Loch Doine there is an alluvial flat that stretches -for 1½ m., formed by the Lochlarig river and its tributaries. +for 1½ m., formed by the Lochlarig river and its tributaries. The long stretch of alluvium that separates Loch Voil from Loch Lubnaig has been laid down by Calair Burn in Glen Buckie, by the Kirkton Burn at Balquhidder, and by various streams on both sides of Strathyre. Loch Lubnaig once extended to a -point ¾ m. beyond its present outlet, the level of the loch being +point ¾ m. beyond its present outlet, the level of the loch being lowered about 20 ft. by the denuding action of the river Leny on its rocky barrier.</p> @@ -16530,7 +16492,7 @@ inhabitants for domestic and commercial purposes.</p> composition of the water of fresh-water lakes in grams per litre:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Tanay.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Bleu.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Märjelen.</td> <td class="tcc allb">St Gothard.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Tanay.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Bleu.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Märjelen.</td> <td class="tcc allb">St Gothard.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">SiO<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.003 </td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0042</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0014</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0008 </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> + Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0012</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0006</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0008</td> <td class="tcc rb">trace</td></tr> @@ -16584,17 +16546,17 @@ brought about by insolation, by terrestrial radiation, by contract with the atmosphere, by rain, by the inflow of rivers and other factors, but the most important of all these are insolation and terrestrial radiation. Fresh water has its greatest density at a temperature of -39.2° F., so that water both above and below this temperature floats +39.2° F., so that water both above and below this temperature floats to the surface, and this physical fact largely determines the water stratification in a lake. In salt lakes the maximum density point is much lower, and does not come into play. In the tropical type of -fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39° F., and the +fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39° F., and the temperature decreases as the depth increases. In the polar type the -temperature is always lower than 39° F., and the temperature +temperature is always lower than 39° F., and the temperature increases from the surface downwards. In the temperate type the distribution of temperature in winter resembles the polar type, and in summer the tropical type. In Loch Ness and other deep -Scottish lochs the temperature in March and April is 41° to 42° F., +Scottish lochs the temperature in March and April is 41° to 42° F., and is then nearly uniform from top to bottom. As the sun comes north, and the mean air temperature begins to be higher than the surface temperature, the surface waters gain heat, and this heating @@ -16603,8 +16565,8 @@ temperature falls below the surface temperature, and the loch begins to part with its heat by radiation and conduction. The temperature of the deeper layers beyond 300 ft. is only slightly affected throughout the whole year. In the autumn the waters of the loch are divided -into two compartments, the upper having a temperature from 49° to -55° F., the deeper a temperature from 41° to 45°. Between these lies +into two compartments, the upper having a temperature from 49° to +55° F., the deeper a temperature from 41° to 45°. Between these lies the discontinuity-layer (<i>Sprungschicht</i> of the Germans), where there is a rapid fall of temperature within a very short distance. In August this discontinuity-layer is well marked, and lies at a depth of @@ -16749,7 +16711,7 @@ was recorded:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcl">1 Mollusc:</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Pisidium pusillum</i> (Gmel).</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">3 Crustacea:</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Cyclops viridis</i>, Jurine.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl"><i>Candona candida</i> (Müll).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl"><i>Candona candida</i> (Müll).</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl"><i>Cypria ophthalmica</i>, Jurine.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">3 Worms:</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Stylodrilus gabreteae</i>, Vejd.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">Oligochaete, not determined.</td></tr> @@ -16771,7 +16733,7 @@ Some of these species of plankton organisms are almost universal in the Scottish lochs, while others are quite local. Some of the species occur all the year through, while others have only been recorded in summer or in winter. The great development of Algae in the surface -waters, called “flowering of the water” (<i>Wasserblüthe</i>), was observed +waters, called “flowering of the water” (<i>Wasserblüthe</i>), was observed in August in Loch Lomond; a distinct “flowering,” due to Chlorophyceae, has been observed in shallow lochs as early as July. It is most common in August and September, but has also been @@ -16906,7 +16868,7 @@ globe at 6524 cub. m.</p> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Vener</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">292</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">2149</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,357,000</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Geneva</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">1015</td> <td class="tcr rb">506</td> <td class="tcr rb">225</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,175,000</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Vetter</td> <td class="tcr rb">68</td> <td class="tcr rb">413</td> <td class="tcr rb">128</td> <td class="tcr rb">733</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,543,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mjösen</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcr rb">1483</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,882,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mjösen</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcr rb">1483</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,882,000</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Garda</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">1124</td> <td class="tcr rb">446</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,766,000</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Constance</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">827</td> <td class="tcr rb">295</td> <td class="tcr rb">208</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,711,000</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ochrida</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">942</td> <td class="tcr rb">479</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,391,000</td></tr> @@ -16971,20 +16933,20 @@ globe at 6524 cub. m.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—F. A. Forel, “Handbuch der Seenkunde: allgemeine -Limnologie,” <i>Bibliothek geogr. Handbücher</i> (Stuttgart, 1901), -<i>Le Léman, monographie limnologique</i> (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1901); -A. Delebecque, <i>Les Lacs français</i>, text and plates (Paris, 1898); +Limnologie,” <i>Bibliothek geogr. Handbücher</i> (Stuttgart, 1901), +<i>Le Léman, monographie limnologique</i> (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1901); +A. Delebecque, <i>Les Lacs français</i>, text and plates (Paris, 1898); H. R. Mill, “Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes,” <i>Geogr. Journ.</i> vol. vi. pp. 46 and 135 (1895); Jehu, “Bathymetrical and Geological Study of the Lakes of Snowdonia,” <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i> vol. xl. p. 419 (1902); Sir John Murray and Laurence Pullar, “Bathymetrical Survey of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland,” <i>Geogr. Journ.</i> (1900 to 1908, re-issued in six volumes, Edinburgh, 1910); -W. Halbfass, “Die Morphometrie der europäischen Seen,” <i>Zeitschr. +W. Halbfass, “Die Morphometrie der europäischen Seen,” <i>Zeitschr. Gesell. Erdkunde Berlin</i> (Jahrg. 1903, p. 592; 1904, p. 204); I. C. Russell, <i>Lakes of North America</i> (Boston and London, 1895); O. Zacharias, “Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station -zu Plön” (Stuttgart); F. E. Bourcart, <i>Les Lacs alpins suisses: étude +zu Plön” (Stuttgart); F. E. Bourcart, <i>Les Lacs alpins suisses: étude chimique et physique</i> (Geneva, 1906); G. P. Magrini, <i>Limnologia</i> (Milan, 1907).</p> </div> @@ -17063,7 +17025,7 @@ of remarkable and strongly individual physical beauty, its area is only some 700 sq. m., a circle with radius of 15 m. from the central point covering practically the whole. Within this circle, besides the largest lake, Windermere, is the highest point in -England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but 10½ m. in length, +England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but 10½ m. in length, and covers an area of 5.69 sq. m., while Scafell Pike is only 3210 ft. in height. But the lakes show a wonderful variety of character, from open expanse and steep rock-bound shores to @@ -17139,7 +17101,7 @@ which the Duddon runs south through a vale of peculiar richness in its lower parts; while the range continues south to culminate in the Old Man of Coniston (2633) with the splendid Dow Crags above Goats Water. The pleasant vale of Yewdale drains south to Coniston -Lake (5½ m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), east of which a lower, well-wooded +Lake (5½ m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), east of which a lower, well-wooded tract, containing two beautiful lesser lakes, Tarn Hows and Esthwaite Water, extends to Windermere (<i>q.v.</i>). This lake collects waters by the Brathay from Langdale, the head of which, between @@ -17317,14 +17279,14 @@ in Mecklenburg and Pomerania—were peopled, so to speak, by lake-dwelling communities, living in villages constructed on platforms supported by piles at varying distances from the shores. The principal groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget, -Geneva, Neuchâtel, Bienne, Zürich and Constance lying to the +Geneva, Neuchâtel, Bienne, Zürich and Constance lying to the north of the Alps, and in the Lakes Maggiore, Varese, Iseo and Garda lying to the south of that mountain range. Many smaller lakes, however, contain them, and they are also found in peat moors on the sites of ancient lakes now drained or silted up, as at Laibach in Carniola. In some of the larger lakes the number of settlements has been very great. Fifty are enumerated in the -Lake of Neuchâtel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four +Lake of Neuchâtel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four in the Lake of Geneva, and twenty in the Lake of Bienne. The site of the lake dwelling of Wangen, in the Untersee, Lake of Constance, forms a parallelogram more than 700 paces in length @@ -17431,7 +17393,7 @@ bison were also found.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>93</span></p> <p>The settlement of Robenhausen, in the moor which was -formerly the bed of the ancient Lake of Pfäffikon, seems to have +formerly the bed of the ancient Lake of Pfäffikon, seems to have continued in occupation after the introduction of bronze. The site covers nearly 3 acres, and is estimated to have contained 100,000 piles. In some parts three distinct successions of @@ -17467,7 +17429,7 @@ varieties of domestic dishes, cups and pipkins, and crucibles or melting pots made of clay and horse dung and still retaining the drossy coating of the melted bronze.</p> -<p>The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchâtel is one +<p>The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchâtel is one of the richest and most considerable stations of the Bronze age. It has yielded four bronze swords, ten socketed spear-heads, forty celts or axe-heads and sickles, fifty knives, twenty socketed @@ -17585,17 +17547,17 @@ of occupation in post-Roman and medieval times.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The materials for the investigation of this singular phase of prehistoric life were first collected and systematized by Dr -Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zürich, and printed in <i>Mittheilungen -der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zürich</i>, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to (1855-1886). +Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zürich, and printed in <i>Mittheilungen +der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zürich</i>, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to (1855-1886). The substance of these reports has been issued as a separate work in England, <i>The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other parts of Europe</i>, by Dr Ferdinand Keller, translated and arranged by John Edward Lee, 2nd ed. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1878). Other works -on the same subject are Frédéric Troyon, <i>Habitations lacustres des +on the same subject are Frédéric Troyon, <i>Habitations lacustres des temps anciens et modernes</i> (Lausanne, 1860); E. Desor, <i>Les Palafittes -ou constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchâtel</i> (Paris, 1865); E. Desor -and L. Favre, <i>Le Bel Âge du bronze lacustre en Suisse</i> (Paris, 1874); -A. Perrin, <i>Étude préhistorique sur la Savoie spécialement à l’époque +ou constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchâtel</i> (Paris, 1865); E. Desor +and L. Favre, <i>Le Bel Âge du bronze lacustre en Suisse</i> (Paris, 1874); +A. Perrin, <i>Étude préhistorique sur la Savoie spécialement à l’époque lacustre</i> (<i>Les Palafittes du lac de Bourget</i>, Paris, 1870); Ernest Chantre, <i>Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Paladru</i> (Chambery, 1871); Bartolomeo Gastaldi, <i>Lake Habitations and @@ -17614,7 +17576,7 @@ U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom 468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449; (1910) 3079. It is served by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The city is picturesquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long and -1½ to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed +1½ to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick groves of hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer resort, particularly for Chicago people. The city is the seat @@ -17656,7 +17618,7 @@ golf courses here, and the village has a well-built club house, called the “Neighborhood House.” The village lies on the narrow strip of land (about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> m.) between Mirror Lake (about 1 m. long, N. and S., and <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> m. wide), and Lake Placid, about -5 m. long (N.N.E. by S.S.W.), and about 1½ m. (maximum) +5 m. long (N.N.E. by S.S.W.), and about 1½ m. (maximum) broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. The lake is roughly divided, from N. to S. by three islands—Moose, the largest, and Hawk, both privately owned, and Buck—and is a beautiful sheet of @@ -17688,7 +17650,7 @@ Pop. (1900) of the township, including the village, 3094; (1905) winter resort, and is situated in the midst of a pine forest, with two small lakes, and many charming walks and drives. In the village there are a number of fine residences, large hotels, -a library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12° F. +a library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12° F. warmer than in New York. The township of Lakewood was incorporated in 1892.</p> @@ -17697,7 +17659,7 @@ incorporated in 1892.</p> <p><span class="bold">LAKH<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (from the Sans. <i>laksha</i>, one hundred thousand), a term used in British India, in a colloquial sense to signify a lakh of rupees (written 1,00,000), which at the face value of the -rupee would be worth £10,000, but now is worth only £6666. +rupee would be worth £10,000, but now is worth only £6666. The term is also largely used in trade returns. A hundred lakhs make a crore.</p> @@ -17780,16 +17742,16 @@ the revolt of the inhabitants of Ghent, in which expedition he was killed. His biography, <i>Le Livre des faits de messire Jacques de Lalaing</i>, which has been published several times, is mainly the work of the Burgundian herald and chronicler Jean le -Fèvre, better known as <i>Toison d’or</i>; the Flemish historiographer +Fèvre, better known as <i>Toison d’or</i>; the Flemish historiographer Georges Chastellain and the herald Charolais also took part in its compilation.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1732-1807), +<p><span class="bold">LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1732-1807), French astronomer, was born at Bourg (department of Ain), on the 11th of July 1732. His parents sent him to Paris to -study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hôtel Cluny, where +study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hôtel Cluny, where J. N. Delisle had his observatory, drew him to astronomy, and he became the zealous and favoured pupil of both Delisle and Pierre Lemonnier. He, however, completed his legal studies, @@ -17804,7 +17766,7 @@ improvement of the planetary theory, publishing in 1759 a corrected edition of Halley’s tables, with a history of the celebrated comet whose return in that year he had aided Clairault to calculate. In 1762 J. N. Delisle resigned in his favour the -chair of astronomy in the Collège de France, the duties of which +chair of astronomy in the Collège de France, the duties of which were discharged by Lalande for forty-six years. His house became an astronomical seminary, and amongst his pupils were J. B. J. Delambre, G. Piazzi, P. Mechain, and his own @@ -17824,34 +17786,34 @@ introduced corrections for mutual perturbations, were the best available up to the end of the 18th century; and the Lalande prize, instituted by him in 1802 for the chief astronomical performance of each year, still testifies to his enthusiasm for his favourite pursuit. -Amongst his voluminous works are <i>Traité d’astronomie</i> (2 vols., 1764; +Amongst his voluminous works are <i>Traité d’astronomie</i> (2 vols., 1764; enlarged edition, 4 vols., 1771-1781; 3rd ed., 3 vols., 1792); <i>Histoire -céleste française</i> (1801), giving the places of 50,000 stars; <i>Bibliographie +céleste française</i> (1801), giving the places of 50,000 stars; <i>Bibliographie astronomique</i> (1803), with a history of astronomy from 1781 -to 1802; <i>Astronomie des dames</i> (1785); <i>Abrégé de navigation</i> (1793); -<i>Voyage d’un françois en Italie</i> (1769), a valuable record of his travels +to 1802; <i>Astronomie des dames</i> (1785); <i>Abrégé de navigation</i> (1793); +<i>Voyage d’un françois en Italie</i> (1769), a valuable record of his travels in 1765-1766. He communicated above one hundred and fifty papers to the Paris Academy of Sciences, edited the <i>Connoissance des temps</i> (1759-1774), and again (1794-1807), and wrote the concluding -2 vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla’s <i>Histoire des mathématiques</i> +2 vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla’s <i>Histoire des mathématiques</i> (1802).</p> -<p>See <i>Mémoires de l’Institut</i>, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre); -Delambre, <i>Hist. de l’astr. au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, p. 547; <i>Magazin encyclopédique</i>, +<p>See <i>Mémoires de l’Institut</i>, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre); +Delambre, <i>Hist. de l’astr. au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, p. 547; <i>Magazin encyclopédique</i>, ii. 288 (1810) (Mme de Salm); J. S. Bailly, <i>Hist. de l’astr. -moderne</i>, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Mädler, <i>Geschichte der Himmelskunde</i>, +moderne</i>, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Mädler, <i>Geschichte der Himmelskunde</i>, ii. 141; R. Wolf, <i>Gesch. der Astronomie</i>; J. J. Lalande, <i>Bibl. astr.</i> -p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>; M. Marie, +p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, <i>Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>; M. Marie, <i>Hist. des sciences</i>, ix. 35.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LALÍN,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> a town of north-western Spain, in the province of -Pontevedra. Pop. (1900) 16,238. Lalín is the centre of the +<p><span class="bold">LALÃN,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> a town of north-western Spain, in the province of +Pontevedra. Pop. (1900) 16,238. LalÃn is the centre of the trade in agricultural products of the fertile highlands between the Deza and Arnego rivers. The local industries are tanning -and the manufacture of paper. Near Lalín are the ruins of the +and the manufacture of paper. Near LalÃn are the ruins of the Gothic abbey of Carboeiro.</p> @@ -17887,7 +17849,7 @@ the district was pacified.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span>, Baron de Tollendal -(1702-1766), French general, was born at Romans, Dauphiné, +(1702-1766), French general, was born at Romans, Dauphiné, in January 1702, being the son of Sir Gerard O’Lally, an Irish Jacobite who married a French lady of noble family, from whom the son inherited his titles. Entering the French army @@ -17899,7 +17861,7 @@ been mixed up in several Jacobite plots, and in 1745 accompanied Charles Edward to Scotland, serving as aide-de-camp at the battle of Falkirk (January 1746). Escaping to France, he served with Marshal Saxe in the Low Countries, -and at the capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a <i>maréchal +and at the capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a <i>maréchal de camp</i>. When war broke out with England in 1756 Lally was given the command of a French expedition to India. He reached Pondicherry in April 1758, and at the outset met with @@ -17927,13 +17889,13 @@ foreigner.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See G. B. Malleson, <i>The Career of Count Lally</i> (1865); “Z’s” (the marquis de Lally-Tollendal) article in the <i>Biographie Michaud</i>; -and Voltaire’s <i>Œuvres complètes</i>. The legal documents are preserved -in the Bibliothèque Nationale.</p> +and Voltaire’s <i>Œuvres complètes</i>. The legal documents are preserved +in the Bibliothèque Nationale.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> +<p><span class="bold">LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1751-1830), was born at Paris on the 5th of March 1751. He was the legitimized son of the comte de Lally and only discovered <span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>96</span> @@ -17945,7 +17907,7 @@ comte de Lally; but the parlement of Rouen, to which the case was referred back, in 1784 again decided in favour of Lally’s guilt. The case was retried by other courts, but Lally’s innocence was never fully admitted by the French judges. In 1779 Lally-Tollendal -bought the office of <i>Grand bailli</i> of Étampes, and in +bought the office of <i>Grand bailli</i> of Étampes, and in 1789 was a deputy to the states-general for the <i>noblesse</i> of Paris. He played some part in the early stages of the Revolution, but was too conservative to be in sympathy with all even of its @@ -17964,13 +17926,13 @@ especially identifying himself with prison reform.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See his <i>Plaidoyer pour Louis XVI.</i> (London, 1793); Lally-Tollendal -was also in part responsible for the <i>Mémoires</i>, attributed +was also in part responsible for the <i>Mémoires</i>, attributed to Joseph Weber, concerning Marie Antoinette (1804); he further edited the article on his father in the <i>Biographie Michaud</i>; see also -Arnault, <i>Discours prononcé aux funérailles de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal -le 13 mars 1830</i> (Paris); Gauthier de Brecy, <i>Nécrologie de +Arnault, <i>Discours prononcé aux funérailles de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal +le 13 mars 1830</i> (Paris); Gauthier de Brecy, <i>Nécrologie de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal</i> (Paris, undated); Voltaire, <i>Œuvres -complètes</i> (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of contents, +complètes</i> (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of contents, vol. ii.</p> </div> @@ -17986,9 +17948,9 @@ chamber music. His early works include two trios, a quartet, and several pieces for violin and pianoforte. In 1867 he took part in an operatic competition, an opera from his pen, entitled <i>Fiesque</i>, obtaining the third place out of forty-three. This -work was accepted for production at the Paris Opéra, but delays +work was accepted for production at the Paris Opéra, but delays occurred, and nothing was done. <i>Fiesque</i> was next offered to the -Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels, and was about to be produced +Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels, and was about to be produced there when the manager became bankrupt. Thus, when nearly fifty years of age, Lalo found himself in difficulties. <i>Fiesque</i> was never performed, but the composer published the pianoforte @@ -18001,15 +17963,15 @@ his pen were produced, among them a sonata for violoncello, a <i>Symphonie Espagnole</i> for violin and orchestra, one of his best-known compositions. In the meanwhile he had written a second opera, <i>Le Roi d’Ys</i>, which he hoped would be produced at the -Opéra. The administration offered him the “scenario” of a +Opéra. The administration offered him the “scenario” of a ballet instead. Lalo was obliged to be content with this, and set to work with so much energy that he fell ill, the last scenes of the ballet being orchestrated by Gounod. <i>Namouna</i>, the -ballet in question, was produced at the Opéra in 1882. Six +ballet in question, was produced at the Opéra in 1882. Six years later, on the 7th of May 1888, <i>Le Roi d’Ys</i> was brought -out at the Opéra Comique, and Lalo was at last enabled to taste +out at the Opéra Comique, and Lalo was at last enabled to taste the sweets of success. Unfortunately, fame came to him too -late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to <i>Néron</i>, a +late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to <i>Néron</i>, a pantomimic piece played at the Hippodrome in 1891, were his last two works. He had begun a new opera, but had only written the first act when, on the 23rd of April 1892, he died. @@ -18021,7 +17983,7 @@ ingenious and brilliantly effective.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LA MADDALENA,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> an island 2½ m. from the N.E. coast of +<p><span class="bold">LA MADDALENA,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> an island 2½ m. from the N.E. coast of Sardinia. Pop. (1901) 8361. Napoleon bombarded it in 1793 without success, and Nelson made it his headquarters for some time. It is now an important naval station of the Italian fleet, @@ -18129,7 +18091,7 @@ in the middle ages in Europe, was the literary <i>lingua franca</i>. The new literature therefore, which the new movement called forth, was written, and has been preserved, in Sanskrit—its principal books of <i>Dharma</i>, or doctrine, being the following nine: -(1) <i>Prajñā-pāramitā</i>; (2) <i>Gaṇḍa-vyūha</i>; (3) <i>Daśa-bhūmīś-vara</i>; +(1) <i>Prajñā-pāramitā</i>; (2) <i>Gaṇḍa-vyūha</i>; (3) <i>Daśa-bhūmīś-vara</i>; (4) <i>Samādhi-rāja</i>; (5) <i>Lankāvatāra</i>; (6) <i>Saddharma-puṇḍarīka</i>; (7) <i>Tathāgata-guhyaka</i>; (8) <i>Lalita-vistara</i>; (9) <i>Suvarṇa-prabhāsa</i>. The date of none of these works is known with any certainty, @@ -18182,7 +18144,7 @@ of the two, a conclusion supported also by other considerations.</p> <p>Among the Bodhisats mentioned in the <i>Saddharma Puṇḍarīka</i>, and not mentioned in the <i>Lalita Vistara</i>, as attendant on the -Buddha are Mañju-śrī and Avalokiteśvara. That these saints +Buddha are Mañju-śrī and Avalokiteśvara. That these saints were already acknowledged by the followers of the Great Vehicle at the beginning of the 5th century is clear from the fact that Fa Hien, who visited India about that time, says that “men @@ -18201,7 +18163,7 @@ them to be temporary beings liable, like men, to sin and ignorance, and requiring, like men, the salvation of Arahatship. Among them the later Buddhists seem to have placed their numerous Bodhisats; and to have paid especial reverence to -Mañju-śrī as the personification of wisdom, and to Avalokiteśwara +Mañju-śrī as the personification of wisdom, and to Avalokiteśwara as the personification of overruling love. The former was afterwards identified with the mythical first Buddhist missionary, who is supposed to have introduced civilization @@ -18274,7 +18236,7 @@ incorporated into the corrupted Buddhism.</p> <p>The founder of this system seems to have been Asanga, an influential monk of Peshāwar, who wrote the first text-book of the creed, the <i>Yogāchchāra Bhūmi Śāstra</i>, in the 6th -century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Hsüan Tsang, who travelled in the first +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Hsüan Tsang, who travelled in the first <span class="sidenote">The Tantra system.</span> half of the 7th, found the monastery where Asanga had lived in ruins, and says that he had lived one thousand @@ -18322,7 +18284,7 @@ capital of Tibet, now known as Lhasa; and in the year 622 (the same year as that in which Mahomet fled from Mecca) he began the formal introduction of Buddhism into Tibet. For this purpose he sent the minister Thumi Sambhota, -afterwards looked upon as an incarnation of Mañju-śrī, to India, +afterwards looked upon as an incarnation of Mañju-śrī, to India, there to collect the sacred books, and to learn and translate them. Thumi Sambhota accordingly invented an alphabet for the Tibetan language on the model of the Indian alphabets then in @@ -18345,7 +18307,7 @@ and supported by his two queens, Bribsun, a princess from Nepāl, and Wen Ching, a princess from China. They are related to have brought with them sacred relics, books and pictures, for whose better preservation two large monasteries were erected. -These are the cloisters of La Brang (Jokhang) and Ra Moché, +These are the cloisters of La Brang (Jokhang) and Ra Moché, still, though much changed and enlarged, the most sacred abbeys in Tibet, and the glory of Lhasa. The two queens have become semi-divine personages, and are worshipped under the name of @@ -18354,7 +18316,7 @@ as incarnations of the wife of Śiva, representing respectively two of the qualities which she personifies, divine vengeance and divine love. The former is worshipped by the Mongolians as <i>Okkin Tengri</i>, “the Virgin Goddess”; but in Tibet and -China the rôle of the divine virgin is filled by <i>Kwan Yin</i>, a +China the rôle of the divine virgin is filled by <i>Kwan Yin</i>, a personification of Avalokiteśvara as the heavenly word, who is often represented with a child in her arms. Srong Tsan Gampo has also become a saint, being looked upon as an incarnation @@ -18386,9 +18348,9 @@ regarded as their sacred books—the <i>Kandjur</i>. It consists of 100 volumes containing 689 works, of which there are two or three complete sets in Europe, one of them in the India Office library. A detailed analysis of these scriptures has been published -by the celebrated Hungarian scholar Csoma de Körös, +by the celebrated Hungarian scholar Csoma de Körös, whose authoritative work has been republished in French with -complete indices and very useful notes by M. Léon Feer. These +complete indices and very useful notes by M. Léon Feer. These volumes contain about a dozen works of the oldest school of Buddhism, the Hīnayāna, and about 300 works, mostly very short, belonging to the Tantra school. But the great bulk of @@ -18541,7 +18503,7 @@ Lāmāism of to-day. And first as to the mode of electing successors to the two Great Lāmas. It will have been noticed that it was an old idea of the northern Buddhists to look upon distinguished members of the order as -incarnations of Avalokiteśvara, of Mañju-śrī, or of Amitābha. +incarnations of Avalokiteśvara, of Mañju-śrī, or of Amitābha. These beings were supposed to possess the power, whilst they continued to live in heaven, of appearing on earth in a <i>Nirmāna-kāya</i>, or apparitional body. In the same way the Pantshen Lāma @@ -18598,21 +18560,21 @@ there are many Buddhists who are not practically under his control or influence.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>The best work on Lāmāism is still Köppen’s <i>Die Lamaische Hierarchie +<p>The best work on Lāmāism is still Köppen’s <i>Die Lamaische Hierarchie und Kirche</i> (Berlin, 1859). See also Bushell, “The Early History of Tibet,” in the <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, 1879-1880, vol. xii.; Sanang Setzen’s <i>History of the East Mongols</i> (in Mongolian, translated into German by J. Schmidt, <i>Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen</i>); -“Analyse du Kandjur,” by M. Léon Feer, in <i>Annales du Musée +“Analyse du Kandjur,” by M. Léon Feer, in <i>Annales du Musée Gaimet</i> (1881); Schott, <i>Ueber den Buddhismus in Hoch-Asien</i>; Gutzlaff, <i>Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches</i>; Hue and Gabet, <i>Souvenirs d’un voyage dans la Tartarie, le Tibet, et la Chine</i> -(Paris, 1858); Pallas’s <i>Sammlung historischer Nachrichten über die -Mongolischen Völkerschaften</i>; Bābu Sarat Chunder Das’s “Contributions +(Paris, 1858); Pallas’s <i>Sammlung historischer Nachrichten über die +Mongolischen Völkerschaften</i>; Bābu Sarat Chunder Das’s “Contributions on the Religion and History of Tibet,” in the <i>Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society</i>, 1881; L. A. Waddell, <i>The Buddhism of Tibet</i> (London, 1895); A. H. Francke, <i>History of Western Tibet</i> -(London, 1907); A. Grünwedel, <i>Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet +(London, 1907); A. Grünwedel, <i>Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei</i> (Berlin, 1900).</p> </div> <div class="author">(T. W. R. D.)</div> @@ -18635,8 +18597,8 @@ China (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tibet</a></span>).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAMALOU-LES-BAINS,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> a watering-place of southern France -in the department of Hérault, 53½ m. W. of Montpellier by rail, -in a valley of the southern Cévennes. Pop. (1906) 720. The +in the department of Hérault, 53½ m. W. of Montpellier by rail, +in a valley of the southern Cévennes. Pop. (1906) 720. The waters, which are both hot and cold, are used in cases of rheumatism, sciatica, locomotor ataxy and nervous maladies.</p> @@ -18766,7 +18728,7 @@ to Paris and began the study of medicine, supporting himself by working in a banker’s office. He early became interested in meteorology and in physical and chemical speculations of a chimerical kind, but happily threw his main strength into -botany, and in 1778 published his <i>Flore française</i>, a work in +botany, and in 1778 published his <i>Flore française</i>, a work in which by a dichotomous system of contrasting characters he enabled the student with facility to determine species. This work, which went through several editions and long kept the field, @@ -18780,7 +18742,7 @@ his knowledge of natural history; and on his return he began those elaborate contributions to botany on which his reputation in that science principally rests, namely, the <i>Dictionnaire de Botanique</i> and the <i>Illustrations de Genres</i>, voluminous works -contributed to the <i>Encyclopédie Méthodique</i> (1785). In 1793, in +contributed to the <i>Encyclopédie Méthodique</i> (1785). In 1793, in consequence of changes in the organization of the natural history department at the Jardin du Roi, where he had held a botanical appointment since 1788, Lamarck was presented to a zoological @@ -18791,11 +18753,11 @@ principal attention to zoology instead of botany, he had the misfortune soon after to suffer from impaired vision; and the malady resulted subsequently in total blindness. Yet his greatest zoological work, the <i>Histoire naturelle des animaux -sans vertèbres</i>, was published from 1815 to 1822, with the +sans vertèbres</i>, was published from 1815 to 1822, with the assistance, in the last two volumes, of his eldest daughter and of P. A. Latreille (1762-1833). A volume of plates of the fossil shells of the neighbourhood of Paris was collected in 1823 from -his memoirs in the <i>Annales des Muséums</i>. He died on the 18th +his memoirs in the <i>Annales des Muséums</i>. He died on the 18th of December 1829.</p> <p>The character of Lamarck as a naturalist is remarkable alike @@ -18823,7 +18785,7 @@ of plants, interesting, though crude and falling immeasurably short of the system which grew in the hands of his intimate friend A. L. de Jussieu. The problem of taxonomy has never been put more philosophically than he subsequently put it in his -<i>Animaux sans vertèbres</i>: “What arrangement must be given +<i>Animaux sans vertèbres</i>: “What arrangement must be given to the general distribution of animals to make it conformable to the order of nature in the production of these beings?”</p> @@ -18833,7 +18795,7 @@ tendency furnished a powerful incentive to work, but it outran the legitimate deductions from observation, and led him into the production of volumes of worthless chemistry without experimental basis, as well as into spending much time on fruitless -meteorological predictions. His <i>Annuaires Météorologiques</i> were +meteorological predictions. His <i>Annuaires Météorologiques</i> were published yearly from 1800 to 1810, and were not discontinued until after an unnecessarily public and brutal tirade from Napoleon, administered on the occasion of being presented @@ -18849,11 +18811,11 @@ a belief or, as he imagined, a demonstration. Spontaneous generation, he considered, might be easily conceived as resulting from such agencies as heat and electricity causing in small gelatinous bodies an utricular structure, and inducing a “singular -tension,” a kind of “éréthisme” or “orgasme”; and, having +tension,” a kind of “éréthisme” or “orgasme”; and, having thus accounted for the first appearance of life, he explained the whole organization of animals and formation of different organs by four laws (introduction to his <i>Histoire naturelle des -animaux sans vertèbres</i>, 1815):—</p> +animaux sans vertèbres</i>, 1815):—</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>1. “Life by its proper forces tends continually to increase the @@ -18957,7 +18919,7 @@ war in June, took command of an army corps, but was defeated at Custozza on the 23rd of June. Accused of treason by his fellow-countrymen, and of duplicity by the Prussians, he eventually published in defence of his tactics (1873) a series of documents -entitled <i>Un po’ più di luce sugli eventi dell’ anno</i> 1866 (More +entitled <i>Un po’ più di luce sugli eventi dell’ anno</i> 1866 (More light on the events of 1866) a step which caused irritation in Germany, and exposed him to the charge of having violated state secrets. Meanwhile he had been sent to Paris in 1867 to @@ -18976,14 +18938,14 @@ stato nel governo constituzionale</i> (Florence, 1877).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE LOUIS DE PRAT DE<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1790-1869), French poet, historian and statesman, was born at -Mâcon on the 21st of October 1790. The order of his surnames +Mâcon on the 21st of October 1790. The order of his surnames is a controversial matter, and they are sometimes reversed. The family of Lamartine was good, and the title of Prat was -taken from an estate in Franche Comté. His father was imprisoned +taken from an estate in Franche Comté. His father was imprisoned during the Terror, and only released owing to the events of the 9th Thermidor. Lamartine’s early education was received from his mother. He was sent to school at Lyons in 1805, but -not being happy there was transferred to the care of the Pères de +not being happy there was transferred to the care of the Pères de la Foi at Belley, where he remained until 1809. For some time afterwards he lived at home, reading romantic and poetical literature, but in 1811 he set out for Italy, where he seems to @@ -18995,20 +18957,20 @@ abundant results of the poetical kind. After Waterloo he returned to Paris. In 1818-1819 he revisited Switzerland, Savoy and Italy, the death of his beloved affording him new subjects for verse. After some difficulties he had his first book, the -<i>Méditations, poétiques et religieuses</i>, published (1820). It was +<i>Méditations, poétiques et religieuses</i>, published (1820). It was exceedingly popular, and helped him to make a position. He had left the army for some time; he now entered the diplomatic service and was appointed secretary to the embassy at Naples. On his way to his post he married, in 1823, at Geneva a young English lady, Marianne Birch, who had both money and beauty, -and in the same year his <i>Nouvelles méditations poétiques</i> appeared.</p> +and in the same year his <i>Nouvelles méditations poétiques</i> appeared.</p> <p>In 1824 he was transferred to Florence, where he remained five years. His <i>Last Canto of Childe Harold</i> appeared in 1825, and he had to fight a duel (in which he was wounded) with an Italian officer, Colonel Pepe, in consequence of a phrase in it. Charles X., on whose coronation he wrote a poem, gave him the order of the -Legion of Honour. The <i>Harmonies poétiques et religieuses</i> +Legion of Honour. The <i>Harmonies poétiques et religieuses</i> appeared in 1829, when he had left Florence. Having refused an appointment in Paris under the Polignac ministry, he went on a special mission to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In the same @@ -19091,8 +19053,8 @@ succeeded in placing him in a position of independence; and at last, in 1867, the government of the Empire (from which he had perforce stood aloof, though he never considered it necessary to adopt the active protesting attitude of Edgar Quinet and Victor -Hugo) came to his assistance, a vote of £20,000 being proposed -in April of that year for his benefit by Émile Ollivier. This was +Hugo) came to his assistance, a vote of £20,000 being proposed +in April of that year for his benefit by Émile Ollivier. This was creditable to both parties, for Lamartine, both as a distinguished man of letters and as a past servant of the state, had every claim to the bounty of his country. But he was reproached for @@ -19123,20 +19085,20 @@ of coming at a time when the literary field, at least in the departments of belles lettres, was almost empty. The feeble school of descriptive writers, epic poets of the extreme decadence, fabulists and miscellaneous verse-makers, which the Empire had nourished -could satisfy no one. Madame de Staël was dead; Chateaubriand, +could satisfy no one. Madame de Staël was dead; Chateaubriand, though alive, was something of a classic, and had not effected a full revolution. Lamartine did not himself go the complete length of the Romantic revival, but he went far in that direction. He availed himself of the reviving interest in legitimism and Catholicism which was represented by Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, of the nature worship of Rousseau and Bernardin de Saint Pierre, of the sentimentalism -of Madame de Staël, of the medievalism and the romance -of Chateaubriand and Scott, of the <i>maladie du siècle</i> of Chateaubriand +of Madame de Staël, of the medievalism and the romance +of Chateaubriand and Scott, of the <i>maladie du siècle</i> of Chateaubriand and Byron. Perhaps if his matter be very closely analysed it will be found that he added hardly anything of his own. But if the parts of the mixture were like other things the mixture itself was not. It seemed indeed to the immediate generation so original that tradition -has it that the <i>Méditations</i> were refused by a publisher because they +has it that the <i>Méditations</i> were refused by a publisher because they were in none of the accepted styles. They appeared when Lamartine was nearly thirty years old. The best of them, and the best thing that Lamartine ever did, is the famous <i>Lac</i>, describing his return to @@ -19148,7 +19110,7 @@ want of vigour, but to readers of that day the want of vigour was entirely compensated by the presence of freshness and grace. Lamartine’s chief misfortune in poetry was not only that his note was a somewhat weak one, but that he could strike but one. -The four volumes of the <i>Méditations</i>, the <i>Harmonies</i> and the <i>Recueillements</i>, +The four volumes of the <i>Méditations</i>, the <i>Harmonies</i> and the <i>Recueillements</i>, which contained the prime of his verse, are perhaps the most monotonous reading to be found anywhere in work of equal bulk by a poet of equal talent. They contain nothing but meditative lyrical @@ -19188,7 +19150,7 @@ power of initiative in poetry was very small, and the range of poetic ground which he could cover strictly limited. He could only carry the picturesque sentimentalism of Rousseau, Bernardin de Saint Pierre and Chateaubriand a little farther, and clothe it in language -and verse a little less antiquated than that of Chênedollé and Millevoye. +and verse a little less antiquated than that of Chênedollé and Millevoye. He has been said to be a French Cowper, and the parallel holds good in respect of versification and of his relative position to the more daringly innovating school that followed, though not in respect @@ -19198,7 +19160,7 @@ and he never got any farther. When Matthew Arnold questioned his importance in conversation with Sainte-Beuve, the answer was, “He is important to <i>us</i>,” and it was a true answer; but the limitation is obvious. In more recent years, however, efforts -have been made by Brunetière and others to remove it. The usual +have been made by Brunetière and others to remove it. The usual revolution of critical as of other taste, the oblivion of personal and political unpopularity, and above all the reaction against Hugo and the extreme Romantics, have been the main agents in this. Lamartine @@ -19214,12 +19176,12 @@ take rank among the first order of poets.</p> <p>The edition mentioned is the most complete one of Lamartine, but there are many issues of his separate works. After his death some -poems and <i>Mémoires inédits</i> of his youth were published, and also +poems and <i>Mémoires inédits</i> of his youth were published, and also two volumes of correspondence, while in 1893 Mlle V. de Lamartine added a volume of <i>Lettres</i> to him. The change of views above referred -to may be studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetière, +to may be studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetière, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>104</span> -Faguet, Lemaître, &c., and in the more substantive work of Ch. de +Faguet, Lemaître, &c., and in the more substantive work of Ch. de Pomairols, <i>Lamartine</i> (1889); E. Deschanel, <i>Lamartine</i> (1893); E. Zyrowski, <i>Lamartine</i> (1896); and perhaps best of all in the Preface to Emile Legouis’ Clarendon Press edition of <i>Jocelyn</i> (1906), @@ -19313,7 +19275,7 @@ Coleridge’s <i>Poems</i>. In 1797 his short summer holiday was spent with Coleridge at Nether Stowey, where he met the Wordsworths, William and Dorothy, and established a friendship with both which only his own death terminated. In 1798, under -the influence of Henry Mackenzie’s novel <i>Julie de Roubigné</i>, +the influence of Henry Mackenzie’s novel <i>Julie de Roubigné</i>, he published a short and pathetic prose tale entitled <i>Rosamund Gray</i>, in which it is possible to trace beneath disguised conditions references to the misfortunes of the author’s own family, and @@ -19400,7 +19362,7 @@ occasion was retained for the subsequent contributions, which appeared collectively in a volume of essays called <i>Elia</i>, in 1823. After a career of five years the <i>London Magazine</i> came to an end; and about the same period Lamb’s long connexion with -the India House terminated, a pension of £450 (£441 net) having +the India House terminated, a pension of £450 (£441 net) having been assigned to him. The increased leisure, however, for which he had long sighed, did not prove favourable to literary production, which henceforth was limited to a few trifling contributions @@ -19525,19 +19487,19 @@ Sedgmoor, lent irony to the nickname.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span>, +<p><span class="bold">LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Princesse de</span> (1749-1792), fourth daughter of Louis Victor of Carignano (d. 1774) (great-grandfather of King Charles Albert of Sardinia), and of Christine Henriette of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rothenburg, was born at Turin on the 8th of September 1749. In 1767 she was married to Louis Alexandre Stanislaus de -Bourbon, prince of Lamballe, son of the duke of Penthièvre, a +Bourbon, prince of Lamballe, son of the duke of Penthièvre, a grandson of Louis XIV.’s natural son the count of Toulouse. Her husband dying the following year, she retired with her father-in-law to Rambouillet, where she lived until the marriage of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>106</span> dauphin, when she returned to court. Marie Antoinette, -charmed by her gentle and naïve manners, singled her out for +charmed by her gentle and naïve manners, singled her out for a companion and confidante. The impetuous character of the dauphiness found in Madame de Lamballe that submissive temperament which yields to force of environment, and the two @@ -19565,8 +19527,8 @@ placed on a pike and carried before the windows of the queen.</p> <p>See George Bertin, <i>Madame de Lamballe</i> (Paris, 1888); Austin Dobson, <i>Four Frenchwomen</i> (1890); B. C. Hardy, <i>Princesse de Lamballe</i> (1908); Comte de Lescure, <i>La Princesse de Lamballe ... -d’après des documents inédits</i> (1864); some letters of the princess -published by Ch. Schmidt in <i>La Révolution française</i> (vol. xxxix., +d’après des documents inédits</i> (1864); some letters of the princess +published by Ch. Schmidt in <i>La Révolution française</i> (vol. xxxix., 1900); L. Lambeau, <i>Essais sur la mort de madame la princesse de Lamballe</i> (1902); Sir F. Montefiore, <i>The Princesse de Lamballe</i> (1896). <i>The Secret Memoirs of the Royal Family of France ... now first @@ -19579,18 +19541,18 @@ Hyde, Marchioness Govion-Broglio-Solari, and are apocryphal.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LAMBALLE<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span>, a town of north-western France, in the department -of Côtes-du-Nord, on the Gouessant 13 m. E.S.E. of St +of Côtes-du-Nord, on the Gouessant 13 m. E.S.E. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop. (1906) 4347. Crowning the eminence on which the town is built is a beautiful Gothic church (13th and 14th centuries), once the chapel of the castle of the counts of -Penthièvre. La Noue, the famous Huguenot leader, was mortally +Penthièvre. La Noue, the famous Huguenot leader, was mortally wounded in 1591 in the siege of the castle, which was dismantled in 1626 by Richelieu. Of the other buildings, the church of St Martin (11th, 15th and 16th centuries) is the chief. Lamballe has an important <i>haras</i> (depot for stallions) and carries on trade in grain, tanning and leather-dressing; earthenware is manufactured in the environs. Lamballe was the capital of the territory -of the counts of Penthièvre, who in 1569 were made dukes.</p> +of the counts of Penthièvre, who in 1569 were made dukes.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -19600,12 +19562,12 @@ Area, 4614 sq. m. Pop. (1906 estimate) 93,070. It belongs to the arid region of the coast, and is settled along the river valleys where irrigation is possible. It is one of the chief sugar-producing departments of Peru, and in some valleys, especially near -Ferreñafe, rice is largely produced. Four railways connect its +Ferreñafe, rice is largely produced. Four railways connect its principal producing centres with the small ports of Eten and -Pimentel, viz.: Eten to Ferreñafe, 27 m.; Eten to Cayalti, 23 m.; -Pimentel to Lambayeque, 15 m.; and Chiclayo to Pátapo, 15 m. +Pimentel, viz.: Eten to Ferreñafe, 27 m.; Eten to Cayalti, 23 m.; +Pimentel to Lambayeque, 15 m.; and Chiclayo to Pátapo, 15 m. The principal towns are Chiclayo, the departmental capital, -with a population (1906 estimate) of 10,500, Ferreñafe 6000, +with a population (1906 estimate) of 10,500, Ferreñafe 6000, and Lambayeque 4500.</p> @@ -19625,7 +19587,7 @@ predilection for effects of force and motion. Other notable works are his fountain at Antwerp (1886), “Robbing the Eagle’s Eyrie” (1890), “Drunkenness” (1893), “The Triumph of Woman,” “The Bitten Faun” (which created a great stir at the -Exposition Universelle at Liége in 1905), and “The Human +Exposition Universelle at Liége in 1905), and “The Human Passions,” a colossal marble bas-relief, elaborated from a sketch exhibited in 1889. Of his numerous busts may be mentioned those of Hendrik Conscience, and of Charles Bals, the burgomaster @@ -19691,7 +19653,7 @@ weighed in 1793 thirty-two stone (448 ℔). In 1806 he resolved to profit by his notoriety, and resigning his office went up to London and exhibited himself. He died on the 21st of July 1809, and at the time measured 5 ft. 11 in. in height and weighed -52¾ stone (739 ℔). His waistcoat, now in the Kings Lynn +52¾ stone (739 ℔). His waistcoat, now in the Kings Lynn Museum, measures 102 in. round the waist. His coffin contained 112 ft. of elm and was built on wheels. His name has been used as a synonym for immensity. George Meredith describes @@ -19714,7 +19676,7 @@ Catholic theology, and by 1522 he had abandoned his order, and became known to the leaders of the Reformation in Switzerland and Germany. He did not, however, identify himself either with Zwinglianism or Lutheranism; he disputed with -Zwingli at Zürich in 1522, and then made his way to Eisenach +Zwingli at Zürich in 1522, and then made his way to Eisenach and Wittenberg, where he married in 1523. He returned to Strassburg in 1524, being anxious to spread the doctrines of the Reformation among the French-speaking population of the @@ -19765,14 +19727,14 @@ physicist, mathematician and astronomer, was born at Mulhausen, Alsace, on the 26th of August 1728. He was the son of a tailor; and the slight elementary instruction he obtained at the free school of his native town was supplemented by his -own private reading. He became book-keeper at Montbéliard +own private reading. He became book-keeper at Montbéliard ironworks, and subsequently (1745) secretary to Professor Iselin, the editor of a newspaper at Basel, who three years later recommended him as private tutor to the family of Count A. von Salis of Coire. Coming thus into virtual possession of a good library, Lambert had peculiar opportunities for improving himself in his literary and scientific studies. In 1759, after completing with -his pupils a tour of two years’ duration through Göttingen, +his pupils a tour of two years’ duration through Göttingen, Utrecht, Paris, Marseilles and Turin, he resigned his tutorship and settled at Augsburg. Munich, Erlangen, Coire and Leipzig became for brief successive intervals his home. In 1764 he @@ -19806,7 +19768,7 @@ geocentric path of a comet.</p> systematic treatise on heat, containing the records and full discussion of many of his own experiments. Worthy of special notice also are <i>Photometria</i> (Augsburg, 1760), <i>Insigniores orbitae cometarum -proprietates</i> (Augsburg, 1761), and <i>Beiträge zum Gebrauche +proprietates</i> (Augsburg, 1761), and <i>Beiträge zum Gebrauche der Mathematik und deren Anwendung</i> (4 vols., Berlin, 1765-1772).</p> <p>The <i>Memoirs</i> of the Berlin Academy from 1761 to 1784 contain @@ -19816,7 +19778,7 @@ meteorology, &c. In the <i>Acta Helvetica</i> (1752-1760) and in the <i>Nova acta erudita</i> (1763-1769) several of his contributions appear. In Bode’s <i>Jahrbuch</i> (1776-1780) he discusses nutation, aberration of light, Saturn’s rings and comets; in the <i>Nova acta Helvetica</i> (1787) -he has a long paper “Sur le son des corps élastiques,” in Bernoulli +he has a long paper “Sur le son des corps élastiques,” in Bernoulli and Hindenburg’s <i>Magazin</i> (1787-1788) he treats of the roots of equation and of parallel lines; and in Hindenburg’s <i>Archiv</i> (1798-1799) he writes on optics and perspective. Many of these pieces @@ -19929,7 +19891,7 @@ greatest energy and did not cease to harass the invaders till Cromwell came up from Wales and with him destroyed the Scottish army in the three days’ fighting from Preston to Warrington. After the battle Lambert’s cavalry headed the chase, -pursuing the defeated army <i>à outrance</i>, and finally surrounded +pursuing the defeated army <i>à outrance</i>, and finally surrounded it at Uttoxeter, where Hamilton surrendered to Lambert on the 25th of August. He then led the advance of Cromwell’s army into Scotland, where he was left in charge on Cromwell’s return. @@ -19954,7 +19916,7 @@ quickly followed, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Rebellion</a></ the general plan was carried out most brilliantly, and in the crowning victory of Worcester he commanded the right wing of the English army, and had his horse shot under him. Parliament -now conferred on him a grant of lands in Scotland worth £1000 +now conferred on him a grant of lands in Scotland worth £1000 per annum.</p> <p>In October 1651 Lambert was made a commissioner to settle @@ -20028,7 +19990,7 @@ personal as well as political, followed. On his refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the protector, Lambert was deprived of his commissions, receiving, however, a pension of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>109</span> -£2000 a year. He retired to his garden at Wimbledon, and +£2000 a year. He retired to his garden at Wimbledon, and appeared no more in public during Oliver Cromwell’s lifetime; but shortly before his death Cromwell sought a reconciliation, and Lambert and his wife visited him at Whitehall.</p> @@ -20125,7 +20087,7 @@ the emperor Henry IV., including the visit to Canossa and the battle of Hohenburg, are vividly described. Their tone is hostile to Henry IV. and friendly to the papacy; their Latin style is excellent. The <i>Annales</i> were first published in 1525 and -are printed in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, Bände +are printed in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, Bände iii. and v. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). Formerly Lambert’s reputation for accuracy and impartiality was very high, but both qualities have been somewhat discredited.</p> @@ -20138,7 +20100,7 @@ founder of the abbey of Hersfeld; and of a <i>Carmen de bello Saxonico</i>. His <i>Opera</i> have been edited with an introduction by O. Holder-Egger (Hanover, 1894).</p> -<p>See H. Delbrück, <i>Über die Glaubwürdigkeit Lamberts von Hersfeld</i> +<p>See H. Delbrück, <i>Ãœber die Glaubwürdigkeit Lamberts von Hersfeld</i> (Bonn, 1873); A. Eigenbrodt, <i>Lampert von Hersfeld und die neuere Quellenforschung</i> (Cassel, 1896); L. von Ranke, <i>Zur Kritik frankisch-deutscher Reichsannalisten</i> (Berlin, 1854); W. Wattenbach, @@ -20167,8 +20129,8 @@ standing in their original alignments; to the west is a similar area, from which, however, the stones have been largely removed for building the modern village. Of the temple of Aesculapius only one column is standing, though in the middle of the 19th -century its façade was entire. The capitol or temple dedicated -to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which has been cleared of débris, +century its façade was entire. The capitol or temple dedicated +to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which has been cleared of débris, has a portico with eight columns. On level ground about two-thirds of a mile from the centre of the ancient town stands the camp, its site now partly occupied by the penitentiary and its @@ -20176,7 +20138,7 @@ gardens. It measures 1640 ft. N. to S. by 1476 ft. E. to W., and in the middle rise the ruins of a building commonly called, but incorrectly, the praetorium. This noble building, which dates from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 268, is 92 ft. long by 66 ft. broad and 49 ft. high; -its southern façade has a splendid peristyle half the height +its southern façade has a splendid peristyle half the height of the wall, consisting of a front row of massive Ionic columns and an engaged row of Corinthian pilasters. Behind this building (which was roofed), is a large court giving access to @@ -20213,9 +20175,9 @@ have been found among the ruins.</p> <p>About 2 m. S. of Lambessa are the ruins of Markuna, the ancient Verecunda, including two triumphal arches.</p> -<p>See S. Gsell, <i>Les Monuments antiques de l’Algérie</i> (Paris, 1901) and -<i>L’Algérie dans l’antiquité</i> (Algiers, 1903); L. Renier, <i>Inscriptions -romaines de l’Algérie</i> (Paris, 1855); Gustav Wilmann, “Die röm. +<p>See S. Gsell, <i>Les Monuments antiques de l’Algérie</i> (Paris, 1901) and +<i>L’Algérie dans l’antiquité</i> (Algiers, 1903); L. Renier, <i>Inscriptions +romaines de l’Algérie</i> (Paris, 1855); Gustav Wilmann, “Die röm. Lagerstadt Afrikas,” in <i>Commentationes phil. in honorem Th. Mommseni</i> (Berlin, 1877); Sir L. Playfair, <i>Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce</i> (London, 1877); A. Graham, <i>Roman Africa</i> (London, 1902).</p> @@ -20246,7 +20208,7 @@ is bordered by the fine Albert Embankment.</p> The suffix is common along the river in the meaning of a haven, but the prefix is less clear; a Saxon word signifying mud is suggested. Brixton and Kennington are mentioned in Domesday; -and in Vauxhall is concealed the name of Falkes de Breauté, +and in Vauxhall is concealed the name of Falkes de Breauté, an unscrupulous adventurer of the time of John and Henry III. exiled in 1225. The manor of North Lambeth was given to the bishopric of Rochester in the time of Edward the Confessor, @@ -20492,12 +20454,12 @@ Communion, Encyclical Letter</i>, &c. (London, 1897 and 1908).</p> Lambin</span> (1520-1572), French classical scholar, born at Montreuil-sur-mer in Picardy. Having devoted several years to classical studies during a residence in Italy, he was invited to Paris in -1650 to fill the professorship of Latin in the Collège de France, +1650 to fill the professorship of Latin in the Collège de France, which he soon afterwards exchanged for that of Greek. His lectures were frequently interrupted by his ill-health and the religious disturbances of the time. His death (September 1572) is said to have been caused by his apprehension that he might -share the fate of his friend Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramée), +share the fate of his friend Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramée), who had been killed in the massacre of St Bartholomew. Lambinus was one of the greatest scholars of his age, and his editions of classical authors are still useful. In textual criticism @@ -20521,7 +20483,7 @@ of Guillaume Morel; Plautus (1576).</p> <i>Onomasticon Tullianum</i> (i. 1836), and <i>Trium disertissimorum virorum praefationes ac epistolae familiares aliquot: Mureti, Lambini, Regii</i> (Paris, 1579); also Sandys, <i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i> -(1908, ii. 188), and A. Horawitz in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>.</p> +(1908, ii. 188), and A. Horawitz in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>.</p> </div> @@ -20574,7 +20536,7 @@ sometimes derived from <span title="yuval">יבל</span> in the s they would be three different words for “son,” and there are numerous other theories as to their etymology. Lamech has also a daughter Naamah (“gracious,” “pleasant,” “comely”; -cf. No’mân, a name of the deity Adonis). This narrative clearly +cf. No’mân, a name of the deity Adonis). This narrative clearly intends to account for the origin of these various arts as they existed in the narrator’s time; it is not likely that he thought of these discoveries as separated from his own age by a universal @@ -23173,382 +23135,6 @@ E. Ray Lankester, pt. v.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 1, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 41902-h.htm or 41902-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/9/0/41902/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 1 - "L" to "Lamellibranchia" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: January 23, 2013 [EBook #41902] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE LABYRINTHULIDEA: "From each cyst ultimately emerges a - single amoeba, or more rarely four (figs. 6, 7)." 'amoeba' amended - from 'amoebae'. - - ARTICLE LACE: "... upon the lace-making industry in - Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire contains many - illustrations of laces made in these counties from the 17th century - to the present time." 'Bedfordshire' amended from 'Bedforshire'. - - ARTICLE LACONIA: "The coast, especially on the east, is rugged and - dangerous." 'especially' amended from 'expecially'. - - ARTICLE LA FARGE, JOHN: "Hokusai: A Talk about Hokusai (New York, - 1897), and An Artist's Letters from Japan (New York, 1897)." - 'Hokusai' amended from 'Hoksuai'. - - ARTICLE LAMELLIBRANCHIA: "The series of oval holes on the back of - the lamella are the water-pores which open between the filaments in - irregular rows separated horizontally by the transverse - inter-filamentar junctions." 'filamentar' amended from 'filmentar'. - - - - - THE - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - - - FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771. - SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784. - THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797. - FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810. - FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817. - SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824. - SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842. - EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860. - NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889. - TENTH " ninth edition and eleven - supplementary volumes, 1902-1903. - ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911. - - - COPYRIGHT - - in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention - - by - - THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS - of the - UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE - - _All rights reserved_ - - - - - THE - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF - ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - VOLUME XVI - L to LORD ADVOCATE - - New York - - Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. - 342 Madison Avenue - - Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, - by - The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. - - - VOLUME XVI, SLICE I - - L to Lamellibranchia - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - L LA FARINA, GIUSEPPE - LAACHER SEE LA FAYETTE, GILBERT MOTIER DE - LAAGER LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE - LAAS, ERNST LA FAYETTE, ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER - LA BADIE, JEAN DE LA FAYETTE, PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE - LABEL LAFAYETTE - LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS LA FERTE - LABERIUS, DECIMUS LA FERTE-BERNARD - LABIATAE LA FERTE-MILON - LABICANA, VIA LAFFITTE, JACQUES - LABICHE, EUGENE MARIN LAFFITTE, PIERRE - LABICI LA FLECHE - LABID LAFONT, PIERRE CHERI - LABIENUS LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE - LABLACHE, LUIGI LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE - LABOR DAY LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE - LA BOURBOULE LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE - LABOUR CHURCH, THE LAGASH - LA BOURDONNAIS, FRANCOIS LAGHMAN - LABOUR EXCHANGE LAGOON - LABOUR LEGISLATION LAGOS (province of Nigeria) - LABOUR PARTY LAGOS (seaport of Nigeria) - LABRADOR LAGOS (seaport of Portugal) - LABRADORITE LA GRACE - LABRADOR TEA LA GRAND' COMBE - LABRUM LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS - LA BRUYERE, JEAN DE LAGRANGE-CHANCEL, FRANCOIS JOSEPH - LABUAN LA GRANJA - LABURNUM LAGRENEE, LOUIS JEAN FRANCOIS - LABYRINTH LA GUAIRA - LABYRINTHULIDEA LA GUERONNIERE, DUBREUIL HELION - LAC LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES - LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE LAGUNA - LACAITA, SIR JAMES LA HARPE, JEAN FRANCOIS DE - LA CALLE LAHIRE, LAURENT DE - LA CALPRENEDE, COSTES LAHN - LA CARLOTA LAHNDA - LACCADIVE ISLANDS LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF - LACCOLITE LAHORE - LACE LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE - LACE-BARK TREE LAHR - LACEDAEMON LAIBACH - LACEPEDE, BERNARD DE LA VILLE LAIDLAW, WILLIAM - LACEWING-FLY LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON - LA CHAISE, FRANCOIS DE LAING, DAVID - LA CHAISE-DIEU LAING, MALCOLM - LA CHALOTAIS, DE CARADEUC DE LAING, SAMUEL - LA CHARITE LAING'S NEK - LA CHAUSSEE, NIVELLE DE LAIRD, MACGREGOR - LACHES LAIS - LACHINE LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE - LACHISH LAI-YANG - LACHMANN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM LAKANAL, JOSEPH - LACINIUM, PROMUNTURIUM LAKE, GERARD LAKE - LA CIOTAT LAKE - LA CLOCHE, JAMES DE LAKE CHARLES - LA CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE DE LAKE CITY - LACONIA (Peloponnese district) LAKE DISTRICT - LACONIA (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) LAKE DWELLINGS - LACONICUM LAKE GENEVA - LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI LAKE OF THE WOODS - LACQUER LAKE PLACID - LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE LAKEWOOD - LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANCOIS ALFRED LAKH - LACROIX, PAUL LAKHIMPUR - LACROMA LAKSHMI - LA CROSSE LALAING, JACQUES DE - LACROSSE LALANDE, JOSEPH JEROME LEFRANCAIS DE - LA CRUZ, RAMON DE LALIN - LACRYMATORY LA LINEA - LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS LALITPUR - LACTIC ACID LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR - LACTONES LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GERARD - LA CUEVA, JUAN DE LALO, EDOUARD - LACUNAR LA MADDALENA - LACUZON LAMAISM - LACY, FRANZ MORITZ LAMALOU-LES-BAINS - LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH LAMA-MIAO - LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS - LACYDES OF CYRENE LAMARCK, ANTOINE DE MONET - LADAKH AND BALTISTAN LA MARGHERITA, CLEMENTE SOLARO - LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL LA MARMORA, ALFONSO FERRERO - LADDER LAMARTINE, LOUIS DE PRAT DE - LADING LAMB, CHARLES - LADISLAUS I LAMB - LADISLAUS IV. LAMBALLE, LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO - LADISLAUS V. LAMBALLE - LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE LAMBAYEQUE - LADO ENCLAVE LAMBEAUX, JEF - LADOGA LAMBERMONT, AUGUSTE - LADY LAMBERT, DANIEL - LADYBANK LAMBERT, FRANCIS - LADYBRAND LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH - LADY-CHAPEL LAMBERT, JOHN (English martyr) - LADY DAY LAMBERT, JOHN (English general) - LADYSMITH LAMBERT OF HERSFELD - LAELIUS LAMBESSA - LAENAS LAMBETH - LAER, PIETER VAN LAMBETH CONFERENCES - LAESTRYGONES LAMBINUS, DIONYSIUS - LAETUS, JULIUS POMPONIUS LAMBOURN - LAEVIUS LAMECH - LAEVULINIC ACID LAMEGO - LA FARGE, JOHN LAMELLIBRANCHIA - - - - -INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] -WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. - - - A. B. Ch. - A. B. CHATWOOD, B.SC., A.M.INST.C.E., M.INST.ELEC.E. - - Lock. - - A. B. R. - ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S., F.L.S. - - Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of _Text Book - on Classification of Flowering Plants, &c._ - - Leaf. - - A. C. F. - ALEXANDER CAMPBELL FRASER, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: FRASER, A. C. - - Locke, John. - - A. C. S. - ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. - - See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C. - - Landor. - - A. D. - HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: Dobson, HENRY AUSTIN. - - Locker-Lampson. - - A. Fi. - PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON. - - See the biographical article: FILON, P. M. A. - - Labiche. - - A. F. P. - ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC. - - Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow - of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant editor of the Dictionary - of National Biography, 1893-1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; - Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of _England under the Protector - Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c. - - Lambert, Francis; - Lambert, Nicholson. - - A. Gl. - ARNOLD GLOVER, M.A., LL.B. (d. 1905) - - Trinity College, Cambridge; Joint-editor of _Beaumont and - Fletcher_ for the Cambridge University Press. - - Layard. - - A. Go.* - REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. - - Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. - - Laurentius, Paul; - Libertines. - - A. G. D. - ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S., - F.R.S.(Canada). - - Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of - Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint editor of - _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_. - - Lafontaine. - - A. H. S. - REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LITT.D., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. - - Laodicea. - - A. J. G. - REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. - - Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United - Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras - University, and Member of Mysore Educational Service. - - Logos (_in part_). - - A. J. L. - ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. - - Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of - the _Rio News_ (Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. - - Lima (_Peru_). - - A. L. - ANDREW LANG. - - See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. - - La Cloche. - - A. M. An. - ADELAIDE MARY ANDERSON, M.A. - - H.M. Principal Lady Inspector of Factories, Home Office. Clerk to - the Royal Commission on Labour, 1892-1894. Gamble Gold Medallist, - Girton College, Cambridge, 1893. Author of various articles on - Industrial Life and Legislation, &c. - - Labour Legislation. - - A. M. C. - AGNES MARY CLERKE. - - See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. - - Lagrange; - Laplace; - Leverrier. - - A. N. - ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. - - See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. - - Lammergeyer; - Lapwing; - Lark; - Linnet; - Loom. - - A. P. C. - ARTHUR PHILEMON COLEMAN, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S. - - Professor of Geology in the University of Toronto. Geologist, - Bureau of Mines, Toronto, 1893-1910. Author of _Reports of the - Bureau of Mines of Ontario_. - - Labrador (_in part_). - - A. P. Lo. - ALBERT PETER LOW. - - Deputy Minister of Department of Mines, Canada. Member of - Geological Survey of Canada. Author of _Report on the Exploration - in the Labrador Peninsula_; &c. - - Labrador (_in part_). - - A. Se.* - ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S. - - Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and - Technology, London. Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity - College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology in the University of - Cambridge, 1907-1909. - - Larval Forms. - - A. Sl. - ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P. - - Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of _The - London Water-Supply_; _Industrial Efficiency_; _Drink, Temperance - and Legislation_. - - Liquor Laws. - - A. So. - ALBRECHT SOCIN, PH.D. (1844-1899). - - Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of - Leipzig and Tubingen. Author of _Arabische Grammatik_; &c. - - Lebanon (_in part_). - - A. S. C. - ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. - - Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author - of _Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace_; _Embroidery and Lace_; - _Ornament in European Silks_; &c. - - Lace. - - A. St H. G. - ALFRED ST HILL GIBBONS. - - Major, East Yorkshire Regiment. Explorer in South Central Africa. - Author of _Africa from South to North through Marotseland._ - - Lewanika. - - A. S. M. - ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART. - - Lamp. - - A. S. W. - AUGUSTUS SAMUEL WILKINS, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. (1843-1905). - - Professor of Latin, Owens College, Manchester, 1869-1905. Author - of _Roman Literature_; &c. - - Latin Language (_in part_). - - A. T. T. - A. T. THORSON. - - Official in Life Saving Service, U.S.A. - - Life-boat: _United States_. - - A. W. H.* - ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. - - Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of - Gray's Inn, 1900. - - Leopold I. (_Roman Emperor_); - Levellers. - - A. W. Hu. - REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON, M.A. - - Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside. Librarian National Liberal Club, - 1889-1899. Author of _Life of Cardinal Newman_; _Life of Cardinal - Manning_; &c. - - Leo XIII. - - A. W. R. - ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. - - Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of - _Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_. - - Landlord and Tenant; - Letters Patent; - Lodger and Lodgings. - - A. W. W. - ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM. - - Lodge, Thomas. - - B. D. J. - BENJAMIN DAYDON JACKSON, PH.D. - - General Secretary of the Linnean Society. Secretary to - Departmental Committee of H.M. Treasury on Botanical Work, - 1900-1901. Author of _Glossary of Botanic Terms_; &c. - - Linnaeus. - - C. - THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF CREWE. - - See the biographical article: CREWE, 1ST EARL OF. - - Laprade. - - C. C. W. - CHARLES CRAWFORD WHINERY, A.M. - - Cornell University. Assistant editor 11th Edition of the - _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. - - La Salle; - Lincoln, Abraham (_in part_). - - C. Di. - CHARLES DIBDIN. F.R.G.S. - - Secretary of the Royal National Life-boat Institution. Hon. - Secretary of the Civil Service Life-boat Fund, 1870-1906. - - Life-boat: _British_. - - C. D. W. - HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT. - - See the biographical article: WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON. - - Labour Legislation: _United States_. - - C. E.* - CHARLES EVERITT. M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. - - Formerly Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. - - Light: _Introduction and History_. - - C. F. A. - CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. - - Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of - London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold - Harbour_. - - Long Island (_Battle_). - - C. F.-Br. - CHARLES FORTESCUE-BRICKDALE. - - Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Registrar of the Office of the - Land Registry, Lincoln's Inn Fields. Author of _Registration of - Title to Land_; _The Practice of the Land Registry_; _Land - Transfer in Various Countries_; &c. - - Land Registration. - - C. H.* - SIR CHARLES HOLROYD. - - See the biographical article: HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES. - - Legros. - - C. H. Ha. - CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. - - Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York - City. Member of the American Historical Association. - - Leo I.-X. (_Popes_). - - C. J. B.* - REV. CHARLES JAMES BALL, M.A. - - University Lecturer in Assyriology, Oxford. Author of _Light from - the East_. - - Lamentations. - - C. L. K. - CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, MA., F.R.HIST.S., F.S.A. - - Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of _Life of Henry - V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_ and Stow's _Survey of - London_. - - Lancaster, John of Gaunt, duke of. - - C. M. - CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH. - - Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author - of _Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII._; _Quellen zur Geschichte - des Papstthums_; &c. - - Lateran Councils. - - C. Mo. - WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE. - - See the biographical article: MONKHOUSE, W. C. - - Leighton, Lord. - - C. R. B. - CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S. - - Professor of Modem History in the University of Birmingham. - Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer - in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. - Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_; - _The Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c. - - Leif Ericsson; - Leo, Johannes. - - De B. - HENRI G. S. A. DE BLOWITZ. - - See the biographical article: BLOWITZ, H. DE. - - Lesseps, Ferdinand de. - - D. F. T. - DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. - - Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_: comprising _The Classical - Concerto_, _The Goldberg Variations_, and analysis of many other - classical works. - - Lasso, Orlando. - - D. G. H. - DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. - - Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen - College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at - Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; - Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900; - Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. - - Latakia; - Lebanon (_in part_). - - D. H. - DAVID HANNAY. - - Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short - History of the Royal Navy_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; &c. - - La Hogue, Battle of; - Lauria, Roger de; - Lepanto, Battle of; - Lissa. - - D. Ll. T. - DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS. - - Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at - Pontypridd and Rhondda. - - Llantwit Major. - - D. Mn. - REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. - - Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of - _Constructive Congregational Ideals_; &c. - - Leighton, Robert (_in part_). - - D. M. W. - SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. - - Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of - the Foreign Department of _The Times_, 1891-1899. Member of the - Institut de Droit International and Officier de l'Instruction - Publique (France). Joint-editor of New Volumes (10th ed.) of the - _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Author of _Russia_; _Egypt and the - Egyptian Question_; _The Web of Empire_; &c. - - Lobanov-Rostovski. - - E. B.* - ERNEST CHARLES FRANCOIS BABELON. - - Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the department of - Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of - the Academie des Inscriptions et de Belles Lettres, Paris. - Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Descriptions - Historiques des Monnaies de la Republique Romaine_; _Traites des - Monnaies Grecques et Romaines_; _Catalogue des Camees de la - Bibliotheque Nationale_. - - Leptis. - - E. C. B. - EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. (Dublin). - - Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "The Lausiac History of - Palladius," in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_, vol. vi. - - Leo, Brother. - - E. Da. - EDWARD GEORGE DANNREUTHER (1844-1905). - - Member of Board of Professors, Royal College of Music, 1895-1905. - Conducted the first Wagner Concerts in London, 1873-1874. Author - of _The Music of the Future_; &c. Editor of a critical edition of - Liszt's _Etudes_. - - Liszt. - - E. D. J. W. - EDWARD D. J. WILSON. - - Formerly Leader-writer on _The Times_. - - Londonderry, 2nd Marquess of. - - E. G. - EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. - - See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. - - Lampoon; - Lie, Jonas L. E. - - E. Ga. - EMILE GARCKE, M.INST.E.E. - - Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of - _Manual of Electrical Undertakings_; &c. - - Lighting: _Electric (Commercial Aspects)_. - - E. He. - EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. - - Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal - Geographical Society, London. - - Livingstone Mountains. - - E. J. D. - EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC. - - Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Author of _A. - Scarlatti: his Life and Works_. - - Leo, Leonardo. - - E. O.* - EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC. - - Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the - Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the - Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of - Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for - Senior Students_. - - Liver: _Surgery of Liver and Gall Bladder_. - - E. Pr. - EDGAR PRESTAGE. - - Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of - Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, - Manchester, &c. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. - Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon - Geographical Society, &c. Author of _Letters of a Portuguese Nun_; - _Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea_; &c. - - Lobo, F. R.; - Lopes, Fernao. - - E. R. L. - SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.SC. - - Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Director of the Natural - History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. President of - the British Association, 1906. Professor of Zoology and - Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890. - Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. - Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at - Oxford, 1905. Author of _Degeneration_; _The Advancement of - Science_; _The Kingdom of Man_; &c. - - Lamellibranchia (_in part_). - - E. V. L. - EDWARD VERRALL LUCAS. - - Editor of _Works of Charles Lamb_. Author of _Life of Charles - Lamb_. - - Lamb, Charles. - - F. E. B. - FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. - - Prosector of Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in - Biology at Guy's Hospital, London. Naturalist to "Challenger" - Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. Author of _Monograph of the - Oligochaeta_; _Animal Colouration_; &c. - - Leech. - - F. E. W. - REV. FREDERICK EDWARD WARREN, M.A., B.D., F.S.A. - - Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds. Fellow of St John's College, - Oxford, 1865-1882. Author of _The Old Catholic Ritual done into - English and compared with the Corresponding Offices in the Roman - and Old German Manuals_; _The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic - Church_; &c. - - Lection, Lectionary; - Lector; - Litany; - Liturgy. - - F. G. M. B. - FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. - - Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. - - Lombards (_in part_). - - F. G. P. - FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. - - Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. - Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School - of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal - College of Surgeons. - - Liver: _Anatomy_. - - F. J. H. - FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. - - Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. - Fellow of Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of - the British Academy. Author of Monographs on Roman History, - especially Roman Britain; &c. - - Legion (_in part_); - Limes Germanicus. - - F. L.* - SIR FRANKLIN LUSHINGTON, M.A. - - Formerly Chief Police Magistrate for London. Author of Wagers of - Battle. - - Lear, Edward. - - F. V. B. - F. VINCENT BROOKS. - - Lithography. - - F. v. H. - BARON FRIEDRICH VON HUGEL. - - Member of Cambridge Philological Society; Member of Hellenic - Society. Author of _The Mystical Element of Religion_. - - Loisy. - - F. Wa. - FRANCIS WATT, M.A. - - Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of _Law's Lumber Room_; - _Scotland of to-day_; &c. - - Law, John. - - F. W. R.* - FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. - - Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, - 1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. - - Labradorite; - Lapis Lazuli. - - F. W. Ra. - FRANCIS WILLIAM RAIKES, K.C., LL.D. (1842-1906). - - Judge of County Courts, Hull, 1898-1906. Joint-author of _The New - Practice_; &c. - - Lien. - - G. A. Gr. - GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (Dubl.). - - Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of - Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal - Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic - Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of _The - Languages of India_; &c. - - Lahnda. - - G. E. - REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON. M.A., F.R.HIST.S. - - Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's - Lecturer, 1909-1910. Employed by British Government in preparation - of the British Case in the British Guiana-Venezuelan and British - Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations. - - Limburg. - - G. F. B. - GEORGE FREDERICK BARWICK. - - Assistant-Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of - Reading-room, British Museum. - - Lavigerie. - - G. F. K. - GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ, A.M., PH.D., D.SC. - - Gem Expert to Messrs Tiffany & Co., New York. Hon. Curator of - Precious Stones, American Museum of Natural History, New York. - Fellow of Geological Society of America. Author of _Precious - Stones of North America_; &c. Senior Editor of _Book of the - Pearl_. - - Lapidary and Gem-cutting. - - G. H. C. - GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.SC. - - Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. - Author of _Insects: Their Structure and Life_. - - Lepidoptera. - - G. Sa. - GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. - - La Bruyere; - La Fontaine; - Lamartine; - La Rochefoucauld; - Le Sage. - - G. S. L. - GEORGE SOMES LAYARD. - - Trinity College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Author - of _Charles Keene_; _Shirley Brooks_; &c. - - Linton, William James. - - G. W. T. - REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. - - Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew - and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. - - Labid. - - H. A. L. - HENDRIK ANTOON LORENTZ. - - Professor of Physics in the University of Leiden. Author of _La - theorie electromagnetique de Maxwell et son application aux corps - mouvants_. - - Light: _Nature of_. - - H. B. W.* - HENRY BENJAMIN WHEATLEY, F.S.A. - - Assistant Secretary, Royal Society of Arts, 1879-1909. President - of the Samuel Pepys Club, 1903-1910. Vice-President of the - Bibliographical Society, 1908-1910. Author of _The Story of - London_; _London Past and Present_; &c. - - London: _History_. - - H. B. Wo. - HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. - - Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England - and Wales. President Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston - Medallist, 1908. - - Logan, Sir William E.; - Lonsdale, William. - - H. Ch. - HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. - - Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the - 11th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; Co-editor of the - 10th edition. - - Lloyd George, D. - - H. De. - REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. - - Bollandist. Joint-author of the _Acta Sanctorum_. - - Lawrence, St; - Linus. - - H. F. G. - HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D. - - Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of - Cambridge. Author of _Amphibia and Reptiles_ (Cambridge Natural - History). - - Lizard. - - H. F. P. - HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F. - - Livy (_in part_). - - H. H. J. - SIR HENRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON, K.C.B., G.C.M.G. - - See the biographical article: JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON. - - Liberia. - - H. M. S. - HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., LITT.D. - - Professor of History and Director of University Extension, - University of California. Author of _History of the French - Revolution_; _Revolutionary Europe_; &c. - - Littre. - - H. R. T. - HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. - - Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. - - Libraries (_in part_). - - H. St. - HENRY STURT, M.A. - - Author of _Idola Theatri_; _The Idea of a Free Church_; and - _Personal Idealism_. - - Lange, Friedrich Albert. - - H. T. A. - REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS. - - Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author - of the "Commentary on Acts," in the _Westminster New Testament_; - _Handbook on the Apocryphal Books_ in the "Century Bible." - - Logia. - - H. W. B.* - HERBERT WILLIAM BLUNT, M.A. - - Student, Tutor, and Librarian, Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly - Fellow of All Souls' College. - - Logic: _History_. - - H. W. C. D. - HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. - - Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' - College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _Charlemagne_; _England - under the Normans and Angevins_; &c. - - Lanfranc; - Langton, Stephen. - - H. Y. - SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I. - - See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. - - Lhasa (_in part_). - - I. A. - ISRAEL ABRAHAMS. - - Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of - Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of - England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish - Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c. - - Lazarus, Emma; - Leon, Moses; - Leon of Modena. - - J. An. - JOSEPH ANDERSON, LL.D. - - Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. Assistant - Secretary to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and Rhind - Lecturer, 1879-1882 and 1892. Editor of Drummond's _Ancient - Scottish Weapons_; &c. - - Lake Dwellings. - - J. A. F. - JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. - - Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of - London. Fellow of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of - St John's College, Cambridge. Vice-President of the Institution of - Electrical Engineers. Author of _The Principles of Electric Wave - Telegraphy_; _Magnets and Electric Currents_; &c. - - Leyden Jar; - Lighting: _Electric_. - - J. A. F. M. - JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A. - - Musical critic of _The Times_. Author of _Life of Schumann_; _The - Musician's Pilgrimage_; _Masters of German Music_; _English Music - in the Nineteenth Century_; _The Age of Bach and Handel_. Editor - of _Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians_; &c. - - Lind, Jenny. - - J. A. H. - JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC. - - Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. - Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_; &c. - - Lias; - Llandovery Group. - - J. Dr. - SIR JAMES DEWAR, F.R.S., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: DEWAR, SIR J. - - Liquid Gases. - - J. D. B. - JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. - - King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of _The Times_ in - South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of - Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order - of St Alexander of Bulgaria. - - Larissa. - - J. D. Br. - JAMES DUFF BROWN. - - Borough Librarian, Islington Public Libraries. Vice-President of - the Library Association. Author of _Guide to Librarianship_; &c. - - Libraries (_in part_). - - J. F.-K. - JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S. - - Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool - University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow - of the British Academy. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. - Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of _A - History of Spanish Literature_; &c. - - La Cueva; - Larra; - Literature. - - J. F. St. - JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A. - - Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in - Aramaic, Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College. - - Leviticus. - - J. Ga. - JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES. - - Lancaster, House of; - Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of. - - J. G. F. - SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR J. G. - - Lancaster, Joseph. - - J. G. N. - JOHN GEORGE NICOLAY (1832-1901). - - Marshal of the U.S. Supreme Court, 1872-1887. Joint-author of - _Abraham Lincoln_: &c. - - Lincoln, Abraham (_in part_). - - J. G. P.* - JAMES GORDON PARKER, D.SC., F.C.S. - - Principal of Leathersellers Technical College, London. Gold - Medallist, Society of Arts. Author of _Leather for Libraries_; - _Principles of Tanning_; &c. - - Leather. - - J. G. R. - JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. - - Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. - Editor of the _Modern Language Journal_. Author of _History of - German Literature_; _Schiller after a Century_; &c. - - Lessing (_in part_). - - J. Hn. - JUSTUUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. - - Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. - Author of _Das Rheinland unter der franzosische Herrschaft_. - - Lang, Karl Heinrich; - Ledochowski; - Leo, Heinrich. - - J. H. F. - JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. - - Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. - - Leo VI. (_Emperor of the East_). - - J. Hl. R. - JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. - - Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local - Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic - Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of - Pitt_; &c. - - Las Casas. - - J. J. L.* - REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. - - Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in - Divinity and Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. - - Langen. - - J. K. I. - JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: INGRAM, J. K. - - Leslie, Thomas E. C. - - J. Le. - REV. JAMES LEGGE, M.A. - - See the biographical article: LEGGE, JAMES. - - Lao-Tsze. - - J. L. M. - JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. - - Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. - Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient - Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical - Archaeology in University of Oxford. - - Leleges; - Locri (_Greece_). - - J. L. W. - JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. - - Author of _Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory_. - - Lancelot. - - J. Mu. - SIR JOHN MURRAY, K.C.B., F.R.S. - - See the biographical article: MURRAY, SIR JOHN. - - Lake. - - J. M. C. - REV. JAMES M. CROMBIE. - - Author of _Braemar: its Topography and Natural History_; _Lichenes - Britannici_. - - Lichens (_in part_). - - J. M. G. - JOHN MILLER GRAY (1850-1894). - - Art Critic and Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, - 1884-1894. Author of _David Scott, R.S.A._; _James and William - Tassie_. - - Leech, John. - - J. P. E. - JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. - - Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion - of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of _Cours - elementaire d'histoire du droit francais_; &c. - - Lettres de Cachet. - - J. P. P. - JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. - - Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of - Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor - of the _Classical Quarterly_. Editor-in-chief of the _Corpus - Poetarum Latinorum_; &c. - - Latin Literature (_in part_). - - J. P. Pe. - REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. - - Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly - Professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. Director of - the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of - _Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates_; - _Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian_. - - Lagash; - Larsa. - - J. S. - JAMES SULLY, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: SULLY, JAMES. - - Lewes, George Henry (_in part_). - - J. Si. - JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895). - - Author of _A History of Germany_; &c. - - Lessing (_in part_). - - J. S. F. - JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S. - - Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on - Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal - Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society - of London. - - Laccolite; - Lamprophyres; - Laterite; - Leucite: _Leucite Rocks_; - Limestone. - - J. S. K. - JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). - - Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Hon. Member, Geographical - Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of the _Statesman's - Year Book_. Editor of the _Geographical Journal_. - - Livingstone. - - J. S. W. - JOHN STEPHEN WILLISON, LL.D., F.R.S. (Canada). - - Editor of _The News_ (Toronto). Canadian Correspondent of _The - Times_. Author of _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party_; &c. - - Laurier. - - J. T. Be. - JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. - - Joint-author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the - _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's - _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c. - - Ladoga (_in part_); - Livonia (_in part_); - Lop-nor. - - J. T. Br. - J. TAYLOR BROWN. - - Leighton, Robert (_in part_). - - J. T. C. - JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. - - Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. - Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor - of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to - the Marine Biological Association. - - Lamellibranchia (_in part_). - - J. T. S.* - JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. - - Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. - - Languedoc. - - J. V.* - JULES VIARD. - - Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public - Instruction. Author of _La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois_; - &c. - - Le Macon. - - J. W. D. - CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N. - - Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal. - - Log. - - J. W. He. - JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. - - Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. - Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek - and Ancient History at Queen's College, London. Author of - _Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire_; &c. - - Lasker. - - J. W. L. G. - JAMES WHITBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. - - Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the - Cambridge Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical - Society. Editor of _Messenger of Mathematics_ and the _Quarterly - Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics_. - - Legendre, A. M.; - Logarithm. - - K. H. - KILLINGWORTH HEDGES, M.INST.C.E., M.INST.ELECT.E. - - Hon. Secretary of the Lightning Research Committee. Author of - _Modern Lightning Conductors_; &c. - - Lightning Conductor. - - K. S. - KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. - - Editor of _The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. Author of _The - Instruments of the Orchestra_. - - Lituus. - - L. A. W. - LAURENCE AUSTINE WADDELL, C.B., C.I.E., LL.D., M.B. - - Lieut.-Colonel I.M.S. (retired). Author of _Lhasa and its - Mysteries_; &c. - - Lhasa (_in part_). - - L. B. - LAURENCE BINYON. - - See the biographical article: BINYON, L. - - Lawson, Cecil Gordon. - - L. D.* - LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE. - - See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O. - - Liberius. - - L. J. S. - LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. - - Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. - Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness - Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_. - - Leadhillite; - Lepidolite; - Leucite (_in part_); - Liroconite. - - L. T. D. - SIR LEWIS TONNA DIBDIN, M.A., D.C.L., F.S.A. - - Dean of the Arches; Master of the Faculties; and First Church - Estates Commissioner. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of - _Monasticism in England_; &c. - - Lincoln Judgment, The. - - L. V.* - LUIGI VILLARI. - - Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper - Correspondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New - Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. - Author of _Italian Life in Town and Country_; &c. - - Leopold II. (_Grand Duke of Tuscany_). - - M. Br. - MARGARET BRYANT. - - Landor: _Bibliography_; - La Sale. - - M. Ca. - MORITZ CANTOR, PH.D. - - Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg. - Author of _Vorlesungen uber die Geschichte der Mathematik_; &c. - - Leonardo of Pisa. - - M. H. S. - MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. - - Formerly Editor of the _Magazine of Art_. Member of Fine Art - Committee of International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos - Aires, Rome, and the Franco-British Exhibition, London. Author of - _History of "Punch"_; _British Portrait Painting to the Opening of - the Nineteenth Century_; _Works of G. F. Watts, R.A._; _British - Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day_; _Henriette Ronner_; &c. - - Line Engraving (_in part_). - - M. N. T. - MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. - - Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in - Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_. - - Laconia; - Leonidas; - Leotychides. - - M. O. B. C. - MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. - - Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek - at Birmingham University, 1905-1908. - - Leo I.-V. (_Emperors of the East_); - Lesbos; - Leuctra. - - M. P.* - LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. - - Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of - the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). - - L'Aubespine. - - N. G. G. - NICHOLAS G. GEDYE. - - Chief Engineer to the Tyne Improvement Commission. - - Lighthouse (_in part_). - - O. Hr. - OTTO HENKER, PH.D. - - On the Staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany. - - Lens. - - P. A. K. - PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. - - See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. - - Ladoga (_in part_); - Lithuanians and Letts: _History_; - Livonia (_in part_). - - P. C. M. - PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., D.SC., LL.D. - - Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University - Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre - Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology at Charing - Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1894. Examiner in - Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-1903. - Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. - - Life; - Longevity. - - P. C. Y. - PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. - - Magdalen College, Oxford. - - Laud, Archbishop; - Lauderdale, Duke of; - Leeds, 1st Duke of. - - P. G. - PERCY GARDNER. LITT.D., LL.D., F.S.A. - - See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. - - Leochares. - - P. Gi. - PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. - - Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and - University Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the - Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of Comparative - Philology_; &c. - - L. - - P. G. H. - PHILIP GILBERT HAMERTON. - - See the biographical article: Hamerton, PHILIP GILBERT. - - Line Engraving (_in part_). - - R. A. S. M. - ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. - - St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the - Palestine Exploration Fund. - - Lachish. - - R. G. - RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. - - Leopardi. - - R. I. P. - REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. - - Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. - - Leaf-insect; - Locust (_in part_). - - R. J. M. - RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. - - Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the - _St James's Gazette_, London. - - Lawn Tennis; - Leicester, R. Sidney, earl of; - Lockhart, George. - - R. K. D. - SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. - - Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of - Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. - Member of the Chinese Consular Service, 1858-1865. Author of _The - Language and Literature of China_; _Europe and the Far East_; &c. - - Li Hung Chang. - - R. L.* - RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. - - Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. - Author of _Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the - British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of - Africa_; &c. - - Langur; - Lemming (_in part_); - Lemur; - Leopard (_in part_); - Lion (_in part_); - Litopterna. - - R. M'L. - ROBERT M'LACHLAN. - - Editor of the _Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_. - - Locust (_in part_). - - R. M. B. - ROBERT MICHAEL BALLANTYNE. - - See the biographical article: BALLANTYNE, R. M. - - Life-boat: _British (in part)_. - - R. N. B. - ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). - - Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of - _Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, - 1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe: the - Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c. - - Ladislaus I. and IV. of Hungary; - Laski. - - R. S. C. - ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.). - - Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University - of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, - Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. - Author of _The Italic Dialects_. - - Latin Language (_in part_); - Liguria: _Archaeology and Philology_. - - R. We. - RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. - - Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The - Elegies of Maximianus_; &c. - - Long Island. - - R. W. C. - THE VERY REV. R. W. CHURCH, D.D. - - See the biographical article: CHURCH, R. W. - - Lombards: _The Kingdom in Italy_. - - S. A. C. - STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. - - Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and - Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. - Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. - Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses - and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament - History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c. - - Levites. - - S. C. - SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: COLVIN, SIDNEY. - - Leonardo da Vinci. - - St C. - VISCOUNT ST CYRES. - - See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF. - - Liguori. - - S. D. F. S. - REV. STEWART DINGWALL FORDYCE SALMON, M.A., D.D. (1838-1905). - - Professor of Systematic Theology and Exegesis of the Epistles, - U.F.C. College Aberdeen, 1876-1905. Author of _The Parables of our - Lord_; &c. Editor of _The International Library of Theology_; &c. - - Logos (_in part_). - - S. N. - SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.SC. - - See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON. - - Latitude; - Light: _Velocity_. - - T. As. - THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A. - - Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. - Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological - Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven - Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of _The Classical Topography of the - Roman Campagna_; &c. - - Labicana, Via; - Labici; - Lampedusa; - Lanciano; - Lanuvium; - Larino; - Latina, Via; - Latium; - Laurentina, Via; - Lavinium; - Lecce; - Leghorn; - Leontini; - Licodia Eubea; - Ligures Baebiani; - Liguria: _History_; - Locri: _Italy_. - - T. A. I. - THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. - - Trinity College, Dublin. - - Livery Companies; - London: _Finance_. - - T. Ca. - THOMAS CASE, M.A. - - President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete - Professor of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy at Oxford and - Fellow of Magdalen College. Author of _Physical Realism_; &c. - - Logic. - - T. C. A. - SIR THOMAS CLIFFORD ALLBUTT, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., D.SC., LL.D., - F.R.S. - - Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge. - Physician to Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville - and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor of _Systems of Medicine_. - - Lister, 1st Baron. - - T. Da. - THOMAS DAVIDSON, LL.D. - - Longfellow. - - T. F. C. - THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. - - Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, - Mass., U.S.A. - - Laodicea, Synod of. - - T. F. H. - THOMAS F. HENDERSON. - - Author of _Mary Queen of Scots and the Casket Letters_; &c. - - Latimer. - - T. H. H.* - SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC., F.R.G.S. - - Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, - India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. - Commissioner for the Perso-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of _The - Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c. - - Ladakh and Baltistan - - T. K. - THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D. - - Author of _An Inquiry into Socialism_; _Primer of Socialism_; &c. - - Lassalle. - - T. Mo. - THOMAS MOORE, F.L.S. (1821-1887). - - Curator of the Garden of the Apothecaries Company at Chelsea, - 1848-1887. Editor of the _Gardeners' Magazine of Botany_; Author - of _Handbook of British Ferns_; _Index Filicum_; _Illustrations of - Orchidaceous Plants_. - - Labyrinth. - - T. M. L. - REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D. - - Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly - Assistant to the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the - University of Edinburgh. Author of _History of the Reformation_; - _Life of Luther_; &c. - - Lollards. - - T. Se. - THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. - - Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University - of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of - _Dictionary of National Biography_, 1891-1900. Author of _The Age - of Johnson_; &c. - - Lever, Charles. - - T. W. R. D. - THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. - - Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. - Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, - London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of - the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic - Society, 1885-1902. Author of _Buddhism_; _Sacred Books of the - Buddhists_; _Early Buddhism_; _Buddhist India_; _Dialogues of the - Buddha_; &c. - - Lamaism. - - T. Wo. - THOMAS WOODHOUSE. - - Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical - College, Dundee. - - Linen and Linen Manufactures. - - V. B. L. - VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S. - - Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College. Chief Superintendent - Gas Examiner to the Corporation of the City of London. - - Lighting: _Oil and Gas_. - - V. H. B. - VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.SC. - - Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of - St John's College, Cambridge. - - Lichens (_in part_). - - W. A. B. C. - REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S. - - Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, - St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to - Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor of - _The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889. - - Lausanne; - Leuk; - Liechtenstein; - Linth; - Locarno; - Locle, Le. - - W. A. P. - WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. - - Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St - John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c. - - Laibach, Congress of; - Lights, Ceremonial use of. - - W. E. Co. - THE RT. REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, M.A., D.D. - - Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, - King's College, London. Lecturer of Selwyn and St John's Colleges, - Cambridge. Author of _The Study of Ecclesiastical History_; - _Beginnings of English Christianity_; &c. - - Libellatici. - - W. F. I. - WILLIAM FERGUSSON IRVINE, HON. M.A. (Liverpool). - - Hon. Secretary and General Editor of Historical Society of - Lancashire and Cheshire. Hon. Local Secretary for Cheshire of the - Society of Antiquaries. Author of _Liverpool in the reign of - Charles II._; _Old Halls of Wirral_; &c. - - Liverpool. - - W. H. Be. - WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.). - - Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, - London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer - in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the - Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c. - - Lamech. - - W. H. F. - SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. - - See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. - - Lemming (_in part_); - Leopard (_in part_); - Lion (_in part_). - - W. M. R. - WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. - - See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. - - Lely, Sir Peter; - Lippi. - - W. P. T. - WILLIAM PETERFIELD TRENT, LL.D., D.C.L. - - Professor of English Literature. Columbia University. Author of - _English Culture in Virginia_; _A Brief History of American - Literature_; &c. - - Lanier. - - W. R. So. - WILLIAM RITCHIE SORLEY, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D. - - Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. - Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British - Academy. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College. Author of _The Ethics - of Naturalism_; _The Interpretation of Evolution_; &c. - - Leibnitz. - - W. R. S.-R. - WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A. - - Formerly Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British - Museum. Author of _Russian Folk Tales_; &c. - - Lermontov. - - W. T. Ca. - WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN. D.SC., F.Z.S. - - Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South - Kensington. Author of "Crustacea" in _A Treatise on Zoology_, - edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester. - - Lobster. - - W. T. D. - WILLIAM TREGARTHEN DOUGLASS, M.INST.C.E., M.I.M.E. - - Consulting Engineer to Governments of Western Australia, New South - Wales, Victoria, Cape of Good Hope, &c. Erected the Eddystone and - Bishop Rock Lighthouses. Author of _The New Eddystone Lighthouse_; - &c. - - Lighthouse (_in part_). - - W. W. R.* - WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL. - - Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, - New York. - - Leo XI. and XII. (_popes_). - - W. W. S. - WALTER WILLIAM SKEAT, LITT.D., LL.D., D.C.L. - - See the biographical article: SKEAT, W. W. - - Layamon. - - W. Y. S. - WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG. - - Latin Literature (_in part_). - - -PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES - - Labiatae. Larch. Leprosy. - Lacrosse. Lead Poisoning. Libel. - Lagos. Leeds. Liberal Party. - Lahore. Legitimacy. Liliaceae. - Lake District. Leguminosae. Lille. - Lambeth Conferences. Leicestershire. Lily. - Lanarkshire. Leipzig. Limitation, Statutes of. - Lancashire. Leith. Lincoln. - Lantern. Lemnos. Lincolnshire. - Lapland. Lemon. Lippe. - Larceny. Lent. Lisbon. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in - the final volume. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - VOLUME XVI - - - - -L a letter which was the twelfth letter of the Phoenician alphabet. It -has in its history passed through many changes of form, ending curiously -enough in its usual manuscript form with a shape almost identical with -that which it had about 900 B.C. ([symbol] L). As was the case with B -and some other letters the Greeks did not everywhere keep the symbol in -the position in which they had borrowed it [symbol]. This, which was its -oldest form in Attica and in the Chalcidian colonies of Italy, was the -form adopted by the Romans, who in time converted it into the rectangle -L, which passed from them to the nations of western Europe. In the Ionic -alphabet, however, from which the ordinary Greek alphabet is derived it -appeared as [symbol]. A still more common form in other parts of Greece -was [symbol], with the legs of unequal length. The editors of Herodotus -have not always recognized that the name of Labda, the mother of -Cypselus, in the story (v. 92) of the founding of the great family of -Corinthian despots, was derived from the fact that she was lame and so -suggested the form of the Corinthian [symbol]. Another form [symbol] or -[symbol] was practically confined to the west of Argolis. The name of -the Greek letter is ordinarily given as _Lambda_, but in Herodotus -(above) and in Athenaeus x. p. 453 _e_, where the names of the letters -are given, the best authenticated form is _Labda_. The Hebrew name, -which was probably identical with the Phoenician, is _Lamed_, which, -with a final vowel added as usual, would easily become _Lambda_, _b_ -being inserted between m and another consonant. The pronunciation of _l_ -varies a great deal according to the point at which the tongue makes -contact with the roof of the mouth. The contact, generally speaking, is -at the same point as for _d_, and this accounts for an interchange -between these sounds which occurs in various languages, e.g. in Latin -_lacrima_ from the same root as the Greek [Greek: dakru] and the English -_tear_. The change in Latin occurs in a very limited number of cases and -one explanation of their occurrence is that they are borrowed (Sabine) -words. In pronunciation the breath may be allowed to escape at one or -both sides of the tongue. In most languages _l_ is a fairly stable -sound. Orientals, however, have much difficulty in distinguishing -between _l_ and _r_. In Old Persian _l_ is found in only two foreign -words, and in Sanskrit different dialects employ _r_ and _l_ differently -in the same words. Otherwise, however, the interchanges between _r_ and -_l_ were somewhat exaggerated by the older philologists. Before other -consonants _l_ becomes silent in not a few languages, notably in French, -where it is replaced by _u_, and in English where it has occasionally -been restored in recent times, e.g. in _fault_ which earlier was spelt -without _l_ (as in French whence it was borrowed), and which Goldsmith -could still rhyme with _aught_. In the 15th century the Scottish dialect -of English dropped _l_ largely both before consonants and finally after -_a_ and _u_, _a'_ = all, _fa'_ = fall, _pu'_ = pull, _'oo'_ = wool, -_bulk_ pronounced like _book_, &c., while after _o_ it appears as _w_, -_row_ (pronounced _rau_) = roll, _know_ = knoll, &c. It is to be -observed that L = 50 does not come from this symbol, but was an -adaptation of [symbol], the western Greek form of [chi], which had no -corresponding sound in Latin and was therefore not included in the -ordinary alphabet. This symbol was first rounded into [symbol] and then -changed first to [symbol], and ultimately to L. (P. Gi.) - - - - -LAACHER SEE, a lake of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 5 m. W. -of Brohl on the Rhine, and N. of the village of Niedermendig. It -occupies what is supposed to be a crater of the Eifel volcanic -formation, and the pumice stone and basalt found in great quantities -around it lend credence to this theory. It lies 850 ft. above the sea, -is 5 m. in circumference and 160 ft. deep, and is surrounded by an -amphitheatre of high hills. The water is sky blue in colour, very cold -and bitter to the taste. The lake has no natural outlet and consequently -is subjected to a considerable rise and fall. On the western side lies -the Benedictine abbey of St Maria Laach (_Abballa Lacensis_) founded in -1093 by Henry II., count palatine of the Rhine. The abbey church, dating -from the 12th century, was restored in 1838. The history of the -monastery down to modern times appears to have been uneventful. In 1802 -it was abolished and at the close of the Napoleonic wars it became a -Prussian state demesne. In 1863 it passed into the hands of the Jesuits, -who, down to their expulsion in 1873, published here a periodical, which -still appears, entitled _Stimmen aus Maria Laach_. In 1892 the monastery -was again occupied by the Benedictines. - - - - -LAAGER, a South African Dutch word (Dutch _leger_, Ger. _lager_, -connected with Eng. "lair") for a temporary defensive encampment, formed -by a circle of wagons. The English word is "leaguer," an armed camp, -especially that of a besieging or "beleaguering" army. The Ger. _lager_, -in the sense of "store," is familiar as the name of a light beer (see -BREWING). - - - - -LAAS, ERNST (1837-1885), German philosopher, was born on the 16th of -June 1837 at Furstenwalde. He studied theology and philosophy under -Trendelenburg at Berlin, and eventually became professor of philosophy -in the new university of Strassburg. In _Kant's Analogien der Erfahrung_ -(1876) he keenly criticized Kant's transcendentalism, and in his chief -work _Idealismus und Positivismus_ (3 vols., 1879-1884), he drew a -clear contrast between Platonism, from which he derived -transcendentalism, and positivism, of which he considered Protagoras the -founder. Laas in reality was a disciple of Hume. Throughout his -philosophy he endeavours to connect metaphysics with ethics and the -theory of education. - - His chief educational works were _Der deutsche Aufsatz in den obern - Gymnasialklassen_ (1868; 3rd ed., part i., 1898, part ii, 1894), and - _Der deutsche Unterricht auf hohern Lehranstalten_ (1872; 2nd ed. - 1886). He contributed largely to the _Vierteljahrsschr. f. wiss. - Philos._ (1880-1882); the _Litterarischer Nachlass_, a posthumous - collection, was published at Vienna (1887). See Hanisch, _Der - Positivismus von Ernst Laas_ (1902); Gjurits, _Die Erkenntnistheorie - des Ernst Laas_ (1903); Falckenberg, _Hist. of Mod. Philos._ (Eng. - trans., 1895). - - - - -LA BADIE, JEAN DE (1610-1674), French divine, founder of the school -known as the Labadists, was born at Bourg, not far from Bordeaux, on the -13th of February 1610, being the son of Jean Charles de la Badie, -governor of Guienne. He was sent to the Jesuit school at Bordeaux, and -when fifteen entered the Jesuit college there. In 1626 he began to study -philosophy and theology. He was led to hold somewhat extreme views about -the efficacy of prayer and the direct influence of the Holy Spirit upon -believers, and adopted Augustinian views about grace, free will and -predestination, which brought him into collision with his order. He -therefore separated from the Jesuits, and then became a preacher to the -people, carrying on this work in Bordeaux, Paris and Amiens. At Amiens -in 1640 he was appointed a canon and teacher of theology. The hostility -of Cardinal Mazarin, however, forced him to retire to the Carmelite -hermitage at Graville. A study of Calvin's _Institutes_ showed him that -he had more in common with the Reformed than with the Roman Catholic -Church, and after various adventures he joined the Reformed Church of -France and became professor of theology at Montauban in 1650. His -reasons for doing so he published in the same year in his _Declaration -de Jean de la Badie_. His accession to the ranks of the Protestants was -deemed a great triumph; no such man since Calvin himself, it was said, -had left the Roman Catholic Church. He was called to the pastorate of -the church at Orange on the Rhone in 1657, and at once became noted for -his severity of discipline. He set his face zealously against dancing, -card-playing and worldly entertainments. The unsettled state of the -country, recently annexed to France, compelled him to leave Orange, and -in 1659 he became a pastor in Geneva. He then accepted a call to the -French church in London, but after various wanderings settled at -Middelburg, where he was pastor to the French-speaking congregation at a -Walloon church. His peculiar opinions were by this time (1666) well -known, and he and his congregation found themselves in conflict with the -ecclesiastical authorities. The result was that la Badie and his -followers established a separate church in a neighbouring town. In 1669 -he moved to Amsterdam. He had enthusiastic disciples, Pierre Yvon -(1646-1707) at Montauban, Pierre Dulignon (d. 1679), Francois Menuret -(d. 1670), Theodor Untereyk (d. 1693), F. Spanheim (1632-1701), and, -more important than any, Anna Maria v. Schurman (1607-1678), whose book -_Eucleria_ is perhaps the best exposition of the tenets of her master. -At the head of his separatist congregation, la Badie developed his views -for a reformation of the Reformed Churches: the church is a communion of -holy people who have been born again from sin; baptism is the sign and -seal of this regeneration, and is to be administered only to believers; -the Holy Spirit guides the regenerate into all truth, and the church -possesses throughout all time those gifts of prophecy which it had in -the ancient days; the community at Jerusalem is the continual type of -every Christian congregation, therefore there should be a community of -goods, the disciples should live together, eat together, dance together; -marriage is a holy ordinance between two believers, and the children of -the regenerate are born without original sin, marriage with an -unregenerate person is not binding. They did not observe the Sabbath, -because--so they said--their life was a continual Sabbath. The life and -separatism of the community brought them into frequent collision with -their neighbours and with the magistrates, and in 1670 they accepted -Society is in Miss Edith Sichel's _Women and Men of the French -Renaissance_ (1901). See also J. Favre, _Olivier de Magny_ (1885). - - - - -LABEL (a French word, now represented by _lambeau_, possibly a variant; -it is of obscure origin and may be connected with a Teutonic word -appearing in the English "lap," a flap or fold), a slip, ticket, or card -of paper, metal or other material, attached to an object, such as a -parcel, bottle, &c., and containing a name, address, description or -other information, for the purpose of identification. Originally the -word meant a band or ribbon of linen or other material, and was thus -applied to the fillets (_infulae_) attached to a bishop's mitre. In -heraldry the "label" is a mark of "cadency." - -In architecture the term "label" is applied to the outer projecting -moulding over doors, windows, arches, &c., sometimes called "Dripstone" -or "Weather Moulding," or "Hood Mould." The former terms seem scarcely -applicable, as this moulding is often inside a building where no rain -could come, and consequently there is no drip. In Norman times the label -frequently did not project, and when it did it was very little, and -formed part of the series of arch mouldings. In the Early English styles -they were not very large, sometimes slightly undercut, sometimes deeply, -sometimes a quarter round with chamfer, and very frequently a "roll" or -"scroll-moulding," so called because it resembles the part of a scroll -where the edge laps over the body of the roll. Labels generally resemble -the string-courses of the period, and, in fact, often return -horizontally and form strings. They are less common in Continental -architecture than in English. - - - - -LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS (c. 50 B.C.-A.D. 18), Roman jurist, was the son -of Pacuvius Antistius Labeo, a jurist who caused himself to be slain -after the defeat of his party at Philippi. A member of the plebeian -nobility, and in easy circumstances, the younger Labeo early entered -public life, and soon rose to the praetorship; but his undisguised -antipathy to the new regime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in -the senate he occasionally gave expression to his republican -sympathies--what Tacitus (_Ann._ iii. 75) calls his _incorrupta -libertas_--proved an obstacle to his advancement, and his rival, Ateius -Capito, who had unreservedly given in his adhesion to the ruling powers, -was promoted by Augustus to the consulate, when the appointment should -have fallen to Labeo; smarting under the wrong done him, Labeo declined -the office when it was offered to him in a subsequent year (Tac. _Ann._ -iii. 75; Pompon, in fr. 47, _Dig._ i. 2). From this time he seems to -have devoted his whole time to jurisprudence. His training in the -science had been derived principally from Trebatius Testa. To his -knowledge of the law he added a wide general culture, devoting his -attention specially to dialectics, philology (_grammatica_), and -antiquities, as valuable aids in the exposition, expansion, and -application of legal doctrine (Gell. xiii. 10). Down to the time of -Hadrian his was probably the name of greatest authority; and several of -his works were abridged and annotated by later hands. While Capito is -hardly ever referred to, the dicta of Labeo are of constant recurrence -in the writings of the classical jurists, such as Gaius, Ulpian and -Paul; and no inconsiderable number of them were thought worthy of -preservation in Justinian's _Digest_. Labeo gets the credit of being the -founder of the Proculian sect or school, while Capito is spoken of as -the founder of the rival Sabinian one (Pomponius in fr. 47, _Dig._ i. -2); but it is probable that the real founders of the two _scholae_ were -Proculus and Sabinus, followers respectively of the methods of Labeo and -Capito. - - Labeo's most important literary work was the _Libri Posteriorum_, so - called because published only after his death. It contained a - systematic exposition of the common law. His _Libri ad Edictum_ - embraced a commentary, not only on the edicts of the urban and - peregrine praetors, but also on that of the curule aediles. His - _Probabilium_ ([Greek: pithanon]) _lib. VIII._, a collection of - definitions and axiomatic legal propositions, seems to have been one - of his most characteristic productions. - - See van Eck, "De vita, moribus, et studiis M. Ant. Labeonis" - (Franeker, 1692), in Oelrichs's _Thes. nov._, vol. i.; Mascovius, _De - sectis Sabinianor. et Proculianor._ (1728); Pernice, _M. Antistius - Labeo. Das rom. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit_ - (Halle, 1873-1892). - - - - -LABERIUS, DECIMUS (c. 105-43 B.C.), Roman knight and writer of mimes. He -seems to have been a man of caustic wit, who wrote for his own pleasure. -In 45 Julius Caesar ordered him to appear in one of his own mimes in a -public contest with the actor Publilius Syrus. Laberius pronounced a -dignified prologue on the degradation thus thrust on his sixty years, -and directed several sharp allusions against the dictator. Caesar -awarded the victory to Publilius, but restored Laberius to his -equestrian rank, which he had forfeited by appearing as a mimus -(Macrobius, _Sat._ ii. 7). Laberius was the chief of those who -introduced the mimus into Latin literature towards the close of the -republican period. He seems to have been a man of learning and culture, -but his pieces did not escape the coarseness inherent to the class of -literature to which they belonged; and Aulus Gellius (xvi. 7, 1) accuses -him of extravagance in the coining of new words. Horace (_Sat._ i. 10) -speaks of him in terms of qualified praise. - - In addition to the prologue (in Macrobius), the titles of forty-four - of his mimi have been preserved; the fragments have been collected by - O. Ribbeck in his _Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1873). - - - - -LABIATAE (i.e. "lipped," Lat. _labium_, lip), in botany, a natural order -of seed-plants belonging to the series Tubiflorae of the dicotyledons, -and containing about 150 genera with 2800 species. The majority are -annual or perennial herbs inhabiting the temperate zone, becoming -shrubby in warmer climates. The stem is generally square in section and -the simple exstipulate leaves are arranged in decussating pairs (i.e. -each pair is in a plane at right angles to that of the pairs immediately -above and below it); the blade is entire, or toothed, lobed or more or -less deeply cut. The plant is often hairy, and the hairs are frequently -glandular, the secretion containing a scent characteristic of the genus -or species. The flowers are borne in the axils of the leaves or bracts; -they are rarely solitary as in _Scutellaria_ (skull-cap), and generally -form an apparent whorl (_verticillaster_) at the node, consisting of a -pair of cymose inflorescences each of which is a simple three-flowered -dichasium as in _Brunella_, _Salvia_, &c., or more generally a dichasium -passing over into a pair of monochasial cymes as in _Lamium_ (fig. 1), -_Ballota_, _Nepeta_, &c. A number of whorls may be crowded at the apex -of the stem and the subtending leaves reduced to small bracts, the whole -forming a raceme- or spike-like inflorescence as in _Mentha_ (fig. 2, 5) -_Brunella_, &c.; the bracts are sometimes large and coloured as in -_Monarda_, species of _Salvia_, &c., in the latter the apex of the stem -is sometimes occupied with a cluster of sterile coloured bracts. The -plan of the flower is remarkably uniform (fig. 1, 3); it is bisexual, -and zygomorphic in the median plane, with 5 sepals united to form a -persistent cup-like calyx, 5 petals united to form a two-lipped gaping -corolla, 4 stamens inserted on the corolla-tube, two of which, generally -the anterior pair, are longer than the other two (didynamous -arrangement)--sometimes as in _Salvia_, the posterior pair is -aborted--and two superior median carpels, each very early divided by a -constriction in a vertical plane, the pistil consisting of four cells -each containing one erect anatropous ovule attached to the base of an -axile placenta; the style springs from the centre of the pistil between -the four segments (_gynobasic_), and is simple with a bifid apex. The -fruit comprises four one-seeded nutlets included in the persistent -calyx; the seed has a thin testa and the embryo almost or completely -fills it. Although the general form and plan of arrangement of the -flower is very uniform, there are wide variations in detail. Thus the -calyx may be tubular, bell-shaped, or almost spherical, or straight or -bent, and the length and form of the teeth or lobes varies also; it may -be equally toothed as in mint (_Mentha_) (fig. 2, 3), and marjoram -(_Origanum_), or two-lipped as in thyme (_Thymus_), _Lamium_ (fig. 1) -and _Salvia_ (fig. 2, 1); the number of nerves affords useful characters -for distinction of genera, there are normally five main nerves between -which simple or forked secondary nerves are more or less developed. The -shape of the corolla varies widely, the differences being doubtless -intimately associated with the pollination of the flowers by -insect-agency. The tube is straight or variously bent and often widens -towards the mouth. Occasionally the limb is equally five-toothed, or -forms, as in _Mentha_ (fig. 2, 3, 4) an almost regular four-toothed -corolla by union of the two posterior teeth. Usually it is two-lipped, -the upper lip being formed by the two posterior, the lower lip by the -three anterior petals (see fig. 1, and fig. 2, 1, 6); the median lobe of -the lower lip is generally most developed and forms a resting-place for -the bee or other insect when probing the flower for honey, the upper lip -shows great variety in form, often, as in _Lamium_ (fig. 1), _Stachys_, -&c., it is arched forming a protection from rain for the stamens, or it -may be flat as in thyme. In the tribe _Ocimoideae_ the four upper petals -form the upper lip, and the single anterior one the lower lip, and in -_Teucrium_ the upper lip is absent, all five lobes being pushed forward -to form the lower. The posterior stamen is sometimes present as a -staminode, but generally suppressed; the upper pair are often reduced to -staminodes or more or less completely suppressed as in _Salvia_ (fig. 2, -2, 6); rarely are these developed and the anterior pair reduced. In -_Coleus_ the stamens are monadelphous. In _Nepeta_ and allied genera the -posterior pair are the longer, but this is rare, the didynamous -character being generally the result of the anterior pair being the -longer. The anthers are two-celled, each cell splitting lengthwise; the -connective may be more or less developed between the cells; an extreme -case is seen in _Salvia_ (fig. 2, 2), where the connective is filiform -and jointed to the filament, while the anterior anther-cell is reduced -to a sterile appendage. Honey is secreted by a hypogynous disk. In the -more general type of flower the anthers and stigmas are protected by the -arching upper lip as in dead-nettle (fig. 1) and many other British -genera; the lower lip affords a resting-place for the insect which in -probing the flower for the honey, secreted on the lower side of the -disk, collects pollen on its back. Numerous variations in detail are -found in the different genera; in _Salvia_ (fig. 2), for instance, there -is a lever mechanism, the barren half of each anther forming a knob at -the end of a short arm which when touched by the head of an insect -causes the anther at the end of the longer arm to descend on the -insect's back. In the less common type, where the anterior part of the -flower is more developed, as in the _Ocimoideae_, the stamens and style -lie on the under lip and honey is secreted on the upper side of the -hypogynous disk; the insect in probing the flower gets smeared with -pollen on its belly and legs. Both types include brightly-coloured -flowers with longer tubes adapted to the visits of butterflies and -moths, as species of _Salvia_, _Stachys_, _Monarda_, &c.; some South -American species of _Salvia_ are pollinated by humming-birds. In -_Mentha_ (fig. 2, 3), thyme, marjoram (_Origanum_), and allied genera, -the flowers are nearly regular and the stamens spread beyond the -corolla. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Flowering Shoot of Dead-nettle (_Lamium album_). -1, Flower cut lengthwise, enlarged; 2 calyx, enlarged; 3, floral -diagram.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--1, Flower of Sage (_Salvia officinalis_); 2, -Corolla of same cut open showing the two stamens; 3, flower of spearmint -(_Mentha viridis_); 4, corolla of same cut open showing stamens; 5, -flowering shoot of same, reduced; 6, floral diagram of _Salvia_.] - -The persistent calyx encloses the ripe nutlets, and aids in their -distribution in various ways, by means of winged spiny or hairy lobes or -teeth; sometimes it forms a swollen bladder. A scanty endosperm is -sometimes present in the seed; the embryo is generally parallel to the -fruit axis with a short inferior radicle and generally flat cotyledons. - - The order occurs in all warm and temperate regions; its chief centre - is the Mediterranean region, where some genera such as _Lavandula_, - _Thymus_, _Rosmarinus_ and others form an important feature in the - vegetation. The tribe _Ocimoideae_ is exclusively tropical and - subtropical and occurs in both hemispheres. The order is well - represented in Britain by seventeen native genera; _Mentha_ (mint) - including also _M. piperita_ (peppermint) and _M. Pulegium_ - (pennyroyal); _Origanum vulgare_ (marjoram); _Thymus Serpyllum_ - (thyme); _Calamintha_ (calamint), including also _C. Clinopodium_ - (wild basil) and _C. Acinos_ (basil thyme); _Salvia_ (sage), including - _S. Verbenaca_ (clary); _Nepeta Cataria_ (catmint), _N. Glechoma_ - (ground-ivy); _Brunella_ (self-heal); _Scutellaria_ (skull-cap); - _Stachys (woundwort); _S. Betonica_ is wood betony; _Galeopsis_ - (hemp-nettle); Lamium_ (dead-nettle); _Ballota_ (black horehound); - _Teucrium_ (germander); and _Ajuga_ (bugle). - - Labiatae are readily distinguished from all other orders of the series - excepting Verbenaceae, in which, however, the style is terminal; but - several genera, e.g. _Ajuga_, _Teucrium_ and _Rosmarinus_, approach - Verbenaceae in this respect, and in some genera of that order the - style is more or less sunk between the ovary lobes. The - fruit-character indicates an affinity with Boraginaceae from which, - however, they differ in habit and by characters of ovule and embryo. - - The presence of volatile oil renders many genera of economic use, such - are thyme, marjoram (_Origanum_), sage (_Salvia_), lavender - (_Lavandula_), rosemary (_Rosmarinus_), patchouli (_Pogostemon_). The - tubers of _Stachys Sieboldi_ are eaten in France. - - - - -LABICANA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, leading E.S.E. from Rome. -It seems possible that the road at first led to Tusculum, that it was -then prolonged to Labici, and later still became a road for through -traffic; it may even have superseded the Via Latina as a route to the -S.E., for, while the distance from Rome to their main junction at Ad -Bivium (or to another junction at Compitum Anagninum) is practically -identical, the summit level of the former is 725 ft. lower than that of -the latter, a little to the west of the pass of Algidus. After their -junction it is probable that the road bore the name Via Latina rather -than Via Labicana. The course of the road after the first six miles from -Rome is not identical with that of any modern road, but can be clearly -traced by remains of pavement and buildings along its course. - - See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i. 215 sqq. - (T. As.) - - - - -LABICHE, EUGENE MARIN (1815-1888), French dramatist, was born on the 5th -of May 1815, of _bourgeois_ parentage. He read for the bar, but -literature had more powerful attractions, and he was hardly twenty when -he gave to the _Cherubin_--an impertinent little magazine, long vanished -and forgotten--a short story, entitled, in the cavalier style of the -period, _Les plus belles sont les plus fausses_. A few others followed -much in the same strain, but failed to catch the attention of the -public. He tried his hand at dramatic criticism in the _Revue des -theatres_, and in 1838 made a double venture on the stage. The small -Theatre du Pantheon produced, amid some signs of popular favour, a drama -of his, _L'Avocat Loubet_, while a vaudeville, _Monsieur de Coislin ou -l'homme infiniment poli_, written in collaboration with Marc Michel, and -given at the Palais Royal, introduced for the first time to the -Parisians a provincial actor who was to become and to remain a great -favourite with them, Grassot, the famous low comedian. In the same year -Labiche, still doubtful about his true vocation, published a romance -called _La Cle des champs_. M. Leon Halevy, his successor at the Academy -and his panegyrist, informs us that the publisher became a bankrupt soon -after the novel was out. "A lucky misadventure, for," the biographer -concludes, "this timely warning of Destiny sent him back to the stage, -where a career of success was awaiting him." There was yet another -obstacle in the way. When he married, he solemnly promised his wife's -parents that he would renounce a profession then considered incompatible -with moral regularity and domestic happiness. But a year afterwards his -wife spontaneously released him from his vow, and Labiche recalled the -incident when he dedicated the first edition of his complete works: "To -my wife." Labiche, in conjunction with Varin,[1] Marc Michel,[2] -Clairville,[3] Dumanoir,[4] and others contributed comic plays -interspersed with couplets to various Paris theatres. The series -culminated in the memorable farce in five acts, _Un Chapeau de paille -d'Italie_ (August 1851). It remains an accomplished specimen of the -French _imbroglio_, in which some one is in search of something, but -does not find it till five minutes before the curtain falls. Prior to -that date Labiche had been only a successful _vaudevilliste_ among a -crowd of others; but a twelvemonth later he made a new departure in _Le -Misanthrope et l'Auvergnat_. All the plays given for the next -twenty-five years, although constructed on the old plan, contained a -more or less appreciable dose of that comic observation and good sense -which gradually raised the French farce almost to the level of the -comedy of character and manners. "Of all the subjects," he said, "which -offered themselves to me, I have selected the _bourgeois_. Essentially -mediocre in his vices and in his virtues, he stands half-way between the -hero and the scoundrel, between the saint and the profligate." During -the second period of his career Labiche had the collaboration of -Delacour,[5] Choler,[6] and others. When it is asked what share in the -authorship and success of the plays may be claimed for those men, we -shall answer in Emile Augier's words: "The distinctive qualities which -secured a lasting vogue for the plays of Labiche are to be found in all -the comedies written by him with different collaborators, and are -conspicuously absent from those which they wrote without him." A more -useful and more important collaborator he found in Jean Marie Michel -Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a _debutant_ in his younger -days, and who remained his faithful interpreter to the last. Geoffroy -impersonated the _bourgeois_ not only to the public, but to the author -himself; and it may be assumed that Labiche, when writing, could see and -hear Geoffroy acting the character and uttering, in his pompous, fussy -way, the words that he had just committed to paper. _Celimare le -bien-aime_ (1863), _Le Voyage de M. Perrichon_ (1860), _La Grammaire_, -_Un Pied dans le crime_, _La Cagnotte_ (1864), may be quoted as the -happiest productions of Labiche. - -In 1877 he brought his connexion with the stage to a close, and retired -to his rural property in Sologne. There he could be seen, dressed as a -farmer, with low-brimmed hat, thick gaiters and an enormous stick, -superintending the agricultural work and busily engaged in reclaiming -land and marshes. His lifelong friend, Augier, visited him in his -principality, and, being left alone in the library, took to reading his -host's dramatic productions, scattered here and there in the shape of -theatrical _brochures_. He strongly advised Labiche to publish a -collected and revised edition of his works. The suggestion, first -declined as a joke and long resisted, was finally accepted and carried -into effect. Labiche's comic plays, in ten volumes, were issued during -1878 and 1879. The success was even greater than had been expected by -the author's most sanguine friends. It had been commonly believed that -these plays owed their popularity in great measure to the favourite -actors who had appeared in them; but it was now discovered that all, -with the exception of Geoffroy, had introduced into them a grotesque and -caricatural element, thus hiding from the spectator, in many cases, the -true comic vein and delightful delineation of human character. The -amazement turned into admiration, and the _engouement_ became so general -that very few dared grumble or appear scandalized when, in 1880, Labiche -was elected to the French Academy. It was fortunate that, in former -years, he had never dreamt of attaining this high distinction; for, as -M. Pailleron justly observed, while trying to get rid of the little -faults which were in him, he would have been in danger of losing some of -his sterling qualities. But when the honour was bestowed upon him, he -enjoyed it with his usual good sense and quiet modesty. He died in Paris -on the 23rd of January 1888. - -Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Moliere, but it -will be enough to say that he was something better than a public -_amuseur_. Many of his plays have been transferred to the English stage. -They are, on the whole, as sound as they are entertaining. Love is -practically absent from his theatre. In none of his plays did he ever -venture into the depths of feminine psychology, and womankind is only -represented in them by pretentious old maids and silly, insipid, almost -dumb, young ladies. He ridiculed marriage according to the invariable -custom of French playwrights, but in a friendly and good-natured manner -which always left a door open to repentance and timely amendment. He is -never coarse, never suggestive. After he died the French farce, which he -had raised to something akin to literature, relapsed into its former -grossness and unmeaning complexity. (A. Fi.) - - His _Theatre complet_ (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by - Emile Augier. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Victor Varin, pseudonym of Charles Voirin (1798-1869). - - [2] Marc Antoine Amedee Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist. - - [3] Louis Francois Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879), - part-author of the famous _Fille de Mme Angot_ (1872). - - [4] Philippe Francois Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865). - - [5] Alfred Charlemagne Lartigue, called Delacour (1815-1885). For a - list of this author's pieces see O. Lorenz, _Catalogue General_ (vol. - ii., 1868). - - [6] Adolphe Joseph Choler (1822-1889). - - - - -LABICI, an ancient city of Latium, the modern Monte Compatri, about 17 -m. S.E. from Rome, on the northern slopes of the Alban Hills, 1739 ft. -above sea-level. It occurs among the thirty cities of the Latin League, -and it is said to have joined the Aequi in 419 B.C. and to have been -captured by the Romans in 418. After this it does not appear in history, -and in the time of Cicero and Strabo was almost entirely deserted if not -destroyed. Traces of its ancient walls have been noticed. Its place was -taken by the _respublica Lavicanorum Quintanensium_, the post-station -established in the lower ground on the Via Labicana (see LABICANA, VIA), -a little S.W. of the modern village of Colonna, the site of which is -attested by various inscriptions and by the course of the road itself. - - See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i. 256 sqq. - (T. As.) - - - - -LABID (Abu 'Aqil Labid ibn Rabi'a) (_c._ 560-_c._ 661), Arabian poet, -belonged to the Bani 'Amir, a division of the tribe of the Hawazin. In -his younger years he was an active warrior and his verse is largely -concerned with inter-tribal disputes. Later, he was sent by a sick uncle -to get a remedy from Mahomet at Medina and on this occasion was much -influenced by a part of the Koran. He accepted Islam soon after, but -seems then to have ceased writing. In Omar's caliphate he is said to -have settled in Kufa. Tradition ascribes to him a long life, but dates -given are uncertain and contradictory. One of his poems is contained in -the _Mo'allakat_ (q.v.). - - Twenty of his poems were edited by Chalidi (Vienna, 1880); another - thirty-five, with fragments and a German translation of the whole, - were edited (partly from the remains of A. Huber) by C. Brockelmann - (Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, _Uber die Gedichte des Lebyd_ - (Vienna, 1881). Stories of Labid are contained in the - _Kitabul-Aghani_, xiv. 93 ff. and xv. 137 ff. (G. W. T.) - - - - -LABIENUS, the name of a Roman family, said (without authority) to belong -to the gens Atia. The most important member was TITUS LABIENUS. In 63 -B.C., at Caesar's instigation, he prosecuted Gaius Rabirius (q.v.) for -treason; in the same year, as tribune of the plebs, he carried a -plebiscite which indirectly secured for Caesar the dignity of pontifex -maximus (Dio Cassius xxxvii. 37). He served as a legatus throughout -Caesar's Gallic campaigns and took Caesar's place whenever he went to -Rome. His chief exploits in Gaul were the defeat of the Treviri under -Indutiomarus in 54, his expedition against Lutetia (Paris) in 52, and -his victory over Camulogenus and the Aedui in the same year. On the -outbreak of the civil war, however, he was one of the first to desert -Caesar, probably owing to an overweening sense of his own importance, -not adequately recognized by Caesar. He was rapturously welcomed on the -Pompeian side; but he brought no great strength with him, and his ill -fortune under Pompey was as marked as his success had been under Caesar. -From the defeat at Pharsalus, to which he had contributed by affecting -to despise his late comrades, he fled to Corcyra, and thence to Africa. -There he was able by mere force of numbers to inflict a slight check -upon Caesar at Ruspina in 46. After the defeat at Thapsus he joined the -younger Pompey in Spain, and was killed at Munda (March 17th, 45). - - - - -LABLACHE, LUIGI (1794-1858), Franco-Italian singer, was born at Naples -on the 6th of December 1794, the son of a merchant of Marseilles who had -married an Irish lady. In 1806 he entered the Conservatorio della Pieta -de Turchini, where he studied music under Gentili and singing under -Valesi, besides learning to play the violin and violoncello. As a boy he -had a beautiful alto voice, and by the age of twenty he had developed a -magnificent bass with a compass of two octaves from E[flat] below to -E[flat] above the bass stave. After making his first appearance at -Naples he went to Milan in 1817, and subsequently travelled to Turin, -Venice and Vienna. His first appearances in London and Paris in 1830 led -to annual engagements in both the English and French capitals. His -reception at St Petersburg a few years later was no less enthusiastic. -In England he took part in many provincial musical festivals, and was -engaged by Queen Victoria to teach her singing. On the operatic stage he -was equally successful in comic or tragic parts, and with his -wonderfully powerful voice he could express either humour or pathos. -Among his friends were Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and Mercadante. He -was one of the thirty-two torch-bearers chosen to surround the coffin at -Beethoven's funeral in 1827. He died at Naples on the 23rd of January -1858 and was buried at Maison Lafitte, Paris. Lablache's Leporello in -_Don Giovanni_ was perhaps his most famous impersonation; among his -principal other roles were Dandini in _Cenerentola_ (Rossini), Assur in -_Semiramide_ (Rossini), Geronimo in _La Gazza Ladra_ (Rossini), Henry -VIII. in _Anna Bolena_ (Donizetti), the Doge in _Marino Faliero_ -(Donizetti), the title-role in _Don Pasquale_ (Donizetti), Geronimo in -_Il Matrimonio Segreto_ (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in _L'Etoile du Nord_ -(Meyerbeer), Caliban in _The Tempest_ (Halevy). - - - - -LABOR DAY, in the United States, a legal holiday in nearly all of the -states and Territories, where the first Monday in September is observed -by parades and meetings of labour organizations. In 1882 the Knights of -Labor paraded in New York City on this day; in 1884 another parade was -held, and it was decided that this day should be set apart for this -purpose. In 1887 Colorado made the first Monday in September a legal -holiday; and in 1909 Labor Day was observed as a holiday throughout the -United States, except in Arizona and North Dakota; in Louisiana it is a -holiday only in New Orleans (Orleans parish), and in Maryland, Wyoming -and New Mexico it is not established as a holiday by statute, but in -each may be proclaimed as such in any year by the governor. - - - - -LA BOURBOULE, a watering-place of central France, in the department of -Puy-de-Dome, 4(1/2) m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore by road. Pop. (1906) 1401. -La Bourboule is situated on the right bank of the Dordogne at a height -of 2790 ft. Its waters, of which arsenic is the characteristic -constituent, are used in cases of diseases of the skin and respiratory -organs, rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. Though known to the Romans they were -not in much repute till towards the end of the 19th century. The town -has three thermal establishments and a casino. - - - - -LABOUR CHURCH, THE, an organization intended to give expression to the -religion of the labour movement. This religion is not theological--it -leaves theological questions to private individual conviction--but -"seeks the realization of universal well-being by the establishment of -Socialism--a commonwealth founded upon justice and love." It asserts -that "improvement of social conditions and the development of personal -character are both essential to emancipation from social and moral -bondage, and to that end insists upon the duty of studying the economic -and moral forces of society." The first Labour Church was founded at -Manchester (England) in October 1891 by a Unitarian minister, John -Trevor. This has disappeared, but vigorous successors have been -established not only in the neighbourhood, but in Bradford, Birmingham, -Nottingham, London, Wolverhampton and other centres of industry, about -30 in all, with a membership of 3000. Many branches of the Independent -Labour Party and the Social Democratic Federation also hold Sunday -gatherings for adults and children, using the Labour Church hymn-book -and a similar form of service, the reading being chosen from Dr Stanton -Coit's _Message of Man_. There are special forms for child-naming, -marriages and burials. The separate churches are federated in a Labour -Church Union, which holds an annual conference and business meeting in -March. At the conference of 1909, held in Ashton-under-Lyne, the name -"Labour Church" was changed to "Socialist Church." - - - - -LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANCOIS, COUNT MAHE de (1699-1753), French -naval commander, was born at Saint Malo on the 11th of February 1699. He -went to sea when a boy, and in 1718 entered the service of the French -India Company as a lieutenant. In 1724 he was promoted captain, and -displayed such bravery in the capture of Mahe of the Malabar coast that -the name of the town was added to his own. For two years he was in the -service of the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, but in 1735 he returned to -French service as governor of the Ile de France and the Ile de Bourbon. -His five years' administration of the islands was vigorous and -successful. A visit to France in 1740 was interrupted by the outbreak of -hostilities with Great Britain, and La Bourdonnais was put at the head -of a fleet in Indian waters. He saved Mahe, relieved General Dupleix at -Pondicherry, defeated Lord Peyton, and in 1746 participated in the siege -of Madras. He quarrelled with Dupleix over the conduct of affairs in -India, and his anger was increased on his return to the Ile de France at -finding a successor to himself installed there by his rival. He set sail -on a Dutch vessel to present his case at court, and was captured by the -British, but allowed to return to France on parole. Instead of securing -a settlement of his quarrel with Dupleix, he was arrested (1748) on a -charge of gubernatorial peculation and maladministration, and secretly -imprisoned for over two years in the Bastille. He was tried in 1751 and -acquitted, but his health was broken by the imprisonment and by chagrin -at the loss of his property. To the last he made unjust accusations -against Dupleix. He died at Paris on the 10th of November 1753. The -French government gave his widow a pension of 2400 livres. - -La Bourdonnais wrote _Traite de la mature des vaisseaux_ (Paris 1723), -and left valuable memoirs which were published by his grandson, a -celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahe de la Bourdonnais (1795-1840) -(latest edition, Paris, 1890). His quarrel with Dupleix has given rise -to much debate; for a long while the fault was generally laid to the -arrogance and jealousy of Dupleix, but W. Cartwright and Colonel -Malleson have pointed out that La Bourdonnais was proud, suspicious and -over-ambitious. - - See P. de Gennes, _Memoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais, avec les - pieces justificatives_ (Paris, 1750); _The Case of Mde la Bourdonnais, - in a Letter to a Friend_ (London, 1748); Fantin des Odoards, - _Revolutions de l'Inde_ (Paris, 1796); Collin de Bar, _Histoire de - l'Inde ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoen, - _Histoire de la conquete et de la fondation de l'empire anglais dans - l'Inde_ (Paris, 1840); Margry, "Les Isles de France et de Bourbon sous - le gouvernement de La Bourdonnais," in _La Revue maritime et - coloniale_ (1862); W. Cartwright, "Dupleix et l'Inde francaise," in - _La Revue britannique_ (1882); G. B. Malleson, _Dupleix_ (Oxford, - 1895); Anandaranga Pillai, _Les Francais dans l'Inde_, _Dupleix et - Labourdonnais, extraits du journal d'Anandaran-gappoulle 1736-1748_, - trans. in French by Vinsor in _Ecole speciale des langues orientales - vivantes_, series 3, vol. xv. (Paris, 1894). - - - - -LABOUR EXCHANGE, a term very frequently applied to registries having for -their principal object the better distribution of labour (see -UNEMPLOYMENT). Historically the term is applied to the system of -equitable labour exchanges established in England between 1832 and 1834 -by Robert Owen and his followers. The idea is said to have originated -with Josiah Warren, who communicated it to Owen. Warren tried an -experiment in 1828 at Cincinnati, opening an exchange under the title of -a "time store." He joined in starting another at Tuscarawas, Ohio, and a -third at Mount Vernon, Indiana, but none were quite on the same line as -the English exchanges. The fundamental idea of the English exchanges was -to establish a currency based upon labour; Owen in _The Crisis_ for June -1832 laid down that all wealth proceeded from labour and knowledge; that -labour and knowledge were generally remunerated according to the time -employed, and that in the new exchanges it was proposed to make _time_ -the standard or measure of wealth. This new currency was represented by -"labour notes," the notes being measured in hours, and the hour reckoned -as being worth sixpence, this figure being taken as the mean between the -wage of the best and the worst paid labour. Goods were then to be -exchanged for the new currency. The exchange was opened in extensive -premises in the Gray's Inn Road, near King's Cross, London, on the 3rd -of September 1832. For some months the establishment met with -considerable success, and a considerable number of tradesmen agreed to -take labour notes in payment for their goods. At first, an enormous -number of deposits was made, amounting in seventeen weeks to 445,501 -hours. But difficulties soon arose from the lack of sound practical -valuators, and from the inability of the promoters to distinguish -between the labour of the highly skilled and that of the unskilled. -Tradesmen, too, were quick to see that the exchange might be worked to -their advantage; they brought unsaleable stock from their shops, -exchanged it for labour notes, and then picked out the best of the -saleable articles. Consequently the labour notes began to depreciate; -trouble also arose with the proprietors of the premises, and the -experiment came to an untimely end early in 1834. - - See F. Podmore's _Robert Owen_, ii. c. xvii. (1906); B. Jones, - _Co-operative Production_, c. viii. (1894); G. J. Holyoake, _History - of Co-operation_, c. viii. (1906). - - - - -LABOUR LEGISLATION. Regulation of labour,[1] in some form or another, -whether by custom, royal authority, ecclesiastical rules or by formal -legislation in the interests of a community, is no doubt as old as the -most ancient forms of civilization. And older than all civilization is -the necessity for the greater part of mankind to labour for maintenance, -whether freely or in bonds, whether for themselves and their families or -for the requirements or superfluities of others. Even while it is clear, -however, that manual labour, or the application of the bodily -forces--with or without mechanical aid--to personal maintenance and the -production of goods, remains the common lot of the majority of citizens -of the most developed modern communities, still there is much risk of -confusion if modern technical terms such as "labour," "employer," -"labour legislation" are freely applied to conditions in bygone -civilizations with wholly different industrial organization and social -relationships. In recent times in England there has been a notable -disappearance from current use of correlative terms implying a social -relationship which is greatly changed, for example, in the rapid passage -from the Master and Servant Act 1867 to the Employer and Workman Act -1875. In the 18th century the term "manufacturer" passed from its -application to a working craftsman to its modern connotation of at least -some command of capital, the employer being no longer a small working -master. An even more significant later change is seen in the steady -development of a labour legislation, which arose in a clamant social -need for the care of specially helpless "protected" persons in factories -and mines, into a wider legislation for the promotion of general -industrial health, safety and freedom for the worker from fraud in -making or carrying out wage contracts. - -If, then, we can discern these signs of important changes within so -short a period, great caution is needed in rapidly reviewing long -periods of time prior to that industrial revolution which is traced -mainly to the application of mechanical power to machinery in aid of -manual labour, practically begun and completed within the second half of -the 18th century. "In 1740 save for the fly-shuttle the loom was as it -had been since weaving had begun ... and the law of the land was" (under -the Act of Apprentices of 1503) "that wages in each district should be -assessed by Justices of the Peace."[2] Turning back to still earlier -times, legislation--whatever its source or authority--must clearly be -devoted to aims very different from modern aims in regulating labour, -when it arose before the labourer, as a man dependent on an "employer" -for the means of doing work, had appeared, and when migratory labour was -almost unknown through the serfdom of part of the population and the -special status secured in towns to the artisan. - -In the great civilizations of antiquity there were great aggregations of -labour which was not solely, though frequently it was predominantly, -slave labour; and some of the features of manufacture and mining on a -great scale arose, producing the same sort of evils and industrial -maladies known and regulated in our own times. Some of the maladies were -described by Pliny and classed as "diseases of slaves." And he gave -descriptions of processes, for example in the metal trades, as belonging -entirely to his own day, which modern archaeological discoveries trace -back through the earliest known Aryan civilizations to a prehistoric -origin in the East, and which have never died out in western Europe, but -can be traced in a concentrated manufacture with almost unchanged -methods, now in France, now in Germany, now in England. - -Little would be gained in such a sketch as this by an endeavour to piece -together the scattered and scanty materials for a comparative history of -the varying conditions and methods of labour regulation over so enormous -a range. While our knowledge continually increases of the remains of -ancient craft, skill and massed labour, much has yet to be discovered -that may throw light on methods of organization of the labourers. While -much, and in some civilizations most, of the labour was compulsory or -forced, it is clear that too much has been sometimes assumed, and it is -by no means certain that even the pyramids of Egypt, much less the -beautiful earliest Egyptian products in metal work, weaving and other -skilled craft work, were typical products of slave labour. Even in Rome -it was only at times that the proportion of slaves valued as property -was greater than that of hired workers, or, apart from capture in war or -self-surrender in discharge of a debt, that purchase of slaves by the -trader, manufacturer or agriculturist was generally considered the -cheapest means of securing labour. As in early England the various -stages of village industrial life, medieval town manufacture, and -organization in craft gilds, and the beginnings of the mercantile -system, were parallel with a greater or less prevalence of serfdom and -even with the presence in part of slavery, so in other ages and -civilizations the various methods of organization of labour are found to -some extent together. The Germans in their primitive settlements were -accustomed to the notion of slavery, and in the decline of the Roman -Empire Roman captives from among the most useful craftsmen were carried -away by their northern conquerors. - -The history and present details of the labour laws of various countries -are dealt with below in successive sections: (1) history of legislation -in the United Kingdom; (2) the results as shown by the law in force in -1909, with the corresponding facts for (3) Continental Europe and (4) -the United States. Under other headings (TRADE-UNIONS, STRIKES AND -LOCK-OUTS, ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION, &c., &c.) are many details on -cognate subjects. - - -I. HISTORY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM - -1. _Until the Close of the 15th Century._--Of the main conditions of -industrial labour in early Anglo-Saxon England details are scanty. -Monastic industrial communities were added in Christian times to village -industrial communities. While generally husbandry was the first object -of toil, and developed under elaborate regulation in the manorial -system, still a considerable variety of industries grew up, the aim -being expressly to make each social group self-sufficing, and to protect -and regulate village artisans in the interest of village resources. This -protective system, resting on a communal or co-operative view of labour -and social life, has been compared as analogous to the much later and -wider system under which the main purpose was to keep England as a whole -self-sufficing.[3] It has also been shown how greatly a fresh spirit of -enterprise in industry and trade was stimulated first by the Danish and -next by the Norman invasion; the former brought in a vigour shown in -growth of villages, increase in number of freemen, and formation of -trading towns; the latter especially opened up new communications with -the most civilized continental people, and was followed by a -considerable immigration of artisans, particularly of Flemings. In Saxon -England slavery in the strictest sense existed, as is shown in the -earliest English laws, but it seems that the true slave class as -distinct from the serf class was comparatively small, and it may well be -that the labour of an ordinary serf was not practically more severe, and -the remuneration in maintenance and kind not much less than that of -agricultural labourers in recent times. In spite of the steady protest -of the Church, slavery (as the exception, not the general rule) did not -die out for many centuries, and was apt to be revived as a punishment -for criminals, e.g. in the fierce provisions of the statute of Edward -VI. against beggars, not repealed until 1597. At no time, however, was -it general, and as the larger village and city populations grew the -ratio of serfs and slaves to the freemen in the whole population rapidly -diminished, for the city populations "had not the habit and use of -slavery," and while serfs might sometimes find a refuge in the cities -from exceptionally severe taskmasters, "there is no doubt that freemen -gradually united with them under the lord's protection, that strangers -engaged in trade sojourned among them, and that a race of artisans -gradually grew up in which original class feelings were greatly -modified." From these conditions grew two parallel tendencies in -regulation of labour. On the one hand there was, under royal charters, -the burgh or municipal organization and control of artisan and craft -labour, passing later into the more specialized organization in craft -gilds; on the other hand, there was a necessity, sometimes acute, to -prevent undue diminution in the numbers available for husbandry or -agricultural labour. To the latter cause must be traced a provision -appearing in a succession of statutes (see especially an act of Richard -II., 1388), that a child under twelve years once employed in agriculture -might never be transferred to apprenticeship in a craft. The steady -development of England, first as a wool-growing, later as a -cloth-producing country, would accentuate this difficulty. During the -13th century, side by side with development of trading companies for the -export of wool from England, may be noted many agreements on the part of -monasteries to sell their wool to Florentines, and during the same -century absorption of alien artisans into the municipal system was -practically completed. Charters of Henry I. provided for naturalization -of these aliens. From the time of Edward I. to Edward III. a gradual -transference of burgh customs, so far as recognized for the common good, -to statute law was in progress, together with an assertion of the rights -of the crown against ecclesiastical orders. "The statutes of Edward I.," -says Dr. Cunningham, "mark the first attempt to deal with Industry and -Trade as a public matter which concerns the whole state, not as the -particular affair of leading men in each separate locality." The first -direct legislation for labour by statute, however, is not earlier than -the twenty-third year of the reign of Edward III., and it arose in an -attempt to control the decay and ruin, both in rural and urban -districts, which followed the Hundred Years' War, and the pestilence -known as the Black Death. This first "Statute of Labourers" was designed -for the benefit of the community, not for the protection of labour or -prevention of oppression, and the policy of enforcing customary wages -and compelling the able-bodied labourer, whether free or bond, not -living in merchandise or exercising any craft, to work for hire at -recognized rates of pay, must be reviewed in the circumstances and -ideals of the time. Regulation generally in the middle ages aimed at -preventing any individual or section of the community from making what -was considered an exceptional profit through the necessity of others.[4] -The scarcity of labour by the reduction of the population through -pestilence was not admitted as a justification for the demands for -increased pay, and while the unemployed labourer was liable to be -committed to gaol if he refused service at current rates, the lords of -the towns or manors who promised or paid more to their servants were -liable to be sued treble the sum in question. Similar restrictions were -made applicable to artificers and workmen. By another statute, two years -later, labourers or artificers who left their work and went into another -county were liable to be arrested by the sheriff and brought back. These -and similar provisions with similar aims were confirmed by statutes of -1360, 1368 and 1388, but the act of 1360, while prohibiting "all -alliances and covins of masons, carpenters, congregations, chapters, -ordinances and oaths betwixt them made," allowed "every lord to bargain -or covenant for their works in gross with such labourers and artificers -when it pleaseth them, so that they perform such works well and lawfully -according to the bargain and covenant with them thereof made." Powers -were given by the acts of 1368 and 1388 to justices to determine matters -under these statutes and to fix wages. Records show that workmen of -various descriptions were pressed by writs addressed to sheriffs to work -for their king at wages regardless of their will as to terms and place -of work. These proceedings were founded on notions of royal prerogative, -of which impressment of seamen survived as an example to a far later -date. By an act of 1388 no servant or labourer, man or woman, however, -could depart out of the hundred to serve elsewhere unless bearing a -letter patent under the king's seal stating the cause of going and time -of return. Such provisions would appear to have widely failed in their -purpose, for an act of 1414 declares that the servants and labourers -fled from county to county, and justices were empowered to send writs to -the sheriffs for fugitive labourers as for felons, and to examine -labourers, servants and their masters, as well as artificers, and to -punish them on confession. An act of 1405, while putting a property -qualification on apprenticeship and requiring parents under heavy -penalties to put their children to such labour as their estates -required, made a reservation giving freedom to any person "to send their -children to school to learn literature." Up to the end of the 15th -century a monotonous succession of statutes strengthening, modifying, -amending the various attempts (since the first Statute of Labourers) to -limit free movement of labour, or demands by labourers for increased -wages, may be seen in the acts of 1411, 1427, 1444, 1495. It was clearly -found extremely difficult, if not impracticable, to carry out the minute -control of wages considered desirable, and exceptions in favour of -certain occupations were in some of the statutes themselves. In 1512 the -penalties for giving wages contrary to law were repealed so far as -related to masters, but it also appears that London workmen would not -endure the prevalent restrictions as to wages, and that they secured in -practice a greater freedom to arrange rates when working within the -city. Several of these statutes, and especially one of 1514, fixed the -hours of labour when limiting wages. During March to September the -limits were 5 A.M. to 7 or 8 P.M., with half an hour off for breakfast -and an hour and a half off for mid-day dinner. In winter the outside -limits were fixed by the length of daylight. - -Throughout the 15th century the rapidly increasing manufacture of cloth -was subject to a regulation which aimed at maintaining the standard of -production and prevention of bad workmanship, and the noteworthy statute -4 Edward IV. c. 1, while giving power to royal officers to supervise -size of cloths, modes of sealing, &c., also repressed payment to workers -in "pins, girdles and unprofitable wares," and ordained payment in true -and lawful money. This statute (the first against "Truck") gives an -interesting picture of the way in which clothiers--or, as we should call -them, wholesale merchants and manufacturers--delivered wool to spinners, -carders, &c., by weight, and paid for the work when brought back -finished. It appears that the work was carried on in rural as well as -town districts. While this industry was growing and thriving other -trades remained backward, and agriculture was in a depressed condition. -Craft gilds had primarily the same purpose as the Edwardian statutes, -that is, of securing that the public should be well served with good -wares, and that the trade and manufacture itself should be on a sound -basis as to quality of products and should flourish. Incidentally there -was considerable regulation by the gilds of the conditions of labour, -but not primarily in the interests of the labourer. Thus night work was -prohibited because it tended to secrecy and so to bad execution of work; -working on holidays was prohibited to secure fair play between craftsmen -and so on. The position of apprentices was made clear through -indentures, but the position of journeymen was less certain. Signs are -not wanting of a struggle between journeymen and masters, and towards -the end of the 15th century masters themselves, in at least the great -wool trade, tended to develop from craftsmen into something more like -the modern capitalist employer; from an act of 1555 touching weavers it -is quite clear that this development had greatly advanced and that -cloth-making was carried on largely by employers with large capitals. -Before this, however, while a struggle went on between the town -authorities and the craft gilds, journeymen began to form companies of -their own, and the result of the various conflicts may be seen in an act -of Henry VI., providing that in future new ordinances of gilds shall be -submitted to justices of the peace--a measure which was strengthened in -1503. - -2. _From Tudor Days until the Close of the 18th Century._--A detailed -history of labour regulation in the 16th century would include some -account of the Tudor laws against vagrancy and methods of dealing with -the increase of pauperism, attributable, at least in part, to the -dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII., and to the -confiscation of craft gild funds, which proceeded under Somerset and -Edward VI. It is sufficient here to point to the general recognition of -the public right to compel labourers to work and thus secure control of -unemployed as well as employed. The statutes of Henry VIII. and Edward -VI. against vagrancy differed rather in degree of severity than in -principle from legislation for similar purposes in previous and -subsequent reigns. The Statute of Labourers, passed in the fifth year of -Elizabeth's reign (1562), as well as the poor law of the same year, was -to a considerable extent both a consolidating and an amending code of -law, and was so securely based on public opinion and deeply rooted -custom that it was maintained in force for two centuries. It avowedly -approves of principles and aims in earlier acts, regulating wages, -punishing refusal to work, and preventing free migration of labour. It -makes, however, a great advance in its express aim of protecting the -poor labourer against insufficient wages, and of devising a machinery, -by frequent meeting of justices, which might yield "unto the hired -person both in time of scarcity and in time of plenty a convenient -proportion of wages." Minute regulations were made governing the -contract between master and servant, and their mutual rights and -obligations on parallel lines for (a) artificers, (b) labourers in -husbandry. Hiring was to be by the year, and any unemployed person -qualified in either calling was bound to accept service on pain of -imprisonment, if required, unless possessed of property of a specified -amount or engaged in art, science or letters, or being a "gentleman." -Persons leaving a service were bound to obtain a testimonial, and might -not be taken into fresh employment without producing such testimonial, -or, if in a new district, until after showing it to the authorities of -the place. A master might be fined L5, and a labourer imprisoned, and if -contumacious, whipped, for breach of this rule. The carefully devised -scheme for technical training of apprentices embodied to a considerable -extent the methods and experiences of the craft gilds. Hours of labour -were as follows: "All artificers and labourers being hired for wages by -the day or week shall, betwixt the midst of the months of March and -September, be and continue at their work at or before 5 o'clock in the -morning and continue at work and not depart until betwixt 7 and 8 -o'clock at night, except it be in the time of breakfast, dinner or -drinking, the which time at the most shall not exceed two hours and a -half in a day, that is to say, at every drinking half an hour, for his -dinner one hour and for his sleep when he is allowed to sleep, the which -is from the midst of May to the midst of August, half an hour; and all -the said artificers and labourers betwixt the midst of September and the -midst of March shall be and continue at their work from the spring of -the day in the morning until the night of the same day, except it be in -time afore appointed for breakfast and dinner, upon pain to lose and -forfeit one penny for every hour's absence, to be deducted and defaulked -out of his wages that shall so offend." Although the standpoint of the -Factory Act and Truck Act in force at the beginning of the 20th century -as regards hours of labour or regulation of fines deducted from wages is -completely reversed, yet the difference is not great between the average -length of hours of labour permissible under the present law for women -and those hours imposed upon the adult labourer in Elizabeth's statute. -Apart from the standpoint of compulsory imposition of fines, one -advantage in the definiteness of amount deductable from wages would -appear to lie on the side of the earlier statute. - -Three points remain to be touched on in connexion with the Elizabethan -poor law. In addition to (a) consolidation of measures for setting -vagrants to work, we find the first compulsory contributions from the -well-to-do towards poor relief there provided for, (b) at least a -theoretical recognition of a right as well as an obligation on the part -of the labourer to be hired, (c) careful provision for the apprenticing -of destitute children and orphans to a trade. - -One provision of considerable interest arose in Scotland, which was -nearly a century later in organizing provisions for fixing conditions of -hire and wages of workmen, labourers and servants, similar to those -consolidated in the Elizabethan Statute of Labourers. In 1617 it was -provided (and reaffirmed in 1661) that power should be given to the -sheriffs to compel payment of wages, "that servants may be the more -willing to obey the ordinance." The difficulties in regulation of -compulsory labour in Scotland must, however, have been great, for in -1672 houses of correction were erected for disobedient servants, and -masters of these houses were empowered to force them to work and to -correct them according to their demerits. While servants in manufacture -were compelled to work at reasonable rates they might not enter on a new -hire without their previous master's consent. - -Such legislation continued, at least theoretically, in force until the -awakening effected by the beginning of the industrial revolution--that -is, until the combined effects of steady concentration of capital in the -hands of employers and expansion of trade, followed closely by an -unexampled development of invention in machinery and application of -power to its use. completely altered the face of industrial England. -From time to time, in respect of particular trades, provisions against -truck and for payment of wages in current coin, similar to the act of -Edward IV. in the woollen industry, were found necessary, and this -branch of labour legislation developed through the reigns of Anne and -the four Georges until consolidation and amendment were effected, after -the completion of the industrial revolution, in the Truck Act of 1831. -From the close of the 17th century and during the 18th century the -legislature is no longer mainly engaged in devising means for compelling -labourers and artisans to enter into involuntary service, but rather in -regulating the summary powers of justices of the peace in the matter of -dispute between masters and servants in relation to contracts and -agreements, express or implied, presumed to have been entered into -voluntarily on both sides. While the movement to refer labour questions -to the jurisdiction of the justices thus gradually developed, the main -subject matter for their exercise of jurisdiction in regard to labour -also changed, even when theoretically for a time the two sets of -powers--such as (a) moderation of craft gild ordinances and punishment -of workers refusing hire, or (b) fixing scales of wages and enforcement -of labour contracts--might be concurrently exercised. Even in an act of -George II. (1746) for settlement of disputes and differences as to wages -or other conditions under a contract of labour, power was retained for -the justices, on complaint of the masters of misdemeanour or -ill-behaviour on the part of the servant, to discharge the latter from -service or to send him to a house of correction "there to be corrected," -that is, to be held to hard labour for a term not exceeding a month or -to be corrected by whipping. In an act with similar aims of George IV. -(1823), with a rather wider scope, the power to order corporal -punishment, and in 1867 to hard labour, for breach of labour contracts -had disappeared, and soon after the middle of the 19th century the right -to enforce contracts of labour also disappeared. Then breach of such -labour contracts became simply a question of recovery of damages, unless -both parties agreed that security for performance of the contract shall -be given instead of damages. - -While the endeavour to enforce labour apart from a contract died out in -the latter end of the 18th century, sentiment for some time had strongly -grown in favour of developing early industrial training of children. It -appears to have been a special object of charitable and philanthropic -endeavour in the 17th century, as well as the 18th, to found houses of -industry, in which little children, even under five years of age, might -be trained for apprenticeship with employers. Connected as this -development was with poor relief, one of its chief aims was to prevent -future unemployment and vagrancy by training in habits and knowledge of -industry, but not unavowed was another motive: "from children thus -trained up to constant labour we may venture to hope the lowering of its -price."[5] The evils and excesses which lay enfolded within such a -movement gave the first impulse to the new ventures in labour -legislation which are specially the work of the 19th century. Evident as -it is "that before the Industrial Revolution very young children were -largely employed both in their own homes and as apprentices under the -Poor Law," and that "long before Peel's time there were misgivings about -the apprenticeship system," still it needed the concentration and -prominence of suffering and injury to child life in the factory system -to lead to parliamentary intervention. - -3. _From 1800 to the Codes of 1872 and 1878._--A serious outbreak of -fever in 1784 in cotton mills near Manchester appears to have first -drawn widespread and influential public opinion to the overwork of -children, under terribly dangerous and insanitary conditions, on which -the factory system was then largely being carried on. A local inquiry, -chiefly by a group of medical men presided over by Dr Percival, was -instituted by the justices of the peace for Lancashire, and in the -forefront of the resulting report stood a recommendation for limitation -and control of the working hours of the children. A resolution by the -county justices followed, in which they declared their intention in -future to refuse "indentures of parish Apprentices whereby they shall be -bound to Owners of Cotton Mills and other works in which children are -obliged to work in the night or more than ten hours in the day." In 1795 -the Manchester Board of Health was formed, which, with fuller -information, more definitely advised legislation for the regulation of -the hours and conditions of labour in factories. In 1802 the Health and -Morals of Apprentices Act was passed, which in effect formed the first -step towards prevention of injury to and protection of labour in -factories. It was directly aimed only at evils of the apprentice system, -under which large numbers of pauper children were worked in cotton and -woollen mills without education, for excessive hours, under wretched -conditions. It did not apply to places employing fewer than twenty -persons or three apprentices, and it applied the principle of limitation -of hours (to twelve a day) and abolition of night work, as well as -educational requirements, only to apprentices. Religious teaching and -suitable sleeping accommodation and clothing were provided for in the -act, also as regards apprentices. Lime-washing and ventilation -provisions applied to all cotton and woollen factories employing more -than twenty persons. "Visitors" were to be appointed by county justices -for repression of contraventions, and were empowered to "direct the -adoption of such sanitary regulations as they might on advice think -proper." The mills were to be registered by the clerk of the peace, and -justices had power to inflict fines of from L2 to L5 for contraventions. -Although enforcement of the very limited provisions of the act was in -many cases poor or non-existent, in some districts excellent work was -done by justices, and in 1803 the West Riding of Yorkshire justices -passed a resolution substituting the ten hours' limit for the twelve -hours' limit of the act, as a condition of permission for indenturing of -apprentices in mills. - -Rapid development of the application of steam power to manufacture led -to growth of employment of children in populous centres, otherwise than -on the apprenticeship system, and before long the evils attendant on -this change brought the general question of regulation and protection of -child labour in textile factories to the front. The act of 1819, limited -as it was, was a noteworthy step forward, in that it dealt with this -wider scope of employment of children in cotton factories, and it is -satisfactory to record that it was the outcome of the efforts and -practical experiments of a great manufacturer, Robert Owen. Its -provisions fell on every point lower than the aims he put forward on his -own experience as practicable, and notably in its application only to -cotton mills instead of all textile factories. Prohibition of child -labour under nine years of age and limitation of the working day to -twelve in the twenty-four (without specifying the precise hour of -beginning and closing) were the main provisions of this act. No -provision was made for enforcement of the law beyond such as was -attempted in the act of 1802. Slight amendments were attempted in the -acts of 1825 and 1831, but the first really important factory act was in -1833 applying to textile factories generally, limiting employment of -young persons under eighteen years of age, as well as children, -prohibiting night work between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M., and first -providing for "inspectors" to enforce the law. This is the act which was -based on the devoted efforts of Michael Sadler, with whose name in this -connexion that of Lord Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, was from -1832 associated. The importance of this act lay in its provision for -skilled inspection and thus for enforcement of the law by an independent -body of men unconnected with the locality in which the manufactures lay, -whose specialization in their work enabled them to acquire information -needed for further development of legislation for protection of labour. -Their powers were to a certain extent judicial, being assimilated to -those possessed by justices; they could administer oaths and make such -"rules, regulations and orders" as were necessary for execution of the -act, and could hear complaints and impose penalties under the act. In -1844 a textile factory act modified these extensive inspectoral powers, -organizing the service on lines resembling those of our own time, and -added provision for certifying surgeons to examine workers under sixteen -years of age as to physical fitness for employment and to grant -certificates of age and ordinary strength. Hours of labour, by the act -of 1833, were limited for children under eleven to 9 a day or 48 in the -week, and for young persons under eighteen to 12 a day or 69 in the -week. Between 1833 and 1844 the movement in favour of a ten hours' day, -which had long been in progress, reached its height in a time of great -commercial and industrial distress, but could not be carried into effect -until 1847. By the act of 1844 the hours of adult women were first -regulated, and were limited (as were already those of "young persons") -to 12 a day; children were permitted either to work the same hours on -alternate days or "half-time," with compulsory school attendance as a -condition of their employment. The aim in thus adjusting the hours of -the three classes of workers was to provide for a practical standard -working-day. For the first time detailed provisions for health and -safety began to make their appearance in the law. Penal compensation for -preventible injuries due to unfenced machinery was also provided, and -appears to have been the outcome of a discussion by witnesses before the -Royal Commission on Labour of Young Persons in Mines and Manufactures in -1841. - -From this date, 1841, begin the first attempts at protective legislation -for labour in mining. The first Mines Act of 1842 following the terrible -revelations of the Royal Commission referred to excluded women and girls -from underground working, and limited the employment of boys, excluding -from underground working those under ten years, but it was not until -1850 that systematic reporting of fatal accidents and until 1855 that -other safeguards for health, life and limb in mines were seriously -provided by law. With the exception of regulations against truck there -was no protection for the miner before 1842; before 1814 it was not -customary to hold inquests on miners killed by accidents in mines. From -1842 onwards considerable interaction in the development of the two sets -of acts (mines and factories), as regards special protection against -industrial injury to health and limb, took place, both in parliament and -in the department (Home Office) administering them. Another strong -influence tending towards ultimate development of scientific protection -of health and life in industry began in the work and reports of the -series of sanitary commissions and Board of Health reports from 1843 -onwards. In 1844 the mines inspector made his first report, but two -years later women were still employed to some extent underground. -Organized inspection began in 1850, and in 1854 the Select Committee on -Accidents adopted a suggestion of the inspectors for legislative -extension of the practice of several colliery owners in framing special -safety rules for working in mines. The act of 1855 provided seven -general rules, relating to ventilation, fencing of disused shafts, -proper means for signalling, proper gauges and valve for steam-boiler, -indicator and brake for machine lowering and raising; also it provided -that detailed special rules submitted by mine-owners to the secretary of -state, might, on his approval, have the force of law and be enforceable -by penalty. The Mines Act of 1860, besides extending the law to -ironstone mines, following as it did on a series of disastrous accidents -and explosions, strengthened some of the provisions for safety. At -several inquests strong evidence was given of incompetent management and -neglect of rules, and a demand was made for enforcing employment only of -certificated managers of coal mines. This was not met until the act of -1872, but in 1860 certain sections relating to wages and education were -introduced. Steady development of the coal industry, increasing -association among miners, and increased scientific knowledge of means of -ventilation and of other methods for securing safety, all paved the way -to the Coal Mines Act of 1872, and in the same year health and safety in -metalliferous mines received their first legislative treatment in a code -of similar scope and character to that of the Coal Mines Act. This act -was amended in 1886, and repealed and recodified in 1887; its principal -provisions are still in force, with certain revised special rules and -modifications as regards reporting of accidents (1906) and employment of -children (1903). It was based on the recommendations of a Royal -Commission, which had reported in 1864, and which had shown the grave -excess of mortality and sickness among metalliferous miners, attributed -to the inhalation of gritty particles, imperfect ventilation, great -changes of temperature, excessive physical exertion, exposure to wet, -and other causes. The prohibition of employment of women and of boys -under ten years underground in this class of mines, as well as in coal -mines, had been effected by the act of 1842, and inspection had been -provided for in the act of 1860; these were in amended form included in -the code of 1872, the age of employment of boys underground being raised -to twelve. In the Coal Mines Act of 1872 we see the first important -effort to provide a complete code of regulation for the special dangers -to health, life and limb in coal mines apart from other mines; it -applied to "mines of coal, mines of stratified ironstone, mines of shale -and mines of fire-clay." Unlike the companion act--applying to all other -mines--it maintained the age limit of entering underground employment -for boys at ten years, but for those between ten and twelve it provided -for a system of working analogous to the half-time system in factories, -including compulsory school attendance. The limits of employment for -boys from twelve to sixteen were 10 hours in any one day and 54 in -anyone week. The chief characteristics of the act lay in extension of -the "general" safety rules, improvement of the method of formulating -"special" safety rules, provision for certificated and competent -management, and increased inspection. Several important matters were -transferred from the special to the general rules, such as compulsory -use of safety lamps where needed, regulation of use of explosives, and -securing of roofs and sides. Special rules, before being submitted to -the secretary of state for approval, must be posted in the mine for two -weeks, with a notice that objections might be sent by any person -employed to the district inspector. Wilful neglect of safety provisions -became punishable in the case of employers as well as miners by -imprisonment with hard labour. But the most important new step lay in -the sections relating to daily control and supervision of every mine by -a manager holding a certificate of competency from the secretary of -state, after examination by a board of examiners appointed by the -secretary of state, power being retained for him to cause later inquiry -into competency of the holder of the certificate, and to cancel or -suspend the certificate in case of proved unfitness. - -Returning to the development of factory and workshop law from the year -1844, the main line of effort--after the act of 1847 had restricted -hours of women and young persons to 10 a day and fixed the daily limits -between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M. (Saturday 6 A.M. to 2 P.M.)--lay in bringing -trade after trade in some degree under the scope of this branch of law, -which had hitherto only regulated conditions in textile factories. -Bleaching and dyeing works were included by the acts of 1860 and 1862; -lace factories by that of 1861; calendering and finishing by acts of -1863 and 1864; bakehouses became partially regulated by an act of 1863, -with special reference to local authorities for administration of its -clauses. The report of the third Children's Employment Commission -brought together in accessible form the miserable facts relating to -child labour in a number of unregulated industries in the year 1862, and -the act of 1864 brought some of (these earthenware-making, lucifer -match-making, percussion cap and cartridge making, paper-staining, and -fustian cutting) partly under the scope of the various textile factory -acts in force. A larger addition of trades was made three years later, -but the act of 1864 is particularly interesting in that it first -embodied some of the results of inquiries of expert medical and sanitary -commissioners, by requiring ventilation to be applied to the removal of -injurious gases, dust, and other impurities generated in manufacture, -and made a first attempt to engraft part of the special rules system -from the mines acts. The provisions for framing such rules disappeared -in the Consolidating Act of 1878, to be revived in a better form later. -The Sanitary Act of 1866, administered by local authorities, provided -for general sanitation in any factories and workshops not under existing -factory acts, and the Workshops Regulation Act of 1867, similarly to be -administered by local authorities, amended in 1870, practically -completed the application of the main principle of the factory acts to -all places in which manual labour was exercised for gain in the making -or finishing of articles or parts of articles for sale. A few specially -dangerous or injurious trades brought under regulation in 1864 and 1867 -(e.g. earthenware and lucifer match making, glass-making) ranked as -"factories," although not using mechanical power, and for a time -employment of less than fifty persons relegated certain workplaces to -the category of "workshops," but broadly the presence or absence of such -motor power in aid of process was made and has remained the distinction -between factories and workshops. The Factory Act of 1874, the last of -the series before the great Consolidating Act of 1878, raised the -minimum age of employment for children to ten years in textile -factories. In most of the great inquiries into conditions of child -labour the fact has come clearly to light, in regard to textile and -non-textile trades alike, that parents as much as any employers have -been responsible for too early employment and excessive hours of -employment of children, and from early times until to-day in factory -legislation it has been recognized that they must to some extent be held -responsible for due observation of the limits imposed. For example, in -1831 it was found necessary to protect occupiers against parental -responsibility for false certificates of age, and in 1833 parents of a -child or "any Person having any benefit from the wages of such child" -were made to share responsibility for employment of children without -school attendance or beyond legal hours. - -During the discussions on the bill which became law in 1874, it had -become apparent that revision and consolidation of the multiplicity of -statutes then regulating manufacturing industry had become pressingly -necessary; modifications and exceptions for exceptional conditions in -separate industries needed reconsideration and systematization on clear -principles, and the main requirements of the law could with great -advantage be applied more generally to all the industries. In -particular, the daily limits as to period of employment, pauses for -meals, and holidays, needed to be unified for non-textile factories and -workshops, so as to bring about a standard working-day, and thus prevent -the tendency in "the larger establishments to farm out work among the -smaller, where it is done under less favourable conditions both sanitary -and educational."[6] In these main directions, and that of simplifying -definitions, summarizing special sanitary provisions that had been -gradually introduced for various trades, and centralizing and improving -the organization of the inspectorate, the Commission of 1876 on the -Factory Acts made its recommendations, and the Factory Act of 1878 took -effect. In the fixed working-day, provisions for pauses, holidays, -general and special exceptions, distinctions between systems of -employment for children, young persons and women, education of children -and certificates of fitness for children and young persons, limited -regulation of domestic workshops, general principles of administration -and definitions, the law of 1878 was made practically the same as that -embodied in the later principal act of 1901. More or less completely -revised are: (a) the sections in the 1878 act relating to mode of -controlling sanitary conditions in workshops (since 1891 primarily -enforced by the local sanitary authority); (b) provision for reporting -accidents and for enforcing safety (other than fencing of mill gearing -and dangerous machinery); (c) detailed regulation of injurious and -dangerous process and trades; (d) powers of certifying surgeons; (e) -amount of overtime permissible (greatly reduced in amount and now -confined to adults); (f) age for permissible employment of a child has -been raised from ten years to twelve years. Entirely new since the act -of 1878 are the provisions: (a) for control of outwork; (b) for -supplying particulars of work and wages to piece-workers, enabling them -to compute the total amount of wages payable to them; (e) extension of -the act to laundries; (f) a tentative effort to limit the too early -employment of mothers after childbirth. - - -II. LAW OF UNITED KINGDOM, 1910 - -_Factories and Workshops._--The act of 1878 remained until 1901, -although much had been meanwhile superimposed, a monument to the efforts -of the great factory reformers of the first half of the 19th century, -and the general groundwork of safety for workers in factories and -workshops in the main divisions of sanitation, security against -accidents, physical fitness of workers, general limitation of hours and -times of employment for young workers and women. The act of 1901, which -came into force 1st January 1902 (and became the principal act), was an -amending as well as a consolidating act. Comparison of the two acts -shows, however, that, in spite of the advantages of further -consolidation and helpful changes in arrangement of sections and -important additions which tend towards a specialized hygiene for factory -life, the fundamental features of the law as fought out in the 19th -century remain undisturbed. So far as the law has altered in character, -it has done so chiefly by gradual development of certain sanitary -features, originally subordinate, and by strengthening provision for -security against accidents and not by retreat from its earlier aims. At -the same time a basis for possible new developments can be seen in the -protection of "outworkers" as well as factory workers against fraudulent -or defective particulars of piece-work rates of wages. - -Later acts directly and indirectly affecting the law are certain acts of -1903, 1906, 1907, to be touched on presently. - - - Additions to act of 1878. - -The act of 1878, in a series of acts from 1883 to 1895, received -striking additions, based (1) on the experience gained in other branches -of protective legislation, e.g. development of the method of regulation -of dangerous trades by "special rules" and administrative inquiry into -accidents under Coal Mines Acts; (2) on the findings of royal -commissions and parliamentary inquiries, e.g. increased control of -"outwork" and domestic workshops, and limitation of "overtime"; (3) on -the development of administrative machinery for enforcing the more -modern law relating to public health, e.g. transference of -administration of sanitary provisions in workshops to the local sanitary -authorities; (4) on the trade-union demand for means for securing -trustworthy records of wage-contracts between employer and workman, e.g. -the section requiring particulars of work and wages for piece-workers. -The first additions to the act of 1878 were, however, almost purely -attempts to deal more adequately than had been attempted in the code of -1878 with certain striking instances of trades injurious to health. Thus -the Factory and Workshop Act of 1883 provided that white-lead factories -should not be carried on without a certificate of conformity with -certain conditions, and also made provision for special rules, on lines -later superseded by those laid down in the act of 1891, applicable to -any employment in a factory or workshop certified as dangerous or -injurious by the secretary of state. The act of 1883 also dealt with -sanitary conditions in bakehouses. Certain definitions and explanations -of previous enactments touching overtime and employment of a child in -any factory or workshop were also included in the act. A class of -factories in which excessive heat and humidity seriously affected the -health of operatives was next dealt with in the Cotton Cloth Factories -Act 1889. This provided for special notice to the chief inspector from -all occupiers of cotton cloth factories (i.e. any room, shed, or -workshop or part thereof in which weaving of cotton cloth is carried on) -who intend to produce humidity by artificial means; regulated both -temperature of workrooms and amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and -provided for tests and records of the same; and fixed a standard minimum -volume of fresh air (600 cub. ft.) to be admitted in every hour for -every person employed in the factory. Power was retained for the -secretary of state to modify by order the standard for the maximum limit -of humidity of the atmosphere at any given temperature. A short act in -1870 extended this power to other measures for the protection of -health. - -The special measures from 1878 to 1889 gave valuable precedents for -further developments of special hygiene in factory life, but the next -advance in the Factory and Workshop Act 1891, following the House of -Lords Committee on the sweating system and the Berlin International -Labour Conference, extended over much wider ground. Its principal -objects were: (a) to render administration of the law relating to -workshops more efficient, particularly as regards sanitation; with this -end in view it made the primary controlling authority for sanitary -matters in workshops the local sanitary authority (now the district -council), acting by their officers, and giving them the powers of the -less numerous body of factory inspectors, while at the same time the -provisions of the Public Health Acts replaced in workshops the very -similar sanitary provisions of the Factory Acts; (b) to provide for -greater security against accidents and more efficient fencing of -machinery in factories; (c) to extend the method of regulation of -unhealthy or dangerous occupations by application of special rules and -requirements to any incident of employment (other than in a domestic -workshop) certified by the secretary of state to be dangerous or -injurious to health or dangerous to life or limb; (d) to raise the age -of employment of children and restrict the employment of women -immediately after childbirth; (e) to require particulars of rate of -wages to be given with work to piece-workers in certain branches of the -textile industries; (f) to amend the act of 1878 in various subsidiary -ways, with the view of improving the administration of its principles, -e.g. by increasing the means of checking the amount of overtime worked, -empowering inspectors to enter workplaces used as dwellings without a -justice's warrant, and the imposition of minimum penalties in certain -cases. On this act followed four years of greatly accelerated -administrative activity. No fewer than sixteen trades were scheduled by -the secretary of state as dangerous to health. The manner of preparing -and establishing suitable rules was greatly modified by the act of 1901 -and will be dealt with in that connexion. - -The Factory and Workshop Act 1895 followed thus on a period of exercise -of new powers of administrative regulation (the period being also that -during which the Royal Commission on Labour made its wide survey of -industrial conditions), and after two successive annual reports of the -chief inspector of factories had embodied reports and recommendations -from the women inspectors, who in 1893 were first added to the -inspectorate. Again, the chief features of an even wider legislative -effort than that of 1891 were the increased stringency and definiteness -of the measures for securing hygienic and safe conditions of work. Some -of these measures, however, involved new principles, as in the provision -for the prohibition of the use of a dangerous machine or structure by -the order of a magistrate's court, and the power to include in the -special rules drawn up in pursuance of section 8 of the act of 1891, the -prohibition of the employment of any class of persons, or the limitation -of the period of employment of any class of persons in any process -scheduled by order of the secretary of state. These last two powers have -both been exercised, and with the exercise of the latter passed away, -without opposition, the absolute freedom of the employer of the adult -male labourer to carry on his manufacture without legislative limitation -of the hours of labour. Second only in significance to these new -developments was the addition, for the first time since 1867, of new -classes of workplaces not covered by the general definitions in section -93 of the Consolidating Act of 1878, viz.: (a) laundries (with special -conditions as to hours, &c.); (b) docks, wharves, quays, warehouses and -premises on which machinery worked by power is temporarily used for the -purpose of the construction of a building or any structural work in -connexion with the building (for the purpose only of obtaining security -against accidents). Other entirely new provisions in the act of 1895, -later strengthened by the act of 1901, were the requirement of a -reasonable temperature in workrooms, the requirement of lavatories for -the use of persons employed in any department where poisonous substances -are used, the obligation on occupiers and medical practitioners to -report cases of industrial poisoning; and the penalties imposed on an -employer wilfully allowing wearing apparel to be made, cleaned or -repaired in a dwelling-house where an inmate is suffering from -infectious disease. Another provision empowered the secretary of state -to specify classes of outwork and areas with a view to the regulation of -the sanitary condition of premises in which outworkers are employed. -Owing to the conditions attached to its exercise, no case was found in -which this power could come into operation, and the act of 1901 deals -with the matter on new lines. The requirement of annual returns from -occupiers of persons employed, and the competency of the person charged -with infringing the act to give evidence in his defence, were important -new provisions, as was also the adoption of the powers to direct a -formal investigation of any accident on the lines laid down in section -45 of the Coal Mines Regulation Act 1887. Other sections, relating to -sanitation and safety, were developments of previous regulations, e.g. -the fixing of a standard of overcrowding, provision of sanitary -accommodation separate for each sex where the standard of the Public -Health Act Amendment Act of 1890 had not been adopted by the competent -local sanitary authority, power to order a fan or other mechanical means -to carry off injurious gas, vapour or other impurity (the previous power -covering only dust). The fencing of machinery and definition of -accidents were made more precise, young persons were prohibited from -cleaning dangerous machinery, and additional safeguards against risk of -injury by fire or panic were introduced. On the question of employment -the foremost amendments lay in the almost complete prohibition of -overtime for young persons, and the restriction of the power of an -employer to employ protected persons outside his factory or workshop on -the same day that he had employed them in the factory or workshop. Under -the head of particulars of work and wages to piece-workers an important -new power, highly valued by the workers, was given to apply the -principle with the necessary modifications by order of the secretary of -state to industries other than textile and to outworkers as well as to -those employed inside factories and workshops. - - - The act of 1901. - -In 1899 an indirect modification of the limitation to employment of -children was effected by the Elementary Education Amendment Act, which, -by raising from eleven to twelve the minimum age at which a child may, -by the by-laws of a local authority, obtain total or partial exemption -from the obligation to attend school, made it unlawful for an occupier -to take into employment any child under twelve in such a manner as to -prevent full-time attendance at school. The age of employment became -generally thereby the same as it has been for employment at a mine above -ground since 1887. The act of 1901 made the prohibition of employment of -a child under twelve in a factory or workshop direct and absolute. Under -the divisions of sanitation, safety, fitness for employment, special -regulation of dangerous trades, special control of bakehouses, -exceptional treatment of creameries, new methods of dealing with home -work and outworkers, important additions were made to the general law by -the act of 1901, as also in regulations for strengthened administrative -control. New general sanitary provisions were those prescribing: (a) -ventilation _per se_ for every workroom, and empowering the secretary of -state to fix a standard of sufficient ventilation; (b) drainage of wet -floors; (c) the power of the secretary of state to define in certain -cases what shall constitute sufficient and suitable sanitary -accommodation. New safety provisions were those relating to--(a) -Examination and report on steam boilers; (b) prohibition of employment -of a child in cleaning below machinery in motion; (c) power of the -district council to make by-laws for escape in case of fire. The most -important administrative alterations were: (a) a justice engaged in the -same trade as, or being officer of an association of persons engaged in -the same trade as, a person charged with an offence may not act at the -hearing and determination of the charge; (b) ordinary supervision of -sanitary conditions under which outwork is carried on was transferred to -the district council, power being reserved to the Home Office to -intervene in case of neglect or default by any district council. - - - Acts of 1903, 1906, 1907. - -The Employment of Children Act 1903, while primarily providing for -industries outside the scope of the Factory Act, incidentally secured -that children employed as half-timers should not also be employed in -other occupations. The Notice of Accidents Act 1906 amended the whole -system of notification of accidents, simultaneously in mines, quarries, -factories and workshops, and will be set out in following paragraphs. -The Factory and Workshop Act of 1907 amended the law in respect of -laundries by generally applying the provisions of 1901 to trade -laundries while granting them choice of new exceptional periods, and by -extending the provisions of the act (with certain powers to the Home -Office by Orders laid before parliament to allow variations) to -institution laundries carried on for charitable or reformatory purposes. -The Employment of Women Act 1907 repealed an exemption in the act of -1901 (and earlier acts) relating to employment of women in flax scutch -mills, thus bringing this employment under the ordinary provisions as to -period of employment. - -The following paragraphs aim at presenting an idea of the scope of the -modified and amended law, as a whole, adding where clearly necessary -reference to the effect of acts, which ceased to apply after the 31st of -December 1901:-- - - - Definitions. - - The workplaces to which the act applies are, first, "factories" and - "workshops"; secondly, laundries, docks, wharves, &c., enumerated - above as introduced and regulated partially only by the act of 1895 - and subsequent acts. Apart from this secondary list, and having regard - to workplaces which remain undefined by the law, the act may broadly - be said to apply to premises, rooms or places in which manual labour, - with or without the aid of mechanical power, is exercised for gain in - or incidental to the making, altering, repairing, ornamenting, - washing, cleaning or finishing or adapting for sale of any article or - part of any article. If steam, water or other mechanical power is used - in aid of the manufacturing process, the workplace is a factory; if - not, it is a workshop. There is, however, a list of eighteen classes - of works (brought under the factory law for reasons of safety, &c., - before workshops generally were regulated) which are defined as - factories whether power is used in them or not. Factories are, again, - subdivided into textile and non-textile: they are textile if the - machinery is employed in preparing, manufacturing or finishing cotton, - wool, hair, silk, flax, hemp, jute, tow, China grass, cocoanut fibre - or other like material either separately or mixed together, or mixed - with any other material, or any fabric made thereof; all other - factories are non-textile. The distinction turns on the historical - origin of factory regulation and the regulations in textile factories - remain in some respects slightly more stringent than in the - non-textile factories and workshops, though the general provisions are - almost the same. Three special classes of workshops have for certain - purposes to be distinguished from ordinary workshops, which include - tenement workshops: (a) Domestic workshops, i.e. any private house, - room or place, which, though used as a dwelling, is by reason of the - work carried on there a workshop, and in which the only persons - employed are members of the same family, dwelling there alone--in - these women's hours are unrestricted; (b) Women's workshops, in which - neither children nor young persons are employed--in these a more - elastic arrangement of hours is permissible than in ordinary - workshops; (c) Workshops in which men only are employed--these come - under the same general regulations in regard to sanitation as other - workshops, also under the provisions of the Factory Act as regards - security, and, if certified by the secretary of state, may be brought - under special regulations. They are otherwise outside the scope of the - act of 1901. - - The person to whom the regulations apply in the above-defined - workplaces are _children_, i.e. persons between the ages of twelve and - fourteen, _young persons_, i.e. boys or girls between the ages of - fourteen (or if an educational certificate has been obtained, - thirteen) and eighteen years of age, and _women_, i.e. females above - the age of eighteen; these are all "protected" persons to whom the - general provisions of the act, inclusive of the regulation of hours - and times of employment, apply. To adult men generally those - provisions broadly only apply which are aimed at securing sanitation - and safety in the conduct of the manufacturing process. - - The person generally responsible for observance of the provisions of - the law, whether these relate to health, safety, limitation of the - hours of labour or other matters, is the _occupier_ (a term undefined - in the act) of the factory, workshop or laundry. There are, however, - limits to his responsibility: (a) generally, where the occupier has - used due diligence to enforce the execution of the act, and can show - that another person, whether agent, servant, workman or other person, - is the real offender; (b) specially in a factory the sections relating - to employment of protected persons, where the owner or hirer of a - machine or implement driven by mechanical power is some person other - than the occupier of the factory, the owner or hirer, so far as - respects any offence against the act committed in relation to a person - who is employed in connexion with the machine or implement, and is in - the employment or pay of the owner or hirer, shall be deemed to be the - occupier of the factory; (c) for the one purpose of reporting - accidents, the actual employer of the person injured in any factory or - workshop is bound under penalty immediately to report the same to the - occupier; (d) so far as relates to sanitary conditions, fencing of - machinery, affixing of notices in _tenement_ factories, the _owner_ - (as defined by the Public Health Act 1875), generally speaking, takes - the place of the occupier. - - Employment in a factory or workshop includes work whether for wages or - not: (a) in a manufacturing process or handicraft, (b) in cleaning any - place used for the same, (c) in cleaning or oiling any part of the - machinery, (d) any work whatsoever incidental to the process or - handicraft, or connected with the article made. Persons found in any - part of the factory or workshop, where machinery is used or - manufacture carried on, except at meal-times, or when machinery is - stopped, are deemed to be employed until the contrary is proved. The - act, however, does not apply to employment for the sole purpose of - repairing the premises or machinery, nor to the process of preserving - and curing fish immediately upon its arrival in the fishing boats in - order to prevent the fish from being destroyed or spoiled, nor to the - process of cleaning and preparing fruit so far as is necessary to - prevent it from spoiling during the months of June, July, August and - September. Certain light handicrafts carried on by a family only in a - private house or room at irregular intervals are also outside the - scope of the act. - - - Sanitation. - - The foremost provisions are those relating to the sanitary condition - of the workplaces and the general security of every class of worker. - Every factory must be kept in a cleanly condition, free from noxious - effluvia, ventilated in such a manner as to render harmless, so far as - practicable, gases, vapours, dust or other impurities generated in the - manufacture; must be provided with sufficient and suitable sanitary - conveniences separate for the sexes; must not be overcrowded (not less - than 250 cubic ft. during the day, 400 during overtime, for each - worker). In these matters the law of public health takes in workshops - the place of the Factory Act, the requirements being substantially the - same. Although, however, primarily the officers of the district - council enforce the sanitary provisions in workshops, the government - factory inspectors may give notice of any defect in them to the - district council in whose district they are situate; and if - proceedings are not taken within one month by the latter, the factory - inspector may act in default and recover expenses from the district - council. This power does not extend to domestic workshops which are - under the law relating to public health so far as general sanitation - is concerned. General powers are reserved to the secretary of state, - where he is satisfied that the Factory Act or law relating to public - health as regards workplaces has not been carried out by any district - council, to authorize a factory inspector during a period named in his - order to act instead of the district council. Other general sanitary - provisions administered by the government inspectors are the - requirement in factories and workshops of washing conveniences where - poisonous substances are used; adequate measures for securing and - maintaining a reasonable temperature of such a kind as will not - interfere with the purity of the air in each room in which any person - is employed; maintenance of sufficient means of ventilation in every - room in a factory or workshop (in conformity with such standard as may - be prescribed by order of the secretary of state); provision of a fan - to carry off injurious dust, gas or other impurity, and prevent their - inhalation in any factory or workshop; drainage of floors where wet - processes are carried on. For laundries and bakehouses there are - further sanitary regulations; e.g. in laundries all stoves for heating - irons shall be sufficiently separated from any ironing-room or - ironing-table, and the floors shall be "drained in such a manner as - will allow the water to flow off freely"; and in bakehouses a cistern - supplying water to a bakehouse must be quite separate from that - supplying water to a water-closet, and the latter may not communicate - directly with the bakehouse. Use of underground bakehouses (i.e. a - baking room with floor more than 3 ft. below the ground adjoining) is - prohibited, except where already used at the passing of the act; - further, in these cases, after 1st January 1904, a certificate as to - suitability in light, ventilation, &c., must be obtained from the - district council. In other trades certified by the secretary of state - further sanitary regulations may be made to increase security for - health by special rules to be presently touched on. The secretary of - state may also make sanitary requirements a condition of granting such - exceptions to the general law as he is empowered to grant. In - factories, as distinct from workshops, a periodical lime washing (or - washing with hot water and soap where paint and varnish have been - used) of all inside walls and ceilings once at least in every fourteen - months is generally required (in bakehouses once in six months). As - regards sufficiency and suitability of sanitary accommodation, the - standards determined by order of the secretary of state shall be - observed in the districts to which it is made applicable. An order was - made called the Sanitary Accommodation Order, on the 4th of February - 1903, the definitions and standards in which have also been widely - adopted by local sanitary authorities in districts where the Order - itself has no legal force, the local authority having parallel power - under the Public Health Act of 1890. - - - Security and accidents. - - Security in the use of machinery is provided for by precautions as - regards the cleaning of machinery in motion and working between the - fixed and traversing parts of self-acting machines driven by power, by - fencing of machinery, and by empowering inspectors to obtain an order - from a court of summary jurisdiction to prohibit the use, temporarily - or absolutely, of machinery, ways, works or plant, including use of a - steam boiler, which cannot be used without danger to life and limb. - Every hoist and fly-wheel directly connected with mechanical power, - and every part of a water-wheel or engine worked by mechanical power, - and every wheel race, must be fenced, whatever its position, and every - part of mill-gearing or dangerous machinery must either be fenced or - be in such position that it is as safe as if fenced. No protected - persons may clean any part of mill-gearing in motion, and children may - further not clean any part of or below manufacturing machinery in - motion by aid of mechanical power; young persons further may not clean - any machinery if the inspector notifies it to the occupier as - dangerous. Security as regards the use of dangerous premises is - provided for by empowering courts of summary jurisdiction, on the - application of an inspector, to prohibit their use until the danger - has been removed. The district council, or, in London, the county - council, or in case of their default the factory inspector, can - require certain provisions for escape in case of fire in factories and - workshops in which more than forty persons are employed; special - powers to make by-laws for means of escape from fire in any factory or - workshop are, in addition to any powers for prevention of fire that - they possess, given to every district council, in London to the county - council. The means of escape must be kept free from obstruction. - Provisions are made for doors to open outwards in each room in which - more than ten persons are employed, and to prevent the locking, - bolting or fastening of doors so that they cannot easily be opened - from inside when any person is employed or at meals inside the - workplace. Further, provisions for security may be provided in special - regulations. Every boiler for generating steam in a factory or - workshop or place where the act applies must have a proper safety - valve, a steam gauge, and a water gauge, and every such boiler, valve - and gauge must be maintained in proper condition. Examination by a - competent person must take place at least once in every fourteen - months. The occupier of any factory or workshop may be liable for - penal compensation not exceeding L100 in case of injury or death due - to neglect of any provision or special rule, the whole or any part of - which may be applied for the benefit of the injured person or his - family, as the secretary of state determines. When a death has - occurred by accident in a factory or workshop, the coroner must advise - the factory inspector for the district of the place and time of the - inquest. The secretary of state may order a formal investigation of - the circumstances of any accident as in the case of mines. Careful and - detailed provisions are made for the reporting by occupiers to - inspectors, and entry in the registers at factories and workshops of - accidents which occur in a factory or workshop and (a) cause loss of - life to a person employed there, or (b) are due to machinery moved by - mechanical power, molten metal, hot liquid, explosion, escape of gas - or steam, electricity, so disabling any person employed in the factory - or workshop as to cause him to be absent throughout at least one whole - day from his ordinary work, (c) are due to any other special cause - which the secretary of state may determine, (d) not falling under the - previous heads and yet cause disablement for more than seven days' - ordinary work to any person working in the factory or workshop. In the - case of (a) or (b) notice has also to be sent to the certifying - surgeon by the occupier. Cases of lead, phosphorus, arsenical and - mercurial poisoning, or anthrax, contracted in any factory or workshop - must similarly be reported and registered by the occupier, and the - duty of reporting these cases is also laid on medical practitioners - under whose observation they come. The list of classes of poisoning - can be extended by the secretary of state's order. - - - Physical fitness of workers. - - Certificates of physical fitness for employment must be obtained by - the occupier from the certifying surgeon for the district for all - persons under sixteen years of age employed in a factory, and in any - class of workshops to which the requirement has been extended by order - of the secretary of state, and an inspector may suspend any such - persons for re-examination in a factory, or for examination in a - workshop, when "disease or bodily infirmity" unfits the person, in his - opinion, for the work of the place. The certifying surgeon may examine - the process as well as the person submitted, and may qualify the - certificate he grants by conditions as to the work on which the person - is fit to be employed. An occupier of a factory or workshop or laundry - shall not knowingly allow a woman to be employed therein within four - weeks after childbirth. - - - Hours of protected persons. - - The employment of children, young persons and women is regulated as - regards ordinary and exceptional hours of work, ordinary and - exceptional meal-times, length of spells and holidays. The outside - limits of ordinary periods of employment and holidays are, broadly, - the same for textile factories as for non-textile factories and - workshops; the main difference lies in the requirement of not less - than a total two hours' interval for meals out of the twelve, and a - limit of four and a half hours for any spell of work, a longer weekly - half holiday, and a prohibition of overtime, in textile factories, as - compared with a total one and a half hours' interval for meals and a - limit of five hours for spells and (conditional) permission of - overtime in non-textile factories. The hours of work must be - specified, and from Monday to Friday may be between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M., - or 7 A.M. to 7 P.M.; in non-textile factories and workshops the hours - also may be taken between 8 A.M. and 8 P.M. or by order of the - secretary of state for special industries 9 A.M. to 9 P.M. Between - these outside limits, with the proviso that meal-times must be fixed - and limits as to spells observed, women and young persons may be - employed the full time, children on the contrary only half time, on - alternate days, or in alternate sets attending school half time - regularly. On Saturdays, in textile factories in which the period - commences at 6 A.M. all manufacturing work must cease at 12 if not - less than one hour is given for meals, or 11.30 if less than one hour - is given for meals (half an hour extra allowed for cleaning), and in - non-textile factories and workshops at 2 P.M., 3 P.M. or 4 P.M., - according as the hour of beginning is 6 A.M., 7 A.M. or 8 A.M. In - "domestic workshops" the total number of hours for young persons and - children must not exceed those allowed in ordinary workshops, but the - outside limits for beginning and ending are wider; and the case is - similar as regards hours of women in "women's workshops." Employment - outside a factory or workshop in the business of the same is limited - in a manner similar to that laid down in the Shop Hours Act, to be - touched on presently. Overtime in certain classes of factories, - workshops and warehouses attached to them is permitted, under - conditions specified in the acts, for women, to meet seasonal or - unforeseen pressure of business, or where goods of a perishable nature - are dealt with, for young persons only in a very limited degree in - factories liable to stoppage for drought or flood, or for an - unfinished process. These and other cases of exceptional working are - under minute and careful administrative regulations. Broadly these - same regulations as to exceptional overtime may apply in _laundries_ - but the act of 1907 granted to laundries not merely ancillary to the - manufacture carried on in a factory or workshop (e.g. shirt and collar - factories), additional power to fix different periods of employment - for different days of the week, and to make use of one or other of two - exceptional methods of arranging the daily periods so as to permit of - periods of different length on different days; these exceptional - periods cannot be worked in addition to overtime permissible under the - general law. Laundries carried on in connexion with charitable or - reformatory institutions were brought in 1907 within the scope of the - law, but special schemes for regulation as to hours, meals, holidays, - &c., may be submitted by the managers to the secretary of state, who - is empowered to approve them if he is satisfied that they are not less - favourable than the corresponding provisions of the principal act; - such schemes shall be laid as soon as possible before both Houses of - Parliament. - - - Dangerous and unhealthy industries. - - Night work is allowed in certain specified industries, under - conditions, for male young persons, but for no other workers under - eighteen, and overtime for women may never be later than 10 P.M. or - before 6 A.M. Sunday work is prohibited except, under conditions, for - Jews; and in factories, workshops and laundries six holidays - (generally the Bank holidays) must be allowed in the year. In - creameries in which women and young persons are employed the secretary - of state may by special order vary the beginning and end of the daily - period of employment, and allow employment for not more than three - hours on Sundays and holidays. - - The general provisions of the act may be supplemented where specially - dangerous or unhealthy trades are carried on, by special regulations. - This was provided for in the law in force until 31st December 1901, as - in the existing principal act, and the power to establish rules had - been exercised between 1892 and 1901 in twenty-two trades or processes - where injury arose either from handling of dangerous substances, such - as lead and lead compounds, phosphorus, arsenic or various chemicals, - or where there is inhalation of irritant dust or noxious fumes, or - where there is danger of explosion or infection of anthrax. Before the - rule could be drawn up under the acts of 1891 to 1895, the secretary - of state had to certify that in the particular case or class of cases - in question (e.g. process or machinery), there was, in his opinion, - danger to life or limb or risk of injury to health; thereupon the - chief inspector might propose to the occupier of the factory or - workshop such special rules or measures as he thought necessary to - meet the circumstances. The occupier might object or propose - modifications, but if he did not the rules became binding in - twenty-one days; if he objected, and the secretary of state did not - assent to any proposed modification, the matters in difference had to - be referred to arbitration, the award in which finally settled the - rules or requirement to be observed. In November 1901, in the case of - the earthenware and china industry, the last arbitration of the kind - was opened and was finally concluded in 1903. The parties to the - arbitration were the chief inspector, on behalf of the secretary of - state, and the occupier or occupiers, but the workmen interested might - be and were represented on the arbitration. In the establishing of the - twenty-two sets of existing special rules only thrice has arbitration - been resorted to, and only on two of these occasions were workmen - represented. The provisions as to the arbitration were laid down in - the first schedule to the Act of 1891, and were similar to those under - the Coal Mines Regulation Acts. Many of these codes have still the - force of law and will continue until in due course revised under the - amended procedure of the act of 1901. They might not only regulate - conditions of employment, but also restrict or prohibit employment of - any class of workers; where such restriction or prohibition affected - adult workers the rules had to be laid for forty days before both - Houses of Parliament before coming into operation. The obligation to - observe the rules in detail lies on workers as well as on occupiers, - and the section in the act of 1891 providing a penalty for - non-observance was drafted, as in the case of the mines, so as to - provide for a simultaneous fine for each (not exceeding two pounds for - the worker, not exceeding ten pounds for the employer). - - The provisions as to special regulations of the act of 1901 touch - primarily the method of procedure for making the regulations, but they - also covered for the first time domestic workshops and added a power - as to the kind of regulations that may be made; further, they - strengthened the sanction for observance of any rules that may be - established, by placing the occupier in the same general position as - regards penalty for non-observance as in other matters under the act. - On the certificate of the secretary of state that any manufacture, - machinery, plant, process or manual labour used in factories or - workshops is dangerous or injurious to life, health or limb, such - regulations as appear to the secretary of state to meet the necessity - of the case may be made by him after he has duly published notice: (1) - of his intention; (2) of the place where copies of the draft - regulations can be obtained; and (3) of the time during which - objections to them can be made by persons affected. The secretary of - state may modify the regulations to meet the objections made. If not, - unless the objection is withdrawn or appears to him frivolous, he - shall, before making the regulations, appoint a competent person to - hold a public inquiry with regard to the draft regulations and to - report to him thereon. The inquiry is to be made under such rules as - the secretary of state may lay down, and when the regulations are - made, they must be laid as soon as possible before parliament. Either - House may annul these regulations or any of them, without prejudice to - the power of the secretary of state to make new regulations. The - regulations may apply to all factories or workshops in which the - certified manufacture, process, &c., is used, or to a specified class. - They may, among other things, (a) prohibit or limit employment of any - person or class of persons; (b) prohibit, limit, or control use of any - material or process; (c) modify or extend special regulations - contained in the Act. Regulations have been established among others - in the following trades and processes: felt hat-making where any - inflammable solvent is used; file-cutting by hand; manufacture of - electric accumulators; docks, processes of loading, unloading, &c.; - tar distilling; factories in which self-acting mules are used; use of - locomotives; spinning and weaving of flax, hemp and jute; manufacture - of paints and colours; heading of yarn dyed by means of lead - compounds. - - - Measures and particulars to piece-workers. - - Although the Factory and Workshop Acts have not directly regulated - wages, they have made certain provision for securing to the worker - that the amount agreed upon shall be received: (a) by extending every - act in force relating to the inspection of weights, measures and - weighing machines for use in the sale of goods to those used in a - factory or workshop for checking or ascertaining the wages of persons - employed; (b) by ensuring that piece-workers in the textile trades - (and other trades specified by the secretary of state) shall receive, - before commencing any piece of work, clear particulars of the wages - applicable to the work to be done and of the work to which that rate - is to be applied. Unless the particulars of work are ascertainable by - an automatic indicator, they must be given to textile workers in - writing, and in the case of weavers in the cotton, worsted and woollen - trades the particulars of wages must be supplied separately to each - worker, and also shown on a placard in a conspicuous position. In - other textile processes, it is sufficient to furnish the particulars - separately to each worker. The secretary of state has used his powers - to extend this protection to non-textile workers, with suitable - modifications, in various hardware industries, including pen-making, - locks, chains, in wholesale tailoring and making of wearing apparel, - in fustian cutting, umbrella-making, brush-making and a number of - other piece-work trades. He further has in most of these and other - trades used his power to extend this protection to outworkers. - - - Administration. - - With a view to efficient administration of the act (a) certain notices - have to be conspicuously exhibited at the factory or workshop, (b) - registers and lists kept, and (c) notices sent to the inspector by the - occupier. Among the first the most important are the prescribed - abstract of the act, the names and addresses of the inspector and - certifying surgeon, the period of employment, and specified meal-times - (which may not be changed without fresh notice to the inspector), the - air space and number of persons who may legally be employed in each - room, and prescribed particulars of exceptional employment; among the - second are the general registers of children and young persons - employed, of accidents, of lime-washing, of overtime, and lists of - outworkers; among the third are the notice of beginning to occupy a - factory or workshop, which the occupier must send within one month, - report of overtime employment, notice of accident, poisoning or - anthrax, and returns of persons employed, with such other particulars - as may be prescribed. These must be sent to the chief inspector at - intervals of not less than one and not more than three years, as may - be directed by the secretary of state. - - The secretary of state for the Home Department controls the - administration of the acts, appoints the inspectors referred to in the - acts, assigns to them their duties, and regulates the manner and cases - in which they are to exercise the powers of inspectors. The act, - however, expressly assigns certain duties and powers to a chief - inspector and certain to district inspectors. Many provisions of the - acts depend as to their operation on the making of orders by the - secretary of state. These orders may impose special obligations on - occupiers and increase the stringency of regulations, may apply - exceptions as to employment, and may modify or relax regulations to - meet special classes of circumstances. In certain cases, already - indicated, his orders guide or determine the action of district - councils, and, generally, in case of default by a council he may - empower his inspectors to act as regards workplaces, instead of the - council, both under the Factory Acts and Public Health Acts. - - The powers of an inspector are to enter, inspect and examine, by day - or by night, at any reasonable time, any factory or workshop (or - laundry, dock, &c.), or part of one, when he has reason to believe - that any person is employed there; to take with him a constable if he - has reasonable cause to expect obstruction; to require production of - registers, certificates, &c., under the acts; to examine, alone or in - the presence of any other person, as he sees fit, every person in the - factory or workshop, or in a school where the children employed are - being educated; to prosecute, conduct or defend before a court of - summary jurisdiction any proceeding under the acts; and to exercise - such other powers as are necessary for carrying the act into effect. - The inspector has also the duty of enforcing the Truck Acts in places, - and in respect of persons, under the Factory Acts. Certifying surgeons - are appointed by the chief inspector subject to the regulations of the - secretary of state, and their chief duties are (a) to examine workers - under sixteen, and persons under special rules, as to physical fitness - for the daily work during legal periods, with power to grant qualified - certificates as to the work for which the young worker is fit, and (b) - to investigate and report on accidents and cases of lead, phosphorus - or other poisoning and anthrax. - -In 1907 there were registered as under inspection 110,276 factories, -including laundries with power, 146,917 workshops (other than men's -workshops), including laundries without power; of works under special -rules or regulations (included in the figures just given) there were -10,586 and 19,687 non-textile works under orders for supply of -particulars to piece-workers. Of notices of accidents received there -were 124,325, of which 1179 were fatal; of reported cases of poisoning -there were 653, of which 40 were fatal. Prosecutions were taken by -inspectors in 4474 cases and convictions obtained in 4211 cases. Of -persons employed there were, according to returns of occupiers, 1904, -4,165,791 in factories and 688,756 in workshops. - -_Coal Mines._--The mode of progress to be recorded in the regulation of -coal mines since 1872 can be contrasted in one aspect with the progress -just recorded of factory legislation since 1878. Consolidation was again -earlier adopted when large amendments were found necessary, with the -result that by far the greater part of the law is to be found in the act -of 1887, which repealed and re-enacted, with amendments, the Coal Mines -Acts of 1872 and 1886, and the Stratified Ironstone Mines (Gunpowder) -Act, 1881. The act of 1881 was simply concerned with rules relating to -the use of explosives underground. The act of 1886 dealt with three -questions: (a) The election and payment of checkweighers (i.e. the -persons appointed and paid by miners in pursuance of section 13 of the -act of 1887 for the purpose of taking a correct account on their behalf -of the weight of the mineral gotten by them, and for the correct -determination of certain deductions for which they may be liable); (b) -provision for new powers of the secretary of state to direct a formal -investigation of any explosion or accident, and its causes and -circumstances, a provision which was later adopted in the law relating -to factories; (c) provision enabling any relatives of persons whose -death may have been caused by explosions or accidents in or about mines -to attend in person, or by agent, coroners' inquests thereon, and to -examine witnesses. The act of 1887, which amended, strengthened and -consolidated these acts and the earlier Consolidating Act of 1872, may -also be contrasted in another aspect with the general acts of factory -legislation. In scope it formed, as its principal forerunner had done, a -general code; and in some measure it went farther in the way of -consolidation than the Factory Acts had done, inasmuch as certain -questions, which in factories are dealt with by statutes distinct from -the Factory Acts, have been included in the Mines Regulation Acts, e.g. -the prohibition of the payment of wages in public-houses, and the -machinery relating to weights and measures whereby miners control their -payment; further, partly from the less changing nature of the industry, -but probably mainly from the power of expression gained for miners by -their organization, the code, so far as it went, at each stage answered -apparently on the whole more nearly to the views and needs of the -persons protected than the parallel law relating to factories. This was -strikingly seen in the evidence before the Royal Commission on Labour in -1892-1894, where the repeated expression of satisfaction on the part of -the miners with the provisions as distinct from the administration of -the code ("with a few trifling exceptions") is in marked contrast with -the long and varied series of claims and contentions put forward for -amendment of the Factory Acts. - -Since the act of 1887 there have followed five minor acts, based on the -recommendation of the officials acting under the acts, while two of them -give effect to claims made by the miners before the Royal Commission on -Labour. Thus, in 1894, the Coal Mines (Checkweigher) Act rendered it -illegal for an employer ("owner, agent, or manager of any mine, or any -person employed by or acting under the instructions of any such owner, -agent, or manager") to make the removal of a particular checkweigher a -condition of employment, or to exercise improper influence in the -appointment of a checkweigher. The need for this provision was -demonstrated by a decision of the Court of Session in Edinburgh, which -upheld an employer in his claim to the right of dismissing all the -workmen and re-engaging them on condition that they would dismiss a -particular checkweigher. In 1896 a short act extended the powers to -propose, amend and modify special rules, provided for representation of -workmen on arbitration under the principal act on any matter in -difference, modified the provision for plans of mines in working and -abandoned mines, amended three of the general rules (inspection before -commencing work, use of safety lamp and non-inflammable substances for -stemming), and empowered the secretary of state by order to prohibit or -regulate the use of any explosive likely to become dangerous. In 1900 -another brief act raised the age of employment of boys underground from -twelve to thirteen. In 1903 another amending act allowed as an -alternative qualification for a manager's certificate a diploma in -scientific and mining training after at least two years' study at a -university mining school or other educational institution approved by -the secretary of state, coupled with practical experience of at least -three years in a mine. In the same year the Employment of Children Act -affected children in mines to the extent already indicated in connexion -with factories. In 1905 a Coal Mines (Weighing of Minerals) Act improved -some provisions relating to appointment and pay of checkweighers and -facilities for them and their duly appointed deputies in carrying out -their duties. In 1906 the Notice of Accidents Act provided for improved -annual returns of accidents and for immediate reporting to the district -inspector of accidents under newly-defined conditions as they arise in -coal and metalliferous mines. - - - Act of 1887. - - While the classes of mines regulated by the act of 1887 are the same - as those regulated by the act of 1872 (i.e. mines of coal, of - stratified ironstone, of shale and of fire-clay, including works above - ground where the minerals are prepared for use by screening, washing, - &c.) the interpretation of the term "mine" is wider and simpler, - including "every shaft in the course of being sunk, and every level - and inclined plane in the course of being driven, and all the shafts, - levels, planes, works, tramways and sidings, both below ground and - above ground, in and adjacent to and belonging to the mine." Of the - persons responsible under penalty for the observance of the acts the - term "owner" is defined precisely as in the act of 1872, but the term - "agent" is modified to mean "any person appointed as the - representative of the owner in respect of any mine or any part - thereof, and, as such, superior to a manager appointed in pursuance of - this act." Of the persons protected, the term "young person" - disappeared from the act, and "boy," i.e. "a male under the age of - sixteen years," and "girl," i.e. "a female under the age of sixteen - years," take their place, and the term "woman" means, as before, "a - female of the age of sixteen years and upwards." The prohibition of - employment underground of women and girls remains untouched, and the - prohibition of employment underground of boys has been successively - extended from boys of the age of ten in 1872 to boys of twelve in 1887 - and to boys of thirteen in 1900. The age of employment of boys and - girls above ground in connexion with any mine is raised from ten years - in 1872 to twelve years since 1887. The hours of employment of a boy - below ground may not exceed fifty-four in any one week, nor ten in any - one day from the time of leaving the surface to the time of returning - to the surface. Above ground any boy or girl under thirteen (and over - twelve) may not be employed on more than six days in any one week; if - employed on more than three days in one week, the daily total must not - exceed six hours, or in any other case ten hours. Protected persons - above thirteen are limited to the same daily and weekly total of hours - as boys below ground, but there are further provisions with regard to - intervals for meals and prohibiting employment for more than five - hours without an interval of at least half an hour for a meal. - Registers must be kept of all protected persons, whether employed - above or below ground. Section 38 of the Public Health Act 1875, which - requires separate and sufficient sanitary conveniences for persons of - each sex, was first extended by the act of 1887 to the portions of - mines above ground in which girls and women are employed; underground - this matter is in metalliferous mines in Cornwall now provided for by - special rules. Ventilation, the only other requirement in the acts - that can be classed as sanitary, is provided for in every mine in the - "general rules" which are aimed at securing safety of mines, and - which, so far as ventilation is concerned, seek to dilute and render - harmless noxious or inflammable gases. The provision which prohibits - employment of any persons in mines not provided with at least two - shafts is made much more stringent by the act of 1887 than in the - previous code, by increasing the distance between the two shafts from - 10 to 15 yds., and increasing the height of communications between - them. Other provisions amended or strengthened are those relating to - the following points: (a) Daily personal supervision of the mine by - the certificated manager; (b) classes of certificates and constitution - of board for granting certificates of competency; (c) plan of workings - of any mine to be kept up to a date not more than three months - previously at the office of the mine; (d) notice to be given to the - inspector of the district by the owner, agent or manager, of accidents - in or about any mine which cause loss of life or serious personal - injury, or are caused by explosion of coal or coal dust or any - explosive or electricity or any other special cause that the secretary - of state specifies by order, and which causes any personal injury to - any person employed in or about the mine; it is provided that the - place where an explosion or accident occurs causing loss of life or - serious personal injury shall be left for inspection for at least - three days, unless this would tend to increase or continue a danger or - impede working of the mine: this was new in the act of 1887; (e) - notice to be given of opening and abandonment of any mine: this was - extended to the opening or abandonment of any seam; (f) plan of an - abandoned mine or seam to be sent within three months; (g) formal - investigation of any explosion or accident by direction of the - secretary of state: this provision, first introduced by the act of - 1886, was modified in 1887 to admit the appointment by the secretary - of state of "any competent person" to hold the investigation, whereas - under the earlier section only an inspector could be appointed. - - - General rules. - - The "general rules" for safety in mines have been strengthened in many - ways since the act of 1872. Particular mention may be made of rule 4 - of the act of 1887, relating to the inspection of conditions as to gas - ventilation beyond appointed stations at the entrance to the mine or - different parts of the mine; this rule generally removed the earlier - distinction between mines in which inflammable gas has been found - within the preceding twelve months, and mines in which it has not been - so found; of rules 8, 9, 10 and 11, relating to the construction, use, - &c., of safety lamps, which are more detailed and stringent than rule - 7 of the act of 1872, which they replaced; of rule 12, relating to the - use of explosives below ground; of rule 24, which requires the - appointment of a competent male person not less than twenty-two years - of age for working the machinery for lowering and raising persons at - the mine; of rule 34, which first required provision of ambulances or - stretchers with splints and bandages at the mine ready for immediate - use; of rule 38, which strengthened the provision for periodical - inspection of the mine by practical miners on behalf of the workmen at - their own cost. With reference to the last-cited rule, during 1898 a - Prussian mining commission visited Great Britain, France and Belgium, - to study and compare the various methods of inspection by working - miners established in these three countries. They found that, so far - as the method had been applied, it was most satisfactory in Great - Britain, where the whole cost is borne by the workers' own - organizations, and they attributed part of the decrease in number of - accidents per thousand employed since 1872 to the inauguration of this - system. - - - Special rules. - - The provisions as to the proposal, amendment and modification of - "special rules," last extended by the act of 1896, may be contrasted - with those of the Factory Act. In the latter it is not until an - industry or process has been scheduled as dangerous or injurious by - the secretary of state's order that occasion arises for the formation - of special rules, and then the initiative rests with the Factory - Department whereas in mines it is incumbent in every case on the - owner, agent or manager to propose within three months of the - commencement of any working, for the approval of the secretary of - state, special rules best calculated to prevent dangerous accidents, - and to provide for the safety, convenience and proper discipline of - the persons employed in or about the mine. These rules may, if they - relate to lights and lamps used in the mine, description of - explosives, watering and damping of the mine, or prevention of - accidents from inflammable gas or coal dust, supersede any general - rule in the principal act. Apart from the initiation of the rules, the - methods of establishing them, whether by agreement or by resort to - arbitration of the parties (i.e. the mine owners and the secretary of - state), are practically the same as under the Factory Act, but there - is special provision in the Mines Acts for enabling the persons - working in the mine to transmit objections to the proposed rules, in - addition to their subsequent right to be represented on the - arbitration, if any. - - Of the sections touching on wages questions, the prohibition of the - payment of wages in public-houses remains unaltered, being re-enacted - in 1887; the sections relating to payment by weight for amount of - mineral gotten by persons employed, and for checkweighing the amount - by a "checkweigher" stationed by the majority of workers at each place - appointed for the weighing of the material, were revised, particularly - as to the determination of deductions by the act of 1887, with a view - to meeting some problems raised by decisions on cases under the act of - 1872. The attempt seems not to have been wholly successful, the - highest legal authorities having expressed conflicting opinions on the - precise meaning of the terms "mineral contracted to be gotten." The - whole history of the development of this means of securing the - fulfilment of wage contract to the workers may be compared with the - history of the sections affording protection to piece-workers by - particulars of work and wages in the textile trades since the Factory - Act of 1891. - - - Administration. - - As regards legal proceedings, the chief amendments of the act of 1872 - are: the extension of the provision that the "owner, agent, or - manager" charged in respect of any contravention by another person - might be sworn and examined as an ordinary witness, to any person - charged with any offence under the act. The result of the proceedings - against workmen by the owner, agent or manager in respect of an - offence under the act is to be reported within twenty-one days to the - inspector of the district. The powers of inspectors were extended to - cover an inquiry as to the care and treatment of horses and other - animals in the mine, and as to the control, management or direction of - the mine by the manager. - -An important act was passed in 1908 (Coal Mines Regulation Act 1908) -limiting the hours of work for workmen below ground. It enacted that, -subject to various provisions, a workman was not to be below ground in a -mine for the purpose of his work, and of going to and from his work, for -more than eight hours in any consecutive twenty-four hours. Exception -was made in the case of those below ground for the purpose of rendering -assistance in the event of an accident, or for meeting any danger, or -for dealing with any emergency or work incompleted, through unforeseen -circumstances, which requires to be dealt with to avoid serious -interference in the work of the mine. The authorities of every mine must -fix the times for the lowering and raising of the men to begin and be -completed, and such times must be conspicuously posted at the pit head. -These times must be approved by an inspector. The term "workman" in the -act means any person employed in a mine below ground who is not an -official of the mine (other than a fireman, examiner or deputy), or a -mechanic or a horse keeper or a person engaged solely in surveying or -measuring. In the case of a fireman, examiner, deputy, onsetter, pump -minder, fanman or furnace man, the maximum period for which he may be -below ground is nine hours and a half. A register must be kept by the -authorities of the mine of the times of descent and ascent, while the -workmen may, at their own cost, station persons (whether holding the -office of checkweigher or not) at the pit head to observe the times. The -authorities of the mine may extend the hours of working by one hour a -day on not more than sixty days in one calendar year (s. 3). The act may -be suspended by order in council in the event of war or of imminent -national danger or great emergency, or in the event of any grave -economic disturbance due to the demand for coal exceeding the supply -available at any time. The act came into force on the 1st of July 1909 -except for the counties of Northumberland and Durham where its operation -was postponed until the 1st of January 1910. - - In 1905 the number of coal-mines reported on was 3126, and the number - of persons employed below ground was 691,112 of whom 43,443 were under - 16 years of age. Above ground 167,261 were employed, of whom 6154 were - women and girls. The number of separate fatal accidents was 1006, - causing the loss of 1205 lives. Of prosecutions by far the greater - number were against workmen, numbering in coal and metalliferous mines - 953; owners and managers were prosecuted in 72 cases, and convictions - obtained in 43 cases. - -_Quarries._--From 1878 until 1894 open quarries (as distinct from -underground quarries regulated by the Metalliferous Mines Regulation -Act) were regulated only by the Factory Acts so far as they then -applied. It was laid down in section 93 of the act of 1878 (41 Vict. c. -16), that "any premises or place shall not be excluded from the -definition of a factory or workshop by reason only that such premises, -&c., are or is in the open air," thereby overruling the decision in -_Kent_ v. _Astley_ that quarries in which the work, as a whole, was -carried on in the open air were not factories; in a schedule to the same -act quarries were defined as "any place not being a mine in which -persons work in getting slate, stone, coprolites or other minerals." The -Factory Act of 1891 made it possible to bring these places in part under -"special rules" adapted to meet the special risks and dangers of the -operations carried on in them, and by order of the secretary of state -they were certified, December 1892, as dangerous, and thereby subject to -special rules. Until then, as reported by one of the inspectors of -factories, quarries had been placed under the Factory Acts without -insertion of appropriate rules for their safe working, and many of them -were "developed in a most dangerous manner without any regard for -safety, but merely for economy," and managers of many had "scarcely seen -a quarry until they became managers." In his report for 1892 it was -recommended by the chief inspector of factories that quarries should be -subject to the jurisdiction of the government inspectors of mines. At -the same time currency was given, by the published reports of the -evidence before the Royal Commission on Labour, to the wish of large -numbers of quarrymen that open as well as underground quarries should -come under more specialized government inspection. In 1893 a committee -of experts, including inspectors of mines and of factories, was -appointed by the Home Office to investigate the conditions of labour in -open quarries, and in 1894 the Quarries Act brought every quarry, as -defined in the Factory Act 1878, any part of which is more than 20 ft. -deep, under certain of the provisions of the Metalliferous Mines Acts, -and under the inspection of the inspectors appointed under those acts; -further, it transferred the duty of enforcing the Factory and Workshop -Acts, so far as they apply in quarries over 20 ft. deep, from the -Factory to the Metalliferous Mines inspectors. - -The provisions of the Metalliferous Mines Acts 1872 and 1875, applied to -quarries, are those relating to payment of wages in public-houses, -notice of accidents to the inspector, appointment and powers of -inspectors, arbitration, coroners' inquests, special rules, penalties, -certain of the definitions, and the powers of the secretary of state -finally to decide disputed questions whether places come within the -application of the acts. For other matters, and in particular fencing of -machinery and employment of women and young persons, the Factory Acts -apply, with a proviso that nothing shall prevent the employment of young -persons (boys) in three shifts for not more than eight hours each. In -1899 it was reported by the inspectors of mines that special rules for -safety had been established in over 2000 quarries. In the reports for -1905 it was reported that the accounts of blasting accidents indicated -that there was "still much laxity in observance of the Special rules, -and that many irregular and dangerous practices are in vogue." The -absence or deficiency of external fencing to a quarry dangerous to the -public has been since 1887 (50 & 51 Vict. c. 19) deemed a nuisance -liable to be dealt with summarily in the manner provided by the Public -Health Act 1875. - - In 1905, 94,819 persons were employed, of whom 59,978 worked inside - the actual pits or excavations, and 34,841 outside. Compared with - 1900, there was a total increase of 924 in the number of persons - employed. Fatal accidents resulted in 1900 in 127 deaths; compared - with 1899 there was an increase of 10 in the number of deaths, and, as - Professor Le Neve Foster pointed out, this exceeded the average - death-rate of underground workers at mines under the Coal Mines Acts - during the previous ten years, in spite of the quarrier "having - nothing to fear from explosions of gas, underground fires or - inundations." He attributed the difference to a lax observance of - precautions which might in time be remedied by stringent - administration of the law. In 1905 there were 97 fatal accidents - resulting in 99 deaths. In 1900 there were 92 prosecutions against - owners or agents, with 67 convictions, and 13 prosecutions of workers, - with 12 convictions, and in 1905 there were 45 prosecutions of owners - or agents with 43 convictions and 9 prosecutions of workmen with 5 - convictions. - - - Payment of wages in public-houses. - - In 1883 a short act extended to all "workmen" who are manual labourers - other than miners, with the exception of domestic or menial servants, - the prohibition of payment of wages in public-houses, beer-shops and - other places for the sale of spirituous or fermented liquor, laid down - in the Coal Mines Regulations and Metalliferous Mines Regulation Acts. - The places covered by the prohibition include any office, garden or - place belonging to or occupied with the places named, but the act does - not apply to such wages as are paid by the resident, owner or occupier - of the public-house, beer-shop and other places included in the - prohibition to any workman _bona fide_ employed by him. The penalty - for an offence against this act is one not exceeding L10 (compare the - limit of L20 for the corresponding offence under the Coal Mines Act), - and all offences may be prosecuted and penalties recovered in England - and Scotland under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts. The act does not - apply to Ireland, and no special inspectorate is charged with the duty - of enforcing its provisions. - -_Shop Hours._--In four brief acts, 1892 to 1899, still in force, the -first very limited steps were taken towards the positive regulation of -the employment of shop assistants. In the act of 1904 certain additional -optional powers were given to any local authority making a "closing -order" fixing the hour (not earlier than 7 P.M. or on one day in the -week 1 P.M.) at which shops shall cease to serve customers throughout -the area of the authority or any specified part thereof as regards all -shops or as regards any specified class of shops. Before such an order -can be made (1) a prima facie case for it must appear to the local -authority; (2) the local authority must inquire and agree; (3) the order -must be drafted and sent for confirmation or otherwise to the central -authority, that is, the secretary of state for the Home Department; (4) -the order must be laid before both Houses of Parliament. The Home Office -has given every encouragement to the making of such orders, but their -number in England is very small, and the act is practically inoperative -in London and many large towns where the need is greatest. As the -secretary of state pointed out in the House of Commons on the 1st of May -1907, the local authorities have not taken enough initiative, but at the -same time there is a great difficulty for them in obtaining the required -two-thirds majority, among occupiers of the shops to be affected, in -favour of the order, and at the same time shop assistants have no power -to set the law in motion. In England 364 local authorities have taken no -steps, but in Scotland rather better results have been obtained. The -House resolved, on the date named, that more drastic legislation is -required. As regards shops, therefore, in place of such general codes as -apply to factories, laundries, mines--only three kinds of protective -requirement are binding on employers of shop assistants: (1) Limitation -of the weekly total of hours of work of persons under eighteen years of -age to seventy-four inclusive of meal-times; (2) prohibition of the -employment of such persons in a shop on the same day that they have, to -the knowledge of the employer, been employed in any factory or workshop -for a longer period than would, in both classes of employment together, -amount to the number of hours permitted to such persons in a factory or -workshop; (3) provision for the supply of seats by the employer, in all -rooms of a shop or other premises where goods are retailed to the -public, for the use of female assistants employed in retailing the -goods--the seats to be in the proportion of not fewer than one to every -three female assistants. The first two requirements are contained in the -act of 1892, which also prescribed that a notice, referring to the -provisions of the act, and stating the number of hours in the week -during which a young person may be lawfully employed in the shop, shall -be kept exhibited by the employer; the third requirement was first -provided by the act of 1899. The intervening acts of 1893 and 1895 are -merely supplementary to the act of 1892; the former providing for the -salaries and expenses of the inspectors which the council of any county -or borough (and in the City of London the Common Council) were -empowered by the act of 1892 to appoint; the latter providing a penalty -of 40s. for failure of an employer to keep exhibited the notice of the -provisions of the acts, which in the absence of a penalty it had been -impossible to enforce. The penalty for employment contrary to the acts -is a fine not exceeding L1 for each person so employed, and for failure -to comply with the requirements as to seats, a fine not exceeding L3 for -a first offence, and for any subsequent offence a fine of not less than -L1 and not exceeding L5. - - - Meaning of "shop." - - A wide interpretation is given by the act of 1892 to the class of - workplace to which the limitation of hours applies. "Shop" means - retail and wholesale shops, markets, stalls and warehouses in which - assistants are employed for hire, and includes licensed public-houses - and refreshment houses of any kind. The person responsible for the - observance of the acts is the "employer" of the "young persons" (i.e. - persons under the age of eighteen years), whose hours are limited, and - of the "female assistants" for whom seats must be provided. Neither - the term "employer" nor "shop assistant" (used in the title of the act - of 1899) is defined; but other terms have the meaning assigned to them - in the Factory and Workshop Act 1878. The "employer" has, in case of - any contravention alleged, the same power as the "occupier" in the - Factory Acts to exempt himself from fine on proof of due diligence and - of the fact that some other person is the actual offender. The - provisions of the act of 1892 do not apply to members of the same - family living in a house of which the shop forms part, or to members - of the employer's family, or to any one wholly employed as a domestic - servant. - - In London, where the County Council has appointed men and women - inspectors to apply the acts of 1892 to 1899, there were, in 1900, - 73,929 premises, and in 1905, 84,269, under inspection. In the latter - year there were 22,035 employing persons under 18 years of age. In - 1900 the number of young persons under the acts were: indoors, 10,239 - boys and 4428 girls; outdoors, 35,019 boys, 206 girls. In 1905 the - ratio between boys and girls had decidedly altered: indoors, 6602 - boys, 4668 girls; outdoors, 22,654 boys, 308 girls. The number of - irregularities reported in 1900 were 9204 and the prosecutions were - 117; in 1905 the irregularities were 6966 and the prosecutions - numbered 34. As regards the act of 1899, in only 1088 of the 14,844 - shops affected in London was there found in 1900 to be failure to - provide seats for the women employed in retailing goods. The chief - officer of the Public Control Department reported that with very few - exceptions the law was complied with at the end of the first year of - its application. - - As regards cleanliness, ventilation, drainage, water-supply and - sanitary condition generally, shops have been since 1878 (by 41 Vict. - c. 16, s. 101) subject to the provisions of the Public Health Act - 1875, which apply to all buildings, except factories under the Factory - Acts, in which any persons, whatever their number be, are employed. - Thus, broadly, the same sanitary provisions apply in shops as in - workshops, but in the former these are enforced solely by the officers - of the local authority, without reservation of any power, as in - workshops for the Home Office inspectorate, to act in default of the - local authority. - - Shop assistants, so far as they are engaged in manual, not merely - clerical labour, come under the provisions of the Truck Acts 1831 to - 1887, and in all circumstances they fall within the sections directed - against unfair and unreasonable fines in the Truck Act of 1896; but, - unlike employes in factories, workshops, laundries and mines, they are - left to apply these provisions so far as they can themselves, since - neither Home Office inspectors nor officers of the local authority - have any specially assigned powers to administer the Truck Acts in - shops. - - - The Truck Act 1887. - - Persons benefited by Truck Acts. - -_Truck._--Setting aside the special Hosiery Manufacture (Wages) Act -1874, aimed at a particular abuse appearing chiefly in the hosiery -industry--the practice of making excessive charges on wages for -machinery and frame rents--only two acts, those of 1887 and 1896, have -been added to the general law against truck since the act of 1831, which -repealed all prior Truck Acts and which remains the principal act. -Further amendments of the law have been widely and strenuously demanded, -and are hoped for as the result of the long inquiry by a departmental -committee appointed early in 1906. The Truck Act Amendment Act 1887, -amended and extended the act without adding any distinctly new -principle; the Truck Act of 1896 was directed towards providing remedies -for matters shown by decisions under the earlier Truck Acts to be -outside the scope of the principles and provisions of those acts. Under -the earlier acts the main objects were: (1) to make the wages of -workmen, i.e. the reward of labour, payable only in current coin of the -realm, and to prohibit whole or part payment of wages in food or drink -or clothes or any other articles; (2) to forbid agreements, express or -implied, between employer and workmen as to the manner or place in -which, or articles on which, a workman shall expend his wages, or for -the deduction from wages of the price of articles (other than materials -to be used in the labour of the workmen) supplied by the employer. The -act of 1887 added a further prohibition by making it illegal for an -employer to charge interest on any advance of wages, "whenever by -agreement, custom, or otherwise a workman is entitled to receive in -anticipation of the regular period of the payment of his wages an -advance as part or on account thereof." Further, it strengthened the -section of the principal act which provided that no employer shall have -any action against his workman for goods supplied at any shop belonging -to the employer, or in which the employer is interested, by (a) securing -any workman suing an employer for wages against any counter-claim in -respect of goods supplied to the workman by any person under any order -or direction of the employer, and (b) by expressly prohibiting an -employer from dismissing any worker on account of any particular time, -place or manner of expending his wages. Certain exemptions to the -prohibition of payment otherwise than in coin were provided for in the -act of 1831, if an agreement were made in writing and signed by the -worker, viz. rent, victuals dressed and consumed under the employer's -roof, medicine, fuel, provender for beasts of burden used in the trade, -materials and tools for use by miners, advances for friendly societies -or savings banks; in the case of fuel, provender and tools there was -also a proviso that the charge should not exceed the real and true -value. The act of 1887 amended these provisions by requiring a correct -annual audit in the case of deductions for medicine or tools, by -permitting part payment of servants in husbandry in food, drink (not -intoxicants) or other allowances, and by prohibiting any deductions for -sharpening or repairing workmen's tools except by agreement not forming -part of the condition of hiring. Two important administrative amendments -were made by the act of 1887: (1) a section similar to that in the -Factory and Mines Acts was added, empowering the employer to exempt -himself from penalty for contravention of the acts on proof that any -other person was the actual offender and of his own due diligence in -enforcing the execution of the acts; (2) the duty of enforcing the acts -in factories, workshops, and mines was imposed upon the inspectors of -the Factory and Mines Departments, respectively, of the Home Office, and -to their task they were empowered to bring all the authorities and -powers which they possessed in virtue of the acts under which they are -appointed; these inspectors thus prosecute defaulting employers and -recover penalties under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts, but they do not -undertake civil proceedings for improper deductions or payments, -proceedings for which would lie with workmen under the Employers and -Workmen Act 1875. The persons to whom the benefits of the act applied -were added to by the act of 1887, which repealed the complicated list of -trades contained in the principal act and substituted the simpler -definition of the Employers and Workmen Act, 1875. Thus the acts 1831 to -1887, and also the act of 1896, apply to all workers (men, women and -children) engaged in manual labour, except domestic servants; they apply -not only in mines, factories and workshops, but, to quote the published -Home Office Memorandum on the acts, "in all places where workpeople are -engaged in manual labour under a contract with an employer, whether or -no the employer be an owner or agent or a parent, or be himself a -workman; and therefore a workman who employs and pays others under him -must also observe the Truck Acts." The law thus in certain circumstances -covers outworkers for a contractor or sub-contractor. A decision of the -High Court at Dublin in 1900 (_Squire_ v. _Sweeney_) strengthened the -inspectors in investigation of offences committed amongst outworkers by -supporting the contention that inquiry and exercise of all the powers of -an inspector could legally take place in parts of an employer's premises -other than those in which the work is given out. It defined for Ireland, -in a narrower sense than had hitherto been understood and acted upon by -the Factory Department, the classes of outworkers protected, by -deciding that only such as were under a contract personally to execute -the work were covered. In 1905 the law in England was similarly declared -in the decided case of _Squire_ v. _The Midland Lace Co._ The judges -(Lord Alverstone, C.J.; and Kennedy and Ridley, J.J.) stated that they -came to the conclusion with "reluctance," and said: "We venture to -express the hope that some amendment of the law may be made so as to -extend the protection of the Truck Act to a class of workpeople -indistinguishable from those already within its provisions." The workers -in question were lace-clippers taking out work to do in their homes, and -in the words of the High Court decision "though they do sometimes employ -assistants are evidently, as a class, wage-earning manual labourers and -not contractors in the ordinary and popular sense." The principle relied -on in the decision was that in the case of _Ingram_ v. _Barnes_. - - - Meaning of "wages." - - The Truck Act 1896. - - At the time of the passing of the act of 1887 it seems to have been - generally believed that the obligation under the principal act to pay - the "entire amount of wages earned" in coin rendered illegal any - deductions from wages in respect of fines. Important decisions in 1888 - and 1889 showed this belief to have been ill-founded. The essential - point lies in the definition of the word "wages" as the "recompense, - reward or remuneration of labour," which implies not necessarily any - gross sum in question between employer and workmen where there is a - contract to perform a certain piece of work, but that part of it, the - real _net_ wage, which the workman was to get as his _recompense_ for - the labour performed. As soon as it became clear that excessive - deductions from wages as well as payments by workers for materials - used in the work were not illegal, and that deductions or payments by - way of compensation to employers or by way of discipline might legally - (with the single exception of fines for lateness for women and - children, regulated by the Employers and Workmen Act 1875) even exceed - the degree of loss, hindrance or damage to the employer, it also came - clearly into view that further legislation was desirable to extend the - principles at the root of the Truck Acts. It was desirable, that is to - say, to hinder more fully the unfair dealing that may be encouraged by - half-defined customs in workplaces, on the part of the employer in - making a contract, while at the same time leaving the principle of - freedom of contract as far as possible untouched. The Truck Act of - 1896 regulates the conditions under which deductions can be made by or - payments made to the employer, out of the "sum contracted to be paid - to the worker," i.e. out of any gross sum whatever agreed upon between - employer and workman. It makes such deductions or payments illegal - unless they are in pursuance of a contract; and it provides that - deductions (or payments) for (a) fines, (b) bad work and damaged - goods, (c) materials, machines, and any other thing provided by the - employer in relation to the work shall be reasonable, and that - particulars of the same in writing shall be given to the workman. In - none of the cases mentioned is the employer to make any profit; - neither by fines, for they may only be imposed in respect of acts or - omissions which cause, or are likely to cause, loss or damage; nor by - sale of materials, for the price may not exceed the cost to the - employer; nor by deductions or payments for damage, for these may not - exceed the actual or estimated loss to the employer. Fines and charges - for damage must be "fair and reasonable having regard to all the - circumstances of the case," and no contract could make legal a fine - which a court held to be unfair to the workman in the sense of the - act. The contract between the employer and workman must either be in - writing signed by the workman, or its terms must be clearly stated in - a notice constantly affixed in a place easily accessible to the - workman to whom, if a party to the contract, a copy shall be given at - the time of making the contract, and who shall be entitled, on - request, to obtain from the employer a copy of the notice free of - charge. On each occasion when a deduction or payment is made, full - particulars in writing must be supplied to the workman. The employer - is bound to keep a register of deductions or payments, and to enter - therein particulars of any fine made under the contract, specifying - the amount and nature of the act or omission in respect of which the - fine was imposed. This register must be at all times open to - inspectors of mines or factories, who are entitled to make a copy of - the contract or any part of it. This act as a whole applies to all - workmen included under the earlier Truck Acts; the sections relating - to fines apply also to shop assistants. The latter, however, - apparently are left to enforce the provisions of the law themselves, - as no inspectorate is empowered to intervene on their behalf. In these - and other cases a prosecution under the Truck Acts may be instituted - by any person. Any workman or shop assistant may recover any sum - deducted by or paid to his employer contrary to the act of 1896, - provided that proceedings are commenced within six months, and that - where he has acquiesced in the deduction or payment he shall only - recover the excess over the amount which the court may find to have - been fair and reasonable in all the circumstances of the case. It is - expressly declared in the act that nothing in it shall affect the - provisions of the Coal Mines Acts with reference to payment by - weight, or legalize any deductions, from payments made, in pursuance - of those provisions. The powers and duties of inspectors are extended - to cover the case of a laundry, and of any place where work is given - out by the occupier of a factory or workshop or by a contractor or - sub-contractor. Power is reserved for the secretary of state to exempt - by order specified trades or branches of them in specified areas from - the provisions of the act of 1896, if he is satisfied that they are - unnecessary for the protection of the workmen. This power has been - exercised only in respect of one highly organized industry, the - Lancashire cotton industry. The effect of the exemption is not to - prevent fines and deductions from being made, but the desire for it - demonstrated that there are cases where leaders among workers have - felt competent to make their own terms on their own lines without the - specific conditions laid down in this act. The reports of the - inspectors of factories have demonstrated that in other industries - much work has had to be done under this act, and knowledge of a highly - technical character to be gradually acquired, before opinions could be - formed as to the reasonableness and fairness, or the contrary, of many - forms of deduction. Owing partly to difficulties of legal - interpretation involving the necessity of taking test cases into - court, partly to the margin for differences of opinion as to what - constitutes "reasonableness" in a deduction, the average number of - convictions obtained on prosecutions is not so high as under the - Factory Acts, though the average penalty imposed is higher. In 1904, - 61 cases were taken into court resulting in 34 convictions with an - average penalty of L1, 10s. In 1905, 38 cases resulting in 34 - convictions were taken with an average penalty of L1, 3s. In 1906, 37 - cases resulting in 25 convictions were taken with an average penalty - of L1, 10s. - - Reference should here be made to the Shop Clubs Act of 1902 as closely - allied with some of the provisions of the Truck Acts by its provision - that employers shall not make it a condition of employment that any - workman shall become a member of a shop club unless it is registered - under the Friendly Societies Act of 1896. As in the case of payment of - wages in Public Houses Act, no special inspectorate has the duty of - enforcing this act. - - -III. CONTINENTAL EUROPE - -In comparing legislation affecting factories, mines, shops and truck in -the chief industrial countries of the continent with that of Great -Britain, it is essential to a just view that inquiry should be extended -beyond the codes themselves to the general social order and system of -law and administration in each country. Further, special comparison of -the definitions and the sanctions of each industrial code must be -recognized as necessary, for these vary in all. In so brief a summary as -is appended here no more is possible than an outline indication of the -main general requirements and prohibitions of the laws as regards: (1) -hours and times of employment, (2) ordinary sanitation and special -requirements for unhealthy and dangerous industries, (3) security -against accidents, and (4) prevention of fraud and oppression in -fulfilment of wage contracts. As regards the first of these -subdivisions, in general in Europe the ordinary legal limit is rather -wider than in Great Britain, being in several countries not less than 11 -hours a day, and while in some, as in France, the normal limit is 10 -hours daily, yet the administrative discretion in granting exceptions is -rather more elastic. The weekly half-holiday is a peculiarly British -institution. On the other hand, in several European countries, notably -France, Austria, Switzerland and Russia, the legal maximum day applies -to adult as well as youthful labour, and not only to specially protected -classes of persons. As regards specialized sanitation for unhealthy -factory industries, German regulations appear to be most nearly -comparable with British. Mines' labour regulation in several countries, -having an entirely different origin linked with ownership of mines, is -only in few and most recent developments comparable with British Mines -Regulation Acts. In regulation of shops, Germany, treating this matter -as an integral part of her imperial industrial code, has advanced -farther than has Great Britain. In truck legislation most European -countries (with the exception of France) appear to have been influenced -by the far earlier laws of Great Britain, although in some respects -Belgium, with her rapid and recent industrial development, has made -interesting original experiments. The rule of Sunday rest (see SUNDAY) -has been extended in several countries, most recently in Belgium and -Spain. In France this partially attempted rule has been so modified as -to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. - - _France._--Hours of labour were, in France, first limited in factories - (_usines et manufactures_) for adults by the law of the 9th of - September 1848 to 12 in the 24. Much uncertainty existed as to the - class of workplaces covered. Finally, in 1885, an authoritative - decision defined them as including: (1) Industrial establishments with - motor power or continual furnaces, (2) workshops employing over 20 - workers. In 1851, under condition of notification to the local - authorities, exceptions, still in force, were made to the general - limitation, in favour of certain industries or processes, among others - for letterpress and lithographic printing, engineering works, work at - furnaces and in heating workshops, manufacture of projectiles of war, - and any work for the government in the interests of national defence - or security. The limit of 12 hours was reduced, as regards works in - which women or young workers are employed, in 1900 to 11, and was to - be successively reduced to 10(1/2) hours and to 10 hours at intervals - of two years from April 1900. This labour law for adults was preceded - in 1841 by one for children, which prevented their employment in - factories before 8 years of age and prohibited night labour for any - child under 13. This was strengthened in 1874, particularly as regards - employment of girls under 21, but it was not until 1892 that the - labour of women was specially regulated by a law, still in force, with - certain amendments in 1900. Under this law factory and workshop labour - is prohibited for children under 13 years, though they may begin at 12 - if qualified by the prescribed educational certificate and medical - certificate of fitness. The limit of daily hours of employment is the - same as for adult labour, and, similarly, from the 1st of April 1902 - was 10(1/2), and two years later became 10 hours in the 24. Notice of - the hours must be affixed, and meal-times or pauses with absolute - cessation of work of at least one hour must be specified. By the act - of 1892 one day in the week, not necessarily Sunday, had to be given - for entire absence from work, in addition to eight recognized annual - holidays, but this was modified by a law of 1906 which generally - requires Sunday rest, but allows substitution of another day in - certain industries and certain circumstances. Night labour--work - between 9 P.M. and 5 A.M.--is prohibited for workers under 18, and - only exceptionally permitted, under conditions, for girls and women - over 18 in specified trades. In mines and underground quarries - employment of women and girls is prohibited except at surface works, - and at the latter is subject to the same limits as in factories. Boys - of 13 may be employed in certain work underground, but under 16 may - not be employed more than 8 hours in the 24 from bank to bank. A law - of 1905 provided for miners a 9 hours' day and in 1907 an 8 hours' day - from the foot of the entrance gallery back to the same point. - - As in Great Britain, distinct services of inspection enforce the law - in factories and mines respectively. In factories and workshops an - inspector may order re-examination as to physical fitness for the work - imposed of any worker under 16; certain occupations and processes are - prohibited--e.g. girls under 16 at machines worked by treadles, and - the weights that may be lifted, pushed or carried by girls or boys - under 18 are carefully specified. The law applies generally to - philanthropic and religious institutions where industrial work is - carried on, as in ordinary trading establishments; and this holds good - even if the work is by way of technical instruction. Domestic - workshops are not controlled unless the industry is classed as - dangerous or unhealthy; introduction of motor power brings them under - inspection. General sanitation in industrial establishments is - provided for in a law of 1893, amended in 1903, and is supplemented by - administrative regulations for special risks due to poisons, dust, - explosive substances, gases, fumes, &c. Ventilation, both general and - special, lighting, provision of lavatories, cloakrooms, good drinking - water, drainage and cleanliness are required in all workplaces, shops, - warehouses, restaurant kitchens, and where workers are lodged by their - employers hygienic conditions are prescribed for dormitories. In many - industries women, children and young workers are either absolutely - excluded from specified unhealthy processes, or are admitted only - under conditions. As regards shops and offices, the labour laws are: - one which protects apprentices against overwork (law of 22nd February - 1851), one (law of 29th December 1900) which requires that seats shall - be provided for women and girls employed in retail sale of articles, - and a decree of the 28th of July 1904 defining in detail conditions of - hygiene in dormitories for workmen and shop assistants. The law - relating to seats is enforced by the inspectors of factories. In - France there is no special penal legislation against abuses of the - truck system, or excessive fines and deductions from wages, although - bills with that end in view have frequently been before parliament. - Indirect protection to workers is no doubt in many cases afforded in - organized industries by the action of the _Conseils de Prud'hommes_. - - _Belgium._--In 1848 in Belgium the Commission on Labour proposed - legislation to limit, as in France, the hours of labour for adults, - but this proposal was never passed. Belgian regulation of labour in - industry remains essentially, in harmony with its earliest beginnings - in 1863 and onwards, a series of specialized provisions to meet - particular risks of individual trades, and did not, until 1889, give - any adherence to a common principle of limitation of hours and times - of labour for "protected" persons. This was in the law of the 13th of - December 1889, which applies to mines, quarries, factories, workshops - classed as unhealthy, wharves and docks, transports. As in France, - industrial establishments having a charitable or philanthropic or - educational character are included. The persons protected are girls - and women under 21 years, and boys under 16; and women over 21 only - find a place in the law through the prohibition of their employment - within four weeks after childbirth. As the hours of labour of adult - women remain ordinarily unlimited by law, so are the hours of boys - from 16 to 21. The law of Sunday rest dated the 17th of July 1905, - however, applies to labour generally in all industrial and commercial - undertakings except transport and fisheries, with certain regulated - exceptions for (a) cases of breakdown or urgency due to _force - majeure_, (b) certain repairs and cleaning, (c) perishable materials, - (d) retail food supply. Young workers are excluded from the - exceptions. The absolute prohibitions of employment are: for children - under 12 years in any industry, manufacturing or mining or transport, - and for women and girls under 21 years below the surface in working of - mines. Boys under 16 years and women and girls under 21 years may in - general not be employed before 5 A.M. or after 9 P.M., and one day in - the seven is to be set apart for rest from employment; to these rules - exception may be made either by royal decree for classes or groups of - processes, or by local authorities in exceptional cases. The - exceptions may be applied, generally, only to workers over 14 years, - but in mines, by royal decree, boys over 12 years may be employed from - 4 A.M. The law of 1889 fixes only a maximum of 12 hours of effective - work, to be interrupted by pauses for rest of not less than 1(1/2) - hours, empowering the king by decree to formulate more precise limits - suited to the special circumstances of individual industries. Royal - decrees have accordingly laid down the conditions for many groups, - including textile trades, manufacture of paper, pottery, glass, - clothing, mines, quarries, engineering and printing works. In some the - daily limit is 10 hours, but in more 10(1/2) or 11 hours. In a few - exceptionally unhealthy trades, such as the manufacture of lucifer - matches, vulcanization of india-rubber by means of carbon bi-sulphide, - the age of exclusion from employment has been raised, and in the - last-named process hours have been reduced to 5, broken into two - spells of 2(1/2) hours each. As a rule the conditions of health and - safeguarding of employments in exceptionally injurious trades have - been sought by a series of decrees under the law of 1863 relating to - public health in such industries. Special regulations for safety of - workers have been introduced in manufactures of white-lead, oxides of - lead, chromate of lead, lucifer match works, rag and shoddy works; and - for dangers common to many industries, provisions against dust, - poisons, accidents and other risks to health or limb have been - codified in a decree of 1896. A royal decree of the 31st of March 1903 - prohibits employment of persons under 16 years in fur-pulling and in - carotting of rabbit skins, and another of the 13th of May 1905 - regulates use of lead in house-painting. In 1898 a law was passed to - enable the authorities to deal with risks in quarries under the same - procedure. Safety in mines (which are not private property, but state - concessions to be worked under strict state control) has been provided - for since 1810. In matters of hygiene, until 1899 the powers of the - public health authorities to intervene were insufficient, and a law - was passed authorizing the government to make regulations for every - kind of risk in any undertaking, whether classed under the law of - public health or not. By a special law of 1888 children and young - persons under 18 years are excluded from employment as pedlars, - hawkers or in circuses, except by their parents, and then only if they - have attained 14 years. Abuses of the truck system have, since 1887, - been regulated with care. The chief objects of the law of 1887 were to - secure payment in full to all workers, other than those in agriculture - or domestic service, of wages in legal tender, to prohibit payment of - wages in public-houses, and to secure prompt payment of wages. Certain - deductions were permitted under careful control for specific customary - objects: lodging, use of land, uniforms, food, firing. A royal order - of the 10th of October 1903 required use of automatic indicators for - estimating wages in certain cases in textile processes. The law of the - 15th of June 1896 regulates the affixing in workplaces, where at least - five workers are employed, of a notice of the working rules, the - nature and rate of fines, if any, and the mode of their application. - Two central services the mines inspectorate and the factory and - workshop inspectorate, divide the duties above indicated. There is - also a system of local administration of the regulations relating to - industries classed as unhealthy, but the tendency has been to give the - supreme control in these matters to the factory service, with its - expert staff. - - _Holland._--The first law for regulation of labour in manufacture was - passed in 1874, and this related only to employment of children. The - basis of all existing regulations was established in the law of the - 5th of May 1889, which applies to all industrial undertakings, - excluding agriculture and forestry, fishing, stock-rearing. Employment - of children under 12 years is prohibited, and hours are limited for - young persons under 16 and for women of any age. These protected - persons may be excluded by royal decree from unhealthy industries, and - such industries are specified in a decree of 1897 which supersedes - other earlier regulations. Hours of employment must not exceed 11 in - the 24, and at least one hour for rest must be given between 11 A.M. - and 3 P.M., which hour must not be spent in a workroom. Work before 5 - A.M. or after 7 P.M., Sunday work, and work on recognized holidays is - generally prohibited, but there are exceptions. Overtime from 7 to 10 - P.M., under conditions, is allowed for women and young workers, and - Sunday work for women, for example, in butter and cheese making, and - night work for boys over 14 in certain industries. Employment of women - within four weeks of childbirth is prohibited. Notices of working - hours must be affixed in workplaces. Underground work in mines is - prohibited for women and young persons under 16, but in Holland mining - is a very small industry. In 1895 the first legislative provision was - made for protection of workers against risk of accident or special - injury to health. Sufficient cubic space, lighting, ventilation, - sanitary accommodation, reasonable temperature, removal of noxious - gases or dust, fencing of machinery, precautions against risk from - fire and other matters are provided for. The manufacture of lucifer - matches by means of white phosphorus was forbidden and the export, - importation and sale was regulated by a law of the 28th of May 1901. - By a regulation of the 16th of March 1904 provisions for safety and - health of women and young workers were strengthened in processes where - lead compounds or other poisons are used, and their employment at - certain dangerous machines and in cleaning machinery or near driving - belts was prohibited. No penal provision against truck exists in - Holland, but possibly abuses of the system are prevented by the - existence of industrial councils representing both employers and - workers, with powers to mediate or arbitrate in case of disputes. - - _Switzerland._--In Switzerland separate cantonal legislation prepared - the way for the general Federal labour law of 1877 on which subsequent - legislation rests. Such legislation is also cantonal as well as - Federal, but in the latter there is only amplification or - interpretation of the principles contained in the law of 1877, whereas - cantonal legislation covers industries not included under the Federal - law, e.g. single workers employed in a trade (_metier_) and employment - in shops, offices and hotels. The Federal law is applied to factories, - workshops employing young persons under 18 or more than 10 workers, - and workshops in which unhealthy or dangerous processes are carried - on. Mines are not included, but are regulated in some respects as - regards health and safety by cantonal laws. Further, the Law of - Employers' Liability 1881-1887, which requires in all industries - precautions against accidents and reports of all serious accidents to - the cantonal governments, applies to mines. This led, in 1896, to the - creation of a special mining department, and mines, of which there are - few, have to be inspected once a year by a mining engineer. The - majority of the provisions of the Federal labour law apply to adult - workers of both sexes, and the general limit of the 11-hours' day, - exclusive of at least one hour for meals, applies to men as well as - women. The latter have, however, a legal claim, when they have a - household to manage, to leave work at the dinner-hour half an hour - earlier than the men. Men and unmarried women may be employed in such - subsidiary work as cleaning before or after the general legal limits. - On Saturdays and eves of the eight public holidays the 11-hours' day - is reduced to 10. Sunday work and night work are forbidden, but - exceptions are permitted conditionally. Night work is defined as 8 - P.M. to 5 A.M. in summer, 8 P.M. to 6 A.M. in winter. Children are - excluded from employment in workplaces under the law until 14 years of - age, and until 16 must attend continuation schools. Zurich canton has - fixed the working day for women at 10 hours generally, and 9 hours on - Saturdays and eves of holidays. Bale-Ville canton has the same limits - and provides that the very limited Sunday employment permitted shall - be compensated by double time off on another day. In the - German-speaking cantons girls under 18 are not permitted to work - overtime; in all cantons except Glarus the conditional overtime of 2 - hours must be paid for at an enhanced wage. - - Sanitary regulations and fencing of machinery are provided for with - considerable minuteness in a Federal decree of 1897. The plans of - every new factory must be submitted to the cantonal government. In the - case of lucifer match factories, not only the building but methods of - manufacture must be submitted. Since 1901 the manufacture, sale and - import of matches containing white phosphorus have been forbidden. - Women must be absent from employment during eight weeks before and - after childbirth. In certain dangerous occupations, e.g. where lead or - lead compounds are in use, women may not legally be employed during - pregnancy. A resolution of the federal council in 1901 classed - thirty-four different substances in use in industry as dangerous and - laid down that in case of clearly defined illness of workers directly - caused by use of any of these substances the liability provided by - article 3 of the law of the 25th of June 1881, and article 1 of the - law of the 26th of April 1887, should apply to the manufacture. - Legislative provision against abuses of the truck system appears to be - of earlier origin in Switzerland (17th century) than any other - European country outside England (15th century). The Federal Labour - Law 1877 generally prohibits payment of wages otherwise than in - current coin, and provides that no deduction shall be made without an - express contract. Some of the cantonal laws go much farther than the - British act of 1896 in forbidding certain deductions; e.g. Zurich - prohibits any charge for cleaning, warming or lighting workrooms or - for hire of machinery. By the Federal law fines may not exceed half a - day's wage. Administration of the Labour laws is divided between - inspectors appointed by the Federal Government and local authorities, - under supervision of the cantonal governments. The Federal Government - forms a court of appeal against decisions of the cantonal - governments. - - _Germany._--Regulation of the conditions of labour in industry - throughout the German empire is provided for in the Imperial - Industrial Code and the orders of the Federal Council based thereon. - By far the most important recent amendment socially is the law - regulating child-labour, dated the 30th of March 1903, which relates - to establishments having industrial character in the sense of the - Industrial Code. This Code is based on earlier industrial codes of the - separate states, but more especially on the Code of 1869 of the North - German Confederation. It applies in whole or in part to all trades and - industrial occupations, except transport, fisheries and agriculture. - Mines are only included so far as truck, Sunday and holiday rest, - prohibition of employment underground of female labour, limitation of - the hours of women and young workers are concerned; otherwise the - regulations for protection of life and limb of miners vary, as do the - mining laws of the different states. To estimate the force of the - Industrial Code in working, it is necessary to bear in mind the - complicated political history of the empire, the separate - administration by the federated states, and the generally considerable - powers vested in administration of initiating regulations. The - Industrial Code expressly retains power for the states to initiate - certain additions or exceptions to the Code which in any given state - may form part of the law regulating factories there. The Code (unlike - the Austrian Industrial Code) lays down no general limit for a normal - working day for adult male workers, but since 1891 full powers were - given to the Imperial government to limit hours for any classes of - workers in industries where excessive length of the working day - endangers the health of the worker (R.G.O. S 120e). Previously - application had been made of powers to reduce the working day in such - unhealthy industries as silvering of mirrors by mercury and the - manufacture of white-lead. Separate states had, under mining laws, - also limited hours of miners. Sunday rest was, in 1891, secured for - every class of workers, commercial, industrial and mining. Annual - holidays were also secured on church festivals. These provisions, - however, are subject to exceptions under conditions. An important - distinction has to be shown when we turn to the regulations for hours - and times of labour for protected persons (women, young persons and - children). Setting aside for the moment hours of shop assistants - (which are under special sections since 1900), it is to "factory - workers" and not to industrial workers in general that these limits - apply, although they may be, and in some instances have been, further - extended--for instance, in ready-made clothing trades--by imperial - decree to workshops, and by the Child Labour Law of 1903 regulation of - the scope and duration of employment of children is much strengthened - in workshops, commerce, transport and domestic industries. The term - "factory" (_Fabrik_) is not defined in the Code, but it is clear from - various decisions of the supreme court that it only in part coincides - with the English term, and that some workplaces, where processes are - carried on by aid of mechanical power, rank rather as English - workshops. The distinction is rather between wholesale manufacturing - industry, with subdivision of labour, and small industry, where the - employer works himself. Certain classes of undertaking, viz. forges, - timber-yards, dockyards, brickfields and open quarries, are - specifically ranked as factories. Employment of protected persons at - the surface of mines and underground quarries, and in salt works and - ore-dressing works, and of boys underground comes under the factory - regulations. These exclude children from employment under 13 years, - and even later if an educational certificate has not been obtained; - until 14 years hours of employment may not exceed 6 in the 24. In - processes and occupations under the scope of the Child Labour Law - children may not be employed by their parents or guardians before 10 - years of age or by other employers before 12 years of age; nor between - the hours of 8 P.M. and 8 A.M., nor otherwise than in full compliance - with requirements of educational authorities for school attendance and - with due regard to prescribed pauses. In school term time the daily - limit of employment for children is three hours, in holiday time three - hours. As regards factories Germany, unlike Great Britain, France and - Switzerland, requires a shorter day for young persons than for - women--10 hours for the former, 11 hours for the latter. Women over 16 - years may be employed 11 hours. Night work is forbidden, i.e. work - between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M. Overtime may be granted to meet - unforeseen pressure or for work on perishable articles, under - conditions, by local authorities and the higher administrative - authorities. Prescribed meal-times are--an unbroken half-hour for - children in their 6 hours; for young persons a mid-day pause of one - hour, and half an hour respectively in the morning and afternoon - spells; for women, an hour at mid-day, but women with the care of a - household have the claim, on demand, to an extra half-hour, as in - Switzerland. No woman may be employed within four weeks after - childbirth, and unless a medical certificate can then be produced, the - absence must extend to six weeks. Notice of working periods and - meal-times must be affixed, and copies sent to the local authorities. - Employment of protected persons in factory industries where there are - special risks to health or morality may be forbidden or made dependent - on special conditions. By the Child Labour Law employment of children - is forbidden in brickworks, stone breaking, chimney sweeping, street - cleaning and other processes and occupations. By an order of the - Federal Council in 1902 female workers were excluded from main - processes in forges and rolling mills. All industrial employers alike - are bound to organize labour in such a manner as to secure workers - against injury to health and to ensure good conduct and propriety. - Sufficient light, suitable cloakrooms and sanitary accommodation, and - ventilation to carry off dust, vapours and other impurities are - especially required. Dining-rooms may be ordered by local authorities. - Fencing and provision for safety in case of fire are required in - detail. The work of the trade accident insurance associations in - preventing accidents is especially recognized in provisions for - special rules in dangerous or unhealthy industries. Officials of the - state factory departments are bound to give opportunity to trustees of - the trade associations to express an opinion on special rules. In a - large number of industries the Federal Council has laid down special - rules comparable with those for unhealthy occupations in Great - Britain. Among the regulations most recently revised and strengthened - are those for manufacture of lead colours and lead compounds, and for - horse-hair and brush-making factories. The relations between the state - inspectors of factories and the ordinary police authorities are - regulated in each state by its constitution. Prohibitions of truck in - its original sense--that is, payment of wages otherwise than in - current coin--apply to any persons under a contract of service with an - employer for a specified time for industrial purposes; members of a - family working for a parent or husband are not included; outworkers - are covered. Control of fines and deductions from wages applies only - in factory industries and shops employing at least 20 workers. Shop - hours are regulated by requiring shops to be closed generally between - 9 P.M. and 5 A.M., by requiring a fixed mid-day rest of 1(1/2) hours - and at least 10 hours' rest in the 24 for assistants. These limits can - be modified by administrative authority. Notice of hours and working - rules must be affixed. During the hours of compulsory closing sale of - goods on the streets or from house to house is forbidden. Under the - Commercial Code, as under the Civil Code, every employer is bound to - adopt every possible measure for maintaining the safety, health and - good conduct of his employes. By an order of the Imperial Chancellor - under the Commercial Code seats must be provided for commercial - assistants and apprentices. - - _Austria._--The Industrial Code of Austria, which in its present - outline (modified by later enactments) dates from 1883, must be - carefully distinguished from the Industrial Code of the kingdom of - Hungary. The latter is, owing to the predominantly agricultural - character of the population, of later origin, and hardly had practical - force before the law of 1893 provided for inspection and prevention of - accidents in factories. No separate mining code exists in Hungary, and - conditions of labour are regulated by the Austrian law of 1854. The - truck system is repressed on lines similar to those in Austria and - Germany. As regards limitation of hours of adult labour, Hungary may - be contrasted with both those empires in that no restriction of hours - applies either to men's or women's hours, whereas in Austrian - factories both are limited to an 11-hours' day with exceptional - overtime for which payment must always be made to the worker. The - Austrian Code has its origin, however, like the British Factory Acts, - in protection of child labour. Its present scope is determined by the - Imperial "Patent" of 1859, and all industrial labour is included - except mining, transport, fisheries, forestry, agriculture and - domestic industries. Factories are defined as including industries in - which a "manufacturing process is carried on in an enclosed place by - the aid of not less than twenty workers working with machines, with - subdivision of labour, and under an employer who does not himself - manually assist in the work." In smaller handicraft industries the - compulsory gild system of organization still applies. In every - industrial establishment, large or small, the sanitary and safety - provisions, general requirement of Sunday rest, and annual holidays - (with conditional exceptions), prohibition of truck and limitation of - the ages of child labour apply. Night work for women, 8 P.M. to 5 - A.M., is prohibited only in factory industries; for young workers it - is prohibited in any industry. Pauses in work are required in all - industries; one hour at least must be given at mid-day, and if the - morning and afternoon spells exceed 5 hours each, another half-hour's - rest at least must be given. Children may not be employed in - industrial work before 12 years, and then only 8 hours a day at work - that is not injurious and if educational requirements are observed. - The age of employment is raised to 14 for "factories," and the work - must be such as will not hinder physical development. Women may not be - employed in regular industrial occupation within one month after - childbirth. In certain scheduled unhealthy industries, where - certificates of authorization from local authorities must be obtained - by intending occupiers, conditions of health and safety for workers - can be laid down in the certificate. The Minister of the Interior is - empowered to draw up regulations prohibiting or making conditions for - the employment of young workers or women in dangerous or unhealthy - industries. The provisions against truck cover not only all industrial - workers engaged in manual labour under a contract with an employer, - but also shop-assistants; the special regulations against fines and - deductions apply to factory workers and shops where at least 20 - workers are employed. In mines under the law of 1884, which - supplements the general mining law, employment of women and girls - underground is prohibited; boys from 12 to 16 and girls from 12 to 18 - may only be employed at light work above ground; 14 is the earliest - age of admission for boys underground. The shifts from bank to bank - must not exceed 12 hours, of which not more than 10 may be effective - work. Sunday rest must begin not later than 6 A.M., and must be of 24 - hours' duration. These last two provisions do not hold in case of - pressing danger for safety, health or property. Sick and accident - funds and mining associations are legislated for in minutest detail. - The general law provides for safety in working, but special rules - drawn up by the district authorities lay down in detail the conditions - of health and safety. As regards manufacturing industry, the - Industrial Code lays no obligation on employers to report accidents, - and until the Accident Insurance Law of 1889 came into force no - statistics were available. In Austria, unlike Germany, the factory - inspectorate is organized throughout under a central chief inspector. - - _Scandinavian Countries._--In Sweden the Factory Law was amended in - January 1901; in Denmark in July 1901. Until that year, however, - Norway was in some respects in advance of the other two countries by - its law of 1892, which applied to industrial works, including metal - works of all kinds and mining. Women were thereby prohibited from - employment: (a) underground; (b) in cleaning or oiling machinery in - motion; (c) during six weeks after childbirth, unless provided with a - medical certificate stating that they might return at the end of four - weeks without injury to health; (d) in dangerous, unhealthy or - exhausting trades during pregnancy. Further, work on Sundays and - public holidays is prohibited to all workers, adult and youthful, with - conditional exceptions under the authority of the inspectors. Children - over 12 are admitted to industrial work on obtaining certificates of - birth, of physical fitness and of elementary education. The hours of - children are limited to 6, with pauses, and of young persons (of 14 to - 18 years) to 10, with pauses. Night work between 8 P.M. and 6 A.M. is - prohibited. All workers are entitled to a copy of a code of factory - rules containing the terms of the contract of work drawn up by - representatives of employes with the employers and sanctioned by the - inspector. Health and safety in working are provided for in detail in - the same law of 1892. Special rules may be made for dangerous trades, - and in 1899 such rules were established for match factories, similar - to some of the British rules, but notably providing for a dental - examination four times yearly by a doctor. In Denmark, regulation - began with unhealthy industries, and it was not until the law of 1901 - came into force, on the 1st of January 1902, that children under 12 - years have been excluded from factory labour. Control of child labour - can be strengthened by municipal regulation, and this has been done in - Copenhagen by an order of the 23rd of May 1903. In Sweden the 12 - years' limit had for some time held in the larger factories; the scope - has been extended so that it corresponds with the Norwegian law. The - hours of children are, in Denmark, 6(1/2) for those under 14 years; in - Sweden 6 for those under 13 years. Young persons may not in either - country work more than 10 hours daily, and night work, which is - forbidden for persons under 18 years, is now defined as in Norway. - Women may not be employed in industry within four weeks of childbirth, - except on authority of a medical certificate. All factories in Sweden - where young workers are employed are subject to medical inspection - once a year. Fencing of machinery and hygienic conditions - (ventilation, cubic space, temperature, light) are regulated in - detail. In Denmark the use of white phosphorus in manufacture of - lucifer matches has been prohibited since 1874, and special - regulations have been drawn up by administrative orders which - strengthen control of various unhealthy or dangerous industries, e.g. - dry-cleaning works, printing works and type foundries, iron foundries - and engineering works. A special act of the 6th of April 1906 - regulates labour and sanitary conditions in bakehouses and - confectionery works. - - _Italy and Spain._--The wide difference between the industrial - development of these southern Latin countries and the two countries - with which this summary begins, and the far greater importance of the - agricultural interests, produced a situation, as regards labour - legislation until as recently as 1903, which makes it convenient to - touch on the comparatively limited scope of their regulations at the - close of the series. It was stated by competent and impartial - observers from each of the two countries, at the International - Congress on Labour Laws held at Brussels in 1897, that the lack of - adequate measures for protection of child labour and inefficient - administration of such regulations as exist was then responsible for - abuse of their forces that could be found in no other European - countries. "Their labour in factories, workshops, and mines - constitutes a veritable martyrdom" (Spain). "I believe that there is - no country where a sacrifice of child life is made that is comparable - with that in certain Italian factories and industries" (Italy). In - both countries important progress has since been made in organizing - inspection and preventing accidents. In Spain the first step in the - direction of limitation of women's hours of labour was taken by a law - of 1900, which took effect in 1902, in regulations for reduction of - hours of labour for adults to 11, normally, in the 24. Hours of - children under 14 must not exceed 6 in any industrial work nor 8 in - any commercial undertaking. Labour before the age of 10 years and - night work between 6 P.M. and 5 A.M. was prohibited, and powers were - taken to extend the prohibition of night work to young persons under - 16 years. The labour of children in Italy was until 1902 regulated in - the main by a law of 1886, but a royal decree of 1899 strengthened it - by classing night work for children under 12 years as "injurious," - such work being thereby generally prohibited for them, though - exceptions are admitted; at the same time it was laid down that - children from 12 to 15 years might not be employed for more than 6 - hours at night. The law of 1886 prohibits employment of children - under 9 years in industry and under 10 years in underground mining. - Night work for women was in Italy first prohibited by the law of the - 19th of June 1902, and at the same time also for boys under 15, but - this regulation was not to take full effect for 5 years as regards - persons already so employed; by the same law persons under 15 and - women of any age were accorded the claim to one day's complete rest of - 24 hours in the week; the age of employment of children in factories, - workshops, laboratories, quarries, mines, was raised to 12 years - generally and 14 years for underground work; the labour of female - workers of any age was prohibited in underground work, and power was - reserved to further restrict and regulate their employment as well as - that of male workers under 15. Spain and Italy, the former by the law - of the 13th of March 1900, the latter by the law of the 19th of June - 1902, prohibit the employment of women within a fixed period of - childbirth; in Spain the limit is three weeks, in Italy one month, - which may be reduced to three weeks on a medical certificate of - fitness. Sunday rest is secured in industrial works, with regulated - exceptions in Spain by the law of the 3rd of March 1904. It is in the - direction of fencing and other safeguards against accidents and as - regards sanitary provisions, both in industrial workplaces and in - mines, that Italy has made most advance since her law of 1890 for - prevention of accidents. Special measures for prevention of malaria - are required in cultivation of rice by a ministerial circular of the - 23rd of April 1903; work may not begin until an hour after sunrise and - must cease an hour before sunset; children under 13 may not be - employed in this industry. (A. M, An.) - - -IV. UNITED STATES - - History. - -Under the general head of Labour Legislation all American statute laws -regulating labour, its conditions, and the relation of employer and -employe must be classed. It includes what is properly known as factory -legislation. Labour legislation belongs to the latter half of the 19th -century, so far as the United States is concerned. Like England in the -far past, the Americans in colonial days undertook to regulate wages and -prices, and later the employment of apprentices. Legislation relating to -wages and prices was long ago abandoned, but the laws affecting the -employment of apprentices still exist in some form, although conditions -of employment have changed so materially that apprenticeships are not -entered as of old; but the laws regulating the employment of apprentices -were the basis on which English legislation found a foothold when -parliament wished to regulate the labour of factory operatives. The code -of labour laws of the present time is almost entirely the result of the -industrial revolution during the latter part of the 18th century, under -which the domestic or hand-labour system was displaced through the -introduction of power machinery. As this revolution took place in the -United States at a somewhat later date than in England, the labour -legislation necessitated by it belongs to a later date. The factory, so -far as textiles are concerned, was firmly established in America during -the period from 1820 to 1840, and it was natural that the English -legislation found friends and advocates in the United States, although -the more objectionable conditions accompanying the English factory were -not to be found there. - - - Early attempts to regulate hours. - -The first attempt to secure legislation regulating factory employment -related to the hours of labour, which were very long--from twelve to -thirteen hours a day. As machinery was introduced it was felt that the -tension resulting from speeded machines and the close attention required -in the factory ought to be accompanied by a shorter work-day. This view -took firm hold of the operatives, and was the chief cause of the -agitation which has resulted in a great body of laws applying in very -many directions. As early as 1806 the caulkers and shipbuilders of New -York City agitated for a reduction of hours to ten per day, but no -legislation followed. There were several other attempts to secure some -regulation relative to hours, but there was no general agitation prior -to 1831. As Massachusetts was the state which first recognized the -necessity of regulating employment (following in a measure, and so far -as conditions demanded, the English labour or factory legislation), the -history of such legislation in that state is indicative of that in the -United States, and as it would be impossible in this article to give a -detailed history of the origin of laws in the different states, the -dates of their enactment, and their provisions, it is best to follow -primarily the course of the Eastern states, and especially that of -Massachusetts, where the first general agitation took place and the -first laws were enacted. That state in 1836 regulated by law the -question of the education of young persons employed in manufacturing -establishments. The regulation of hours of labour was warmly discussed -in 1832, and several legislative committees and commissions reported -upon it, but no specific action on the general question of hours of -labour secured the indorsement of the Massachusetts legislature until -1874, although the day's labour of children under twelve years of age -was limited to ten hours in 1842. Ten hours constituted a day's labour, -on a voluntary basis, in many trades in Massachusetts and other parts of -the country as early as 1853, while in the shipbuilding trades this was -the work-day in 1844. In April 1840 President Van Buren issued an order -"that all public establishments will hereafter be regulated, as to -working hours, by the ten-hours system." The real aggressive movement -began in 1845, through numerous petitions to the Massachusetts -legislature urging a reduction of the day's labour to eleven hours, but -nothing came of these petitions at that time. Again, in 1850, a similar -effort was made, and also in 1851 and 1852, but the bills failed. Then -there was a period of quiet until 1865, when an unpaid commission made a -report relative to the hours of labour, and recommended the -establishment of a bureau of statistics for the purpose of collecting -data bearing upon the labour question. This was the first step in this -direction in any country. The first bureau of the kind was established -in Massachusetts in 1869, but meanwhile, in accordance with reports of -commissions and the address of Governor Bullock in 1866, and the general -sentiment which then prevailed, the legislature passed an act regulating -in a measure the conditions of the employment of children in -manufacturing establishments; and this is one of the first laws of the -kind in the United States, although the first legislation in the United -States relating to the hours of labour which the writer has been able to -find, and for which he can fix a date, was enacted by the state of -Pennsylvania in 1849, the law providing that ten hours should be a day's -work in cotton, woollen, paper, bagging, silk and flax factories. - - - Employment of children. - -The Massachusetts law of 1866 provided, firstly, that no child under ten -should be employed in any manufacturing establishment, and that no child -between ten and fourteen should be so employed unless he had attended -some public or private school at least six months during the year -preceding such employment, and, further, that such employment should not -continue unless the child attended school at least six months in each -and every year; secondly, a penalty not exceeding $50 for every owner or -agent or other person knowingly employing a child in violation of the -act; thirdly, that no child under the age of fourteen should be employed -in any manufacturing establishment more than eight hours in any one day; -fourthly, that any parent or guardian allowing or consenting to -employment in violation of the act should forfeit a sum not to exceed -$50 for each offence; fifthly, that the Governor instruct the state -constable and his deputies to enforce the provisions of all laws for -regulating the employment of children in manufacturing establishments. -The same legislature also created a commission of three persons, whose -duty it was to investigate the subject of hours of labour in relation to -the social, educational and sanitary condition of the working classes. -In 1867 a fundamental law relating to schooling and hours of labour of -children employed in manufacturing and mechanical establishments was -passed by the Massachusetts legislature. It differed from the act of the -year previous in some respects, going deeper into the general question. -It provided that no child under ten should be employed in any -manufacturing or mechanical establishment of the commonwealth, and that -no child between ten and fifteen should be so employed unless he had -attended school, public or private, at least three months during the -year next preceding his employment. There were provisions relating to -residence, &c., and a further provision that no time less than 120 -half-days of actual schooling should be deemed an equivalent of three -months, and that no child under fifteen should be employed in any -manufacturing or mechanical establishment more than sixty hours any one -week. The law also provided penalties for violation. It repealed the -act of 1866. - -In 1869 began the establishment of that chain of offices in the United -States, the principle of which has been adopted by other countries, -known as bureaus of statistics of labour, their especial purpose being -the collection and dissemination of information relating to all features -of industrial employment. As a result of the success of the first -bureau, bureaus are in existence in thirty-three states, in addition to -the United States Bureau of Labour. - -A special piece of legislation which belongs to the commonwealth of -Massachusetts, so far as experience shows, was that in 1872, providing -for cheap morning and evening trains for the accommodation of working -men living in the vicinity of Boston. Great Britain had long had such -trains, which were called parliamentary trains. Under the Massachusetts -law some of the railways running out of Boston furnished the -accommodation required, and the system has since been in operation. - - - Factory legislation, 1877. - -In different parts of the country the agitation to secure legislation -regulating the hours of labour became aggressive again in 1870 and the -years immediately following, there being a constant repetition of -attempts to secure the enactment of a ten-hours law, but in -Massachusetts all the petitions failed till 1874, when the legislature -of that commonwealth established the hours of labour at sixty per week -not only for children under eighteen, but for women, the law providing -that no minor under eighteen and no woman over that age should be -employed by any person, firm or corporation in any manufacturing -establishment more than ten hours in any one day. In 1876 Massachusetts -reconstructed its laws relating to the employment of children, although -it did not abrogate the principles involved in earlier legislation, -while in 1877 the commonwealth passed Factory Acts covering the general -provisions of the British laws. It provided for the general inspection -of factories and public buildings, the provisions of the law relating to -dangerous machinery, such as belting, shafting, gearing, drums, &c., -which the legislature insisted must be securely guarded, and that no -machinery other than steam engines should be cleaned while running. The -question of ventilation and cleanliness was also attended to. Dangers -connected with hoistways, elevators and well-holes were minimized by -their protection by sufficient trap-doors, while fire-escapes were made -obligatory on all establishments of three or more storeys in height. All -main doors, both inside and outside, of manufacturing establishments, as -well as those of churches, school-rooms, town halls, theatres and every -building used for public assemblies, should open outwardly whenever the -factory inspectors of the commonwealth deemed it necessary. These -provisions remain in the laws of Massachusetts, and other states have -found it wise to follow them. - - The labour legislation in force in 1910 in the various states of the - Union might be classified in two general branches: (A) protective - labour legislation, or laws for the aid of workers who, on account of - their economic dependence, are not in a position fully to protect - themselves; (B) legislation having for its purpose the fixing of the - legal status of the worker as an employe, such as laws relating to the - making and breaking of the labour contract, the right to form - organizations and to assemble peaceably, the settlement of labour - disputes, the licensing of occupations, &c. - - - Factory and workshop acts. - - (A) The first class includes factory and workshop acts, laws relating - to hours of labour, work on Sundays and holidays, the payment of - wages, the liability of employers for injuries to their employes, &c. - Factory acts have been passed by nearly all the states of the Union. - These may be considered in two groups--first, laws which relate to - conditions of employment and affect only children, young persons and - women; and second, laws which relate to the sanitary condition of - factories and workshops and to the safety of employes generally. The - states adopting such laws have usually made provision for factory - inspectors, whose duties are to enforce these laws and who have power - to enter and inspect factories and workshops. The most common - provisions of the factory acts in the various states are those which - fix an age limit below which employment is unlawful. All but five - states have enacted such provisions, and these five states have - practically no manufacturing industries. In some states the laws - fixing an age limit are restricted in their application to factories, - while in others they extend also to workshops, bakeries, mercantile - establishments and other work places where children are employed. The - prescribed age limit varies from ten to fourteen years. Provisions - concerning the education of children in factories and workshops may be - considered in two groups, those relating to apprenticeship and those - requiring a certain educational qualification as a pre-requisite to - employment. Apprenticeship laws are numerous, but they do not now have - great force, because of the practical abrogation of the apprenticeship - system through the operation of modern methods of production. Most - states have provisions prohibiting illiterates under a specified age, - usually sixteen, from being employed in factories and workshops. The - provisions of the factory acts relating to hours of labour and night - work generally affect only the employment of women and young persons. - Most of the states have enacted such provisions, those limiting the - hours of children occurring more frequently than those limiting the - hours of women. The hour limit for work in such cases ranges from six - per day to sixty-six per week. Where the working time of children is - restricted, the minimum age prescribed for such children ranges from - twelve to twenty-one years. In some cases the restriction of the hours - of labour of women and children is general, while in others it applies - only to employment in one or more classes of industries. Other - provisions of law for the protection of women and children, but not - usually confined in their operation to factories and workshops, are - such as require seats for females and separate toilet facilities for - the sexes, and prohibit employment in certain occupations as in mines, - places where intoxicants are manufactured or sold, in cleaning or - operating dangerous machinery, &c. Provisions of factory acts relating - to the sanitary condition of factories and workshops and the safety of - employes have been enacted in nearly all the manufacturing states of - the Union. They prohibit overcrowding, and require proper ventilation, - sufficient light and heat, the lime-washing or painting of walls and - ceilings, the provision of exhaust fans and blowers in places where - dust or dangerous fumes are generated, guards on machinery, mechanical - belts and gearing shifters, guards on elevators and hoistways, - hand-rails on stairs, fire-escapes, &c. - - - Hours of labour. - - The statutes relating to hours of labour may be considered under five - groups, namely: (1) general laws which merely fix what shall be - regarded as a day's labour in the absence of a contract; (2) laws - defining what shall constitute a day's work on public roads; (3) laws - limiting the hours of labour per day on public works; (4) laws - limiting the hours of labour in certain occupations; and (5) laws - which specify the hours per day or per week during which women and - children may be employed. The statutes included in the first two - groups place no restrictions upon the number of hours which may be - agreed upon between employers and employes, while those in the other - three groups usually limit the freedom of contract and provide - penalties for their violation. A considerable number of states have - enacted laws which fix a day's labour in the absence of any contract, - some at eight and others at ten hours, so that when an employer and an - employe make a contract and they do not specify what shall constitute - a day's labour, eight or ten hours respectively would be ruled as the - day's labour in an action which might come before the courts. In a - number of the states it is optional with the citizens to liquidate - certain taxes either by cash payments or by rendering personal - service. In the latter case the length of the working day is defined - by law, eight hours being usually specified. The Federal government - and nearly one-half of the states have laws providing that eight hours - shall constitute a day's work for employes on public works. Under the - Federal Act it is unlawful for any officer of the government or of any - contractor or sub-contractor for public works to permit labourers and - mechanics to work longer than eight hours per day. The state laws - concerning hours of labour have similar provisions. Exceptions are - provided for cases of extraordinary emergencies, such as danger to - human life or property. In many states the hours of labour have been - limited by law in occupations in which, on account of their dangerous - or insanitary character, the health of the employes would be - jeopardized by long hours of labour, or in which the fatigue - occasioned by long hours would endanger the lives of the employes or - of the public. The occupations for which such special legislation has - been enacted are those of employes on steam and street railways, in - mines and other underground workings, smelting and refining works, - bakeries and cotton and woollen mills. Laws limiting the hours of - labour of women and children have been considered under factory and - workshop acts. - - - Sunday labour. - - Nearly all states and Territories of the Union have laws prohibiting - the employment of labour on Sunday. These laws usually make it a - misdemeanour for persons either to labour themselves or to compel or - permit their apprentices, servants or other employes, to labour on the - first day of the week. Exceptions are made in the case of household - duties or works of necessity or charity, and in the case of members of - religious societies who observe some other than the first day of the - week. - - - Payment of wages. - - Statutes concerning the payment of wages of employes may be considered - in two groups: (1) those which relate to the employment contract, such - as laws fixing the maximum period of wage payments, prohibiting the - payment of wages in scrip or other evidences of indebtedness in lieu - of lawful money, prohibiting wage deductions on account of fines, - breakage of machinery, discounts for prepayments, medical attendance, - relief funds or other purposes, requiring the giving of notice of - reduction of wages, &c.; (2) legislation granting certain privileges - or affording special protection to working people with respect to - their wages, such as laws exempting wages from attachment, preferring - wage claims in assignments, and granting workmen liens upon buildings - and other constructions on which they have been employed. - - - Employers' liability. - - Employers' liability laws have been passed to enable an employe to - recover damages from his employer under certain conditions when he has - been injured through accident occurring in the works of the employer. - The common-law maxim that the principal is responsible for the acts of - his agent does not apply where two or more persons are working - together under the same employer and one of the employes is injured - through the carelessness of his fellow-employe, although the one - causing the accident is the agent of the principal, who under the - common law would be responsible. The old Roman law and the English and - American practice under it held that the co-employe was a party to the - accident. The injustice of this rule is seen by a single illustration. - A weaver in a cotton factory, where there are hundreds of operatives, - is injured by the neglect or carelessness of the engineer in charge of - the motive power. Under the common law the weaver could not recover - damages from the employer, because he was the co-employe of the - engineer. So, one of thousands of employes of a railway system, - sustaining injuries through the carelessness of a switchman whom he - never saw, could recover no damages from the railway company, both - being co-employes of the same employer. The injustice of this - application of the common-law rule has been recognized, but the only - way to avoid the difficulty was through specific legislation providing - that under such conditions as those related, and similar ones, the - doctrine of co-employment should not apply, and that the workman - should have the same right to recover damages as a passenger upon a - railway train. This legislation has upset some of the most notable - distinctions of law. - - The first agitation for legislation of this character occurred in - England in 1880. A number of states in the Union have now enacted - statutes fixing the liability of employers under certain conditions - and relieving the employe from the application of the common-law rule. - Where the employe himself is contributory to the injuries resulting - from an accident he cannot recover, nor can he recover in some cases - where he knows of the danger from the defects of tools or implements - employed by him. The legislation upon the subject involves many - features of legislation which need not be described here, such as - those concerning the power of employes to make a contract, and those - defining the conditions, often elaborate, which lead to the liability - of the employer and the duties of the employe, and the relations in - which damages for injuries sustained in employment may be recovered - from the employer. - - (B) The statutes thus far considered may be regarded as protective - labour legislation. There is, besides, a large body of statutory laws - enacted in the various states for the purpose of fixing the legal - status of employers and employes and defining their rights and - privileges as such. - - - Labour contract. - - A great variety of statutes have been enacted in the various states - relating to the labour contract. Among these are laws defining the - labour contract, requiring notice of termination of contract, making - it a misdemeanour to break a contract of service and thereby endanger - human life or expose valuable property to serious injury, or to make a - contract of service and accept transportation or pecuniary - advancements with intent to defraud, prohibiting contracts of - employment whereby employes waive the right to damages in case of - injury, &c. A Federal statute makes it a misdemeanour for any one to - prepay the transportation or in any way assist or encourage the - importation of aliens under contract to perform labour or service of - any kind in the United States, exceptions being made in the case of - skilled labour that cannot otherwise be obtained, domestic servants - and persons belonging to any of the recognized professions. - - - Licensed occupations. - - The Federal government and nearly all the states and territories have - statutory provisions requiring the examination and licensing of - persons practising certain trades other than those in the class of - recognized professions. The Federal statute relates only to engineers - on steam vessels, masters, mates, pilots, &c. The occupations for - which examinations and licences are required by the various state laws - are those of barbers, horseshoers, elevator operators, plumbers, - stationary firemen, steam engineers, telegraph operators on railroads - and certain classes of mine workers and steam and street railway - employes. - - - Labour organizations. - -The right of combination and peaceable assembly on the part of employes -is recognized at common law throughout the United States. Organizations -of working-men formed for their mutual benefit, protection and -improvement, such as for endeavouring to secure higher wages, shorter -hours of labour or better working conditions, are nowhere regarded as -unlawful. A number of states and the Federal government have enacted -statutes providing for the incorporation of trade unions, but owing to -the freedom from regulation or inspection enjoyed by unincorporated -trade unions, very few have availed themselves of this privilege. A -number of states have enacted laws tending to give special protection to -and encourage trade unions. Thus, nearly one-half of the states have -passed acts declaring it unlawful for employers to discharge workmen for -joining labour organizations, or to make it a condition of employment -that they shall not belong to such bodies. Laws of this kind have -generally been held to be unconstitutional. Nearly all the states have -laws protecting trade unions in the use of the union label, insignia of -membership, credentials, &c., and making it a misdemeanour to -counterfeit or fraudulently use them. A number of the states exempt -labour organizations from the operations of the anti-trust and insurance -acts. - - - Labour disputes. - -Until recent years all legal action concerning labour disturbances was -based upon the principles of the common law. Some of the states have now -fairly complete statutory enactments concerning labour disturbances, -while others have little or no legislation of this class. The right of -employes to strike for any cause or for no cause is sustained by the -common law everywhere in the United States. Likewise an employer has a -right to discharge any or all of his employes when they have no contract -with him, and he may refuse to employ any person or class of persons for -any reason or for no reason. Agreements among strikers to take peaceable -means to induce others to remain away from the works of an employer -until he yields to the demands of the strikers are not held to be -conspiracies under the common law, and the carrying out of such a -purpose by peaceable persuasion and without violence, intimidation or -threats, is not unlawful. However, any interference with the -constitutional rights of another to employ whom he chooses or to labour -when, where or on what terms he pleases, is illegal. The boycott has -been held to be an illegal conspiracy in restraint of trade. The -statutory enactments of the various states concerning labour -disturbances are in part re-enactments of the rules of common law and in -part more or less departures from or additions to the established -principles. The list of such statutory enactments is a large one, and -includes laws relating to blacklisting, boycotting, conspiracy against -working-men, interference with employment, intimidation, picketing and -strikes of railway employes; laws requiring statements of causes of -discharge of employes and notice of strikes in advertisements for -labour; laws prohibiting deception in the employment of labour and the -hiring of armed guards by employers; and laws declaring that certain -labour agreements do not constitute conspiracy. Some of these laws have -been held to be unconstitutional, and some have not yet been tested in -the courts. - - - Arbitration and conciliation. - - The laws just treated relate almost entirely to acts either of - employers or of employes, but there is another form of law, namely, - that providing for action to be taken by others in the effort to - prevent working people from losing employment, either by their own - acts or by those of their employers, or to settle any differences - which arise out of controversies relating to wages, hours of labour, - terms and conditions of employment, rules, &c. These laws provide for - the mediation and the arbitration of labour disputes (see ARBITRATION - AND CONCILIATION). Twenty-three states and the Federal government have - laws or constitutional provisions of this nature. In some cases they - provide for the appointment of state boards, and in others of local - boards only. A number of states provide for local or special boards in - addition to the regular state boards. In some states it is required - that a member of a labour organization must be a member of the board, - and, in general, both employers and employes must be represented. - Nearly all state boards are required to attempt to mediate between the - parties to a dispute when information is received of an actual or - threatened labour trouble. Arbitration may be undertaken in some - states on application from either party, in others on the application - of both parties. An agreement to maintain the _status quo_ pending - arbitration is usually required. The modes of enforcement of obedience - to the awards of the boards are various. Some states depend on - publicity alone, some give the decisions the effect of judgments of - courts of law which may be enforced by execution, while in other - states disobedience to such decisions is punishable as for contempt of - court. The Federal statute applies only to common carriers engaged in - interstate commerce, and provides for an attempt to be made at - mediation by two designated government officials in controversies - between common carriers and their employes, and, in case of the - failure of such an attempt, for the formation of a board of - arbitration consisting of the same officials together with certain - other parties to be selected. Such arbitration boards are to be formed - only at the request or upon the consent of both parties to the - controversy. - - - The judicial enforcement of labour laws. - -The enforcement of laws by executive or judicial action is an important -matter relating to labour legislation, for without action such laws -would remain dead letters. Under the constitutions of the states, the -governor is the commander-in-chief of the military forces, and he has -the power to order the militia or any part of it into active service in -case of insurrection, invasion, tumult, riots or breaches of the peace -or imminent danger thereof. Frequent action has been taken in the case -of strikes with the view of preventing or suppressing violence -threatened or happening to persons or property, the effect being, -however, that the militia protects those working or desiring to work, or -the employers. The president of the United States may use the land and -naval forces whenever by reason of insurrection, domestic violence, -unlawful obstructions, conspiracy, combinations or assemblages of -persons it becomes impracticable to enforce the laws of the land by the -ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or when the execution of the -laws is so hindered by reason of such events that any portion or class -of the people are deprived thereby of their rights and privileges under -the constitution and laws of the country. Under this general power the -United States forces have been used for the protection of both employers -and employes indirectly, the purpose being to protect mails and, as in -the states, to see that the laws are carried out. - -The power of the courts to interfere in labour disputes is through the -injunction and punishment thereunder for contempt of court. It is a -principle of law that when there are interferences, actual or -threatened, with property or with rights of a pecuniary nature, and the -common or statute law offers no adequate and immediate remedy for the -prevention of injury, a court of equity may interpose and issue its -order or injunction as to what must or must not be done, a violation of -which writ gives the court which issued it the power to punish for -contempt. The doctrine is that something is necessary to be done to stop -at once the destruction of property and the obstruction of business, and -the injunction is immediate in its action. This writ has been resorted -to frequently for the indirect protection of employes and of employers. - (C. D. W.) - - AUTHORITIES.--ENGLISH: (a) Factory Legislation: Abraham and Davies, - _Law relating to Factories and Workshops_ (London, 1897 and 1902); - Redgrave, _Factory Acts_ (London, 1897); Royal Commission on Labour, - _Minutes of Evidence and Digests_, Group "C" (3 vols., 1892-1893), - _Assistant Commissioner's Report on Employment of Women_ (1893), - _Fifth and Final Report of the Commission_ (1894); International - Labour Conference at Berlin, _Correspondence, Commercial Series_ (C, - 6042) (1890); House of Lords Committee on the Sweating System, - _Report_ (1891); _Home Office Reports_: Annual Reports of H.M. Chief - Inspector of Factories (1879 to 1901), Committee on White Lead and - Various Lead Industries (1894), Working of the Cotton Cloth Factories - Acts (1897), Dangerous Trades (Anthrax) Committee, Do., Miscellaneous - Trades (1896-97-98-99), Conditions of Work in Fish-Curing Trade - (1898), Lead Compounds in Pottery (1899), Phosphorus in Manufacture of - Lucifer Matches (1899), &c., &c.; Whately Cooke-Taylor, _Modern - Factory System_ (London, 1891); Oliver, _Dangerous Trades_ (London, - 1902); Cunningham, _Growth of English Commerce and Industry_ (1907); - Hutchins and Harrison, _History of Factory Legislation_ (1903); - Traill, _Social England, &c., &c._ (b) Mines and Quarries: _Statutes_: - Coal Mines Regulation Acts 1886, 1894, 1896, 1899; Metalliferous Mines - Regulation Acts 1872, 1875; Quarries Act 1894; Royal Commission on - Labour, _Minutes of Evidence and Digests_, Group "A" (1892-1893, 3 - vols.); Royal Commission on Mining Royalties, _Appendices_ (1894); - _Home Office Reports_: Annual General Report upon the Mining Industry - (1894-1897), Mines and Quarries, General Reports and Statistics (1898 - to 1899), Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories - (1893-1895) (Quarries); Macswinney and Bristowe, _Coal Mines - Regulation Act_ 1887 (London, 1888). (c) Shops: _Statutes_: Shop Hours - Acts 1892, 1893, 1896, Seats for Shop Assistants Act 1899; _Report of - Select Committee of House of Commons on the Shop Hours Regulation Bill - 1886_ (Eyre and Spottiswoode). (d) Truck: _Home Office Reports_: - Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories, especially - 1895-1900, Memorandum on the Law relating to Truck and Checkweighing - Clauses of the Coal Mines Acts 1896, Memorandum relating to the Truck - Acts, by Sir Kenelm Digby, with text of Acts (1897). - - CONTINENTAL EUROPE: _Annuaire de la legislation du travail_ - (Bruxelles, 1898-1905); _Hygiene et securite des travailleurs dans les - ateliers industriels_ (Paris, 1895); _Bulletin de l'inspection du - travail_ (Paris, 1895-1902); _Bulletin de l'office international du - travail_ (Paris, 1902-1906); _Congres international de legislation du - travail_ (1898); _Die Gewerbeordnung fur das deutsche Reich_. (1) - Landmann (1897); (2) Neukamp (1901); _Gesetz betr. Kinderarbeit in - gewerblichen Betrieben_, 30. _Marz 1903_; Konrad Agahd, _Manz'sche - Gesetzausgabe_, erster Band und siebenter Band (Wien, 1897-1898); - _Legge sugli infortunii del lavoro_ (Milan, 1900). - - UNITED STATES: See the _Twenty-Second Annual Report of the - Commissioner of Labor_ (1907) giving all labour laws in force in the - United States in 1907, with annotations of decisions of courts; - bimonthly _Bulletins_ of the U.S. Bureau of Labor, containing laws - passed since those published in the foregoing, and decisions of courts - relating to employers and employes; also special articles in these - _Bulletins_ on "Employer and Employe under the Common Law" (No. 1), - "Protection of Workmen in their Employment" (No. 26), "Government - Industrial Arbitration" (No. 60), "Laws relating to the Employment of - Women and Children, and to Factory Inspection and the Health and - Safety of Employes" (No. 74), "Wages and Hours of Labor in - Manufacturing Industries, 1890 to 1907" (No. 77), "Review of Labor - Legislation of 1908 and 1909" (No. 85); also "Report of the Industrial - Commission on Labor Legislation" (vol. v., _U.S. Commission's - Report_); C. D. Wright, _Industrial Evolution in the United States_ - (1887); Stimson, _Handbook to the Labor Laws of the United States_, - and _Labor in its Relation to Law_; Adams and Sumner, _Labor - Problems_; Labatt, _Commentaries on the Law of Master and Servant_. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The term "labour" (Lat. _labor_) means strictly any energetic - work, though in general it implies hard work, but in modern parlance - it is specially confined to industrial work of the kind done by the - "working-classes." - - [2] H. D. Traill, _Social England_, v. 602 (1896). - - [3] W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Commerce and Industry_. - - [4] W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Commerce and Industry_. - - [5] From an "Essay on Trade" (1770), quoted in _History of Factory - Legislation_, by B. L. Hutchins and A. Harrison (1903), pp. 5, 6. - - [6] Minutes of Evidence, House of Commons, 1876; quoted in _History - of Factory Legislation_, by Harrison and Hutchinson, p. 179. - - - - -LABOUR PARTY, in Great Britain, the name given to the party in -parliament composed of working-class representatives. As the result of -the Reform Act of 1884, extending the franchise to a larger new -working-class electorate, the votes of "labour" became more and more a -matter of importance for politicians; and the Liberal party, seeking for -the support of organized labour in the trade unions, found room for a -few working-class representatives, who, however, acted and voted as -Liberals. It was not till 1893 that the Independent Labour party, -splitting off under Mr J. Keir Hardie (b. 1856) from the socialist -organization known as the Social Democratic Federation (founded 1881), -was formed at Bradford, with the object of getting independent -candidates returned to parliament on a socialist programme. In 1900 Mr -Keir Hardie, who as secretary of the Lanarkshire Miners' Union had stood -unsuccessfully as a labour candidate for Mid-Lanark in 1888, and sat as -M.P. for West Ham in 1892-1895, was elected to parliament for -Merthyr-Tydvil by its efforts, and in 1906 it obtained the return of 30 -members, Mr Keir Hardie being chairman of the group. Meanwhile in 1899 -the Trade Union Congress instructed its parliamentary committee to call -a conference on the question of labour representation; and in February -1900 this was attended by trade union delegates and also by -representatives of the Independent Labour party, the Social Democratic -Federation and the Fabian Society. A resolution was carried "to -establish a distinct labour group in parliament, who shall have their -own whips, and agree upon their own policy, which must embrace a -readiness to co-operate with any party which for the time being may be -engaged in promoting legislation in the direct interest of labour," and -the committee (the Labour Representation Committee) was elected for the -purpose. Under their auspices 29 out of 51 candidates were returned at -the election of 1906. These groups were distinct from the Labour members -("Lib.-Labs") who obeyed the Liberal whips and acted with the Liberals. -In 1908 the attempts to unite the parliamentary representatives of the -Independent Labour party with the Trades Union members were successful. -In June of that year the Miners' Federation, returning 15 members, -joined the Independent Labour party, now known for parliamentary -purposes as the "Labour Party"; other Trades Unions, such as the -Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, took the same step. This -arrangement came into force at the general election of 1910, when the -bulk of the miners' representatives signed the constitution of the -Labour party, which after the election numbered 40 members of -parliament. - - - - -LABRADOR,[1] a great peninsula in British North America, bounded E. by -the North Atlantic, N. by Hudson Strait, W. by Hudson and James Bays, -and S. by an arbitrary line extending eastwards from the south-east -corner of Hudson Bay, near 51 deg. N., to the mouth of the Moisie river, -on the Gulf of St Lawrence, in 50 deg. N., and thence eastwards by the -Gulf of St Lawrence. It extends from 50 deg. to 63 deg. N., and from 55 -deg. to 80 deg. W., and embraces an approximate area of 511,000 sq. m. -Recent explorations and surveys have added greatly to the knowledge of -this vast region, and have shown that much of the peninsula is not a -land of "awful desolation," but a well-wooded country, containing latent -resources of value in its forests, fisheries and minerals. - - _Physical Geography._--Labrador forms the eastern limb of the V in the - Archaean protaxis of North America (see CANADA), and includes most of - the highest parts of that area. Along some portions of the coasts of - Hudson and also of Ungava Bay there is a fringe of lowland, but most - of the interior is a plateau rising toward the south and east. The - highest portion extends east and west between 52 deg. and 54 deg. N., - where an immense granite area lies between the headwaters of the - larger rivers of the four principal drainage basins; the lowest area - is between Hudson Bay and Ungava Bay in the north-west, where the - general level is not more than 500 ft. above the sea. The only - mountains are the range along the Atlantic coast, extending from the - Strait of Belle Isle to Cape Chidley; in their southern half they - rarely exceed 1500 ft., but increase in the northern half to a general - elevation of upwards of 2000 ft., with numerous sharp peaks between - 3000 and 5000 ft., some say 7000 or 8000 ft. The coasts are deeply - indented by irregular bays and fringed with rocky islands, especially - along the high Atlantic coast, where long narrow fiords penetrate - inland. Hamilton Inlet, 250 m. north of the Strait of Belle Isle, is - the longest of these bays, with a length of 150 m. and a breadth - varying from 2 to 30 m. The surface of the outer portions of the - plateau is deeply seamed by valleys, cut into the crystalline rocks by - the natural erosion of rivers, depending for their length and depth - upon the volume of water flowing through them. The valley of the - Hamilton river is the greatest, forms a continuation of the valley of - the Inlet and extends 300 m. farther inland, while its bottom lies - from 500 to 1500 ft. below the surface of the plateau into which it is - cut. The depressions between the low ridges of the interior are - occupied by innumerable lakes, many of great size, including - Mistassini, Mishikamau, Clearwater, Kaniapiskau and Seal, all from 50 - to 100 m. long. The streams discharging these lakes, before entering - their valleys, flow on a level with the country and occupy all - depressions, so that they frequently spread out into lake-expansions - and are often divided into numerous channels by large islands. The - descent into the valleys is usually abrupt, being made by heavy rapids - and falls; the Hamilton, from the level interior, in a course of 12 m. - falls 760 ft. into the head of its valley, this descent including a - sheer drop of 315 ft. at the Grand Falls, which, taken with the large - volume of the river, makes it the greatest fall in North America. The - rivers of the northern and western watersheds drain about two-thirds - of the peninsula; the most important of the former are the Koksoak, - the largest river of Labrador (over 500 m. long), the George, Whale - and Payne rivers, all flowing into Ungava Bay. The large rivers - flowing westwards into Hudson Bay are the Povungnituk, Kogaluk, Great - Whale, Big, East Main and Rupert, varying in length from 300 to 500 m. - The rivers flowing south are exceedingly rapid, the Moisie, Romaine, - Natashkwan and St Augustine being the most important; all are about - 300 m. long. The Atlantic coast range throws most of the drainage - northwards into the Ungava basin, and only small streams fall into the - ocean, except the Hamilton, North-west and Kenamou, which empty into - the head of Hamilton Inlet. - - _Geology._--The peninsula is formed largely of crystalline schists and - gneisses associated with granites and other igneous rocks, all of - archaean age; there are also large areas of non-fossiliferous, - stratified limestones, cherts, shales and iron ores, the unaltered - equivalents of part of the schists and gneisses. Narrow strips of - Animikie (Upper Huronian or perhaps Cambrian) rocks occur along the - low-lying southern and western shores, but there are nowhere else - indications of the peninsula having been below sea-level since an - exceedingly remote time. During the glacial period the country was - covered by a thick mantle of ice, which flowed out radially from a - central collecting-ground. Owing to the extremely long exposure to - denudation, to the subsequent removal of the greater part of the - decomposed rock by glaciers, and to the unequal weathering of the - component rocks, it is now a plateau, which ascends somewhat abruptly - within a few miles of the coast-line to heights of between 500 and - 2000 ft. The interior is undulating, and traversed by ridges of low, - rounded hills, seldom rising more than 500 ft. above the surrounding - general level. - - _Minerals._--The mineral wealth is undeveloped. Thick beds of - excellent iron ore cover large areas in the interior and along the - shores of Hudson and Ungava Bays. Large areas of mineralized Huronian - rocks have also been discovered, similar to areas in other parts of - Canada, where they contain valuable deposits of gold, copper, nickel - and lead; good prospects of these metals have been found. - - _Climate._--The climate ranges from cold temperate on the southern - coasts to arctic on Hudson Strait, and is generally so rigorous that - it is doubtful if the country is fit for agriculture north of 51 deg., - except on the low grounds near the coast. On James Bay good crops of - potatoes and other roots are grown at Fort George, 54 deg. N., while - about the head of Hamilton Inlet, on the east coast, and in nearly the - same latitude, similar crops are easily cultivated. On the outer - coasts the climate is more rigorous, being affected by the floating - ice borne southwards on the Arctic current. In the interior at - Mistassini, 50 deg. 30' N, a crop of potatoes is raised annually, but - they rarely mature. No attempts at agriculture have been made - elsewhere inland. Owing to the absence of grass plains, there is - little likelihood that it will ever be a grazing district. There are - only two seasons in the interior: winter begins early in October, with - the freezing of the small lakes, and lasts until the middle of June, - when the ice on rivers and lakes melts and summer suddenly bursts - forth. From unconnected observations the lowest temperatures of the - interior range from -50 deg. F. to -60 deg. F., and are slightly - higher along the coast. The mean summer temperature of the interior is - about 55 deg. F., with frosts during every month in the northern - portion. On the Atlantic coast and in Hudson Bay the larger bays - freeze solid between the 1st and 15th of December, and these coasts - remain ice-bound until late in June. Hudson Strait is usually - sufficiently open for navigation about the 10th of July. - - _Vegetation._--The southern half is included in the sub-Arctic forest - belt, and nine species of trees constitute the whole arborescent flora - of this region; these species are the white birch, poplar, aspen, - cedar. Banksian pine, white and black spruce, balsam fir and larch. - The forest is continuous over the southern portion to 53 deg. N., the - only exceptions being the summits of rocky hills and the outer islands - of the Atlantic and Hudson Bay, while the low margins and river - valleys contain much valuable timber. To the northward the size and - number of barren areas rapidly increase, so that in 55 deg. N. more - than half the country is treeless, and two degrees farther north the - limit of trees is reached, leaving, to the northward, only barrens - covered with low Arctic flowering plants, sedges and lichens. - - _Fisheries._--The fisheries along the shores of the Gulf of St - Lawrence and of the Atlantic form practically the only industry of the - white population scattered along the coasts, as well as of a large - proportion of the inhabitants of Newfoundland. The census (1891) of - Newfoundland gave 10,478 men, 2081 women and 828 children employed in - the Labrador fishery in 861 vessels, of which the tonnage amounted to - 33,689; the total catch being 488,788 quintals of cod, 1275 tierces of - salmon and 3828 barrels of herring, which, compared with the customs - returns for 1880, showed an increase of cod and decreases of salmon - and herring. The salmon fishery along the Atlantic coast is now very - small, the decrease being probably due to excessive use of cod-traps. - The cod fishery is now carried on along the entire Atlantic coast and - into the eastern part of Ungava Bay, where excellent catches have been - made since 1893. The annual value of the fisheries on the Canadian - portion of the coast is about $350,000. The fisheries of Hudson Bay - and of the interior are wholly undeveloped, though both the bay and - the large lakes of the interior are well stocked with several species - of excellent fish, including Arctic trout, brook trout, lake trout, - white fish, sturgeon and cod. - -_Population._--The population is approximately 14,500, or about one -person to every 35 sq. m.; it is made up of 3500 Indians, 2000 Eskimo -and 9000 whites. The last are confined to the coasts and to the Hudson -Bay Company's trading posts of the interior. On the Atlantic coast they -are largely immigrants from Newfoundland, together with descendants of -English fishermen and Hudson Bay Company's servants. To the north of -Hamilton Inlet they are of more or less mixed blood from marriage with -Eskimo women. The Newfoundland census of 1901 gave 3634 as the number of -permanent white residents along the Atlantic coast, and the Canadian -census (1891) gave a white population of 5728, mostly French Canadians, -scattered along the north shore of the Gulf of St Lawrence, while the -whites living at the inland posts did not exceed fifty persons. It is -difficult to give more than a rough approximation of the number of the -native population, owing to their habits of roving from one trading post -to another, and the consequent liability of counting the same family -several times if the returns are computed from the books of the various -posts, the only available data for an enumeration. The following -estimate is arrived at in this manner: Indians--west coast, 1200; -Ungava Bay, 200; east coast, 200; south coast, 1900. Eskimo--Atlantic -coast, 1000; south shore of Hudson Strait, 800; east coast of Hudson -Bay, 500. The Indians roam over the southern interior in small bands, -their northern limit being determined by that of the trees on which they -depend for fuel. They live wholly by the chase, and their numbers are -dependent upon the deer and other animals; as a consequence there is a -constant struggle between the Indian and the lower animals for -existence, with great slaughter of the latter, followed by periodic -famines among the natives, which greatly reduce their numbers and -maintain an equilibrium. The native population has thus remained about -stationary for the last two centuries. The Indians belong to the -Algonquin family, and speak dialects of the Cree language. By contact -with missionaries and fur-traders they are more or less civilized, and -the great majority of them are Christians. Those living north of the St -Lawrence are Roman Catholic, while the Indians of the western watershed -have been converted by the missionaries of the Church Mission Society; -the eastern and northern bands have not yet been reached by the -missionaries, and are still pagans. The Eskimo of the Atlantic coast -have long been under the guidance of the Moravian missionaries, and are -well advanced in civilization; those of Hudson Bay have been taught by -the Church Mission Society, and promise well; while the Eskimo of Hudson -Strait alone remain without teachers, and are pagans. The Eskimo live -along the coasts, only going inland for short periods to hunt the -barren-ground caribou for their winter clothing; the rest of the year -they remain on the shore or the ice, hunting seals and porpoises, which -afford them food, clothing and fuel. The christianized Indians and -Eskimo read and write in their own language; those under the teaching of -the Church Mission Society use a syllabic character, the others make use -of the ordinary alphabet. - -_Political Review._--The peninsula is divided politically between the -governments of Canada, Newfoundland and the province of Quebec. The -government of Newfoundland, under Letters Patent of the 28th of March -1876, exercises jurisdiction along the Atlantic coast; the boundary -between its territory and that of Canada is a line running due north and -south from Anse Sablon, on the north shore of the Strait of Belle Isle, -to 52 deg. N., the remainder of the boundary being as yet undetermined. -The northern boundary of the province of Quebec follows the East Main -river to its source in Patamisk lake, thence by a line due east to the -Ashuanipi branch of the Hamilton river; it then follows that river and -Hamilton Inlet to the coast area under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland. -The remainder of the peninsula, north of the province of Quebec, by -order in council dated the 18th of December 1897, was constituted Ungava -District, an unorganized territory under the jurisdiction of the -government of the Dominion of Canada. - - AUTHORITIES.--W. T. Grenfell and others, _Labrador: the Country and - the People_ (New York, 1909); R. F. Holmes, "A Journey in the Interior - of Labrador," Proc. _R.G.S._ x. 189-205 (1887); A. S. Packard, _The - Labrador Coast_ (New York, 1891); Austen Cary, "Exploration on Grand - River, Labrador," _Bul. Am. Geo. Soc._ vol. xxiv., 1892; R. Bell, "The - Labrador Peninsula," _Scottish Geo. Mag._ July 1895. Also the - following reports by the Geological Survey of Canada:--R. Bell, - "Report on an Exploration of the East Coast of Hudson Bay," 1877-1878; - "Observations on the Coast of Labrador and on Hudson Strait and Bay," - 1882-1884; A. P. Low, "Report on the Mistassini Expedition," 1885; - "Report on James Bay and the Country East of Hudson Bay," 1887-1888; - "Report on Explorations in the Labrador Peninsula, 1892-1895," 1896; - "Report on a Traverse of the Northern Part of the Labrador Peninsula," - 1898; "Report on the South Shore of Hudson Strait," 1899. For History: - W. G. Gosling, _Labrador_ (1910). (A. P. Lo.; A. P. C.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] From the Portuguese _llavrador_ (a yeoman farmer). The name was - originally given to Greenland (1st half of 16th century) and was - transferred to the peninsula in the belief that it formed part of the - same country as Greenland. The name was bestowed "because he who - first gave notice of seeing it [Greenland] was a farmer (_llavrador_) - from the Azores." See the historical sketch of Labrador by W. S. - Wallace in Grenfell's _Labrador, &c._, 1909. - - - - -LABRADORITE, or LABRADOR SPAR, a lime-soda felspar of the plagioclase -(q.v.) group, often cut and polished as an ornamental stone. It takes -its name from the coast of Labrador, where it was discovered, as -boulders, by the Moravian Mission about 1770, and specimens were soon -afterwards sent to the secretary in London, the Rev. B. Latrobe. The -felspar itself is generally of a dull grey colour, with a rather greasy -lustre, but many specimens exhibit in certain directions a magnificent -play of colours--blue, green, orange, purple or red; the colour in some -specimens changing when the stone is viewed in different directions. -This optical effect, known sometimes as "labradorescence," seems due in -some cases to the presence of minute laminae of certain minerals, like -gothite or haematite, arranged parallel to the surface which reflects -the colour; but in other cases it may be caused not so much by -inclusions as by a delicate lamellar structure in the felspar. An -aventurine effect is produced by the presence of microscopic enclosures. -The original labradorite was found in the neighbourhood of Nain, notably -in a lagoon about 50 m. inland, and in St Paul's Island. Here it occurs -with hypersthene, of a rich bronzy sheen, forming a coarse-grained -norite. When wet, the stones are remarkably brilliant, and have been -called by the natives "fire rocks." Russia has also yielded chatoyant -labradorite, especially near Kiev and in Finland; a fine blue -labradorite has been brought from Queensland; and the mineral is also -known in several localities in the United States, as at Keeseville, in -Essex county, New York. The ornamental stone from south Norway, now -largely used as a decorative material in architecture, owes its beauty -to a felspar with a blue opalescence, often called labradorite, but -really a kind of orthoclase which Professor W. C. Brogger has termed -cryptoperthite, whilst the rock in which it occurs is an augite-syenite -called by him laurvigite, from its chief locality, Laurvik in Norway. -Common labradorite, without play of colour, is an important constituent -of such rocks as gabbro, diorite, andesite, dolerite and basalt. (See -PLAGIOCLASE.) Ejected crystals of labradorite are found on Monti Rossi, -a double parasitic cone on Etna. - -The term labradorite is unfortunately used also as a rock-name, having -been applied by Fouque and Levy to a group of basic rocks rich in augite -and poor in olivine. (F. W. R.*) - - - - -LABRADOR TEA, the popular name for a species of _Ledum_, a small -evergreen shrub growing in bogs and swamps in Greenland and the more -northern parts of North America. The leaves are tough, densely covered -with brown wool on the under face, fragrant when crushed and have been -used as a substitute for tea. The plant is a member of the heath family -(Ericaceae). - - - - -LABRUM (Lat. for "lip"), the large vessel of the warm bath in the Roman -thermae. These were cut out of great blocks of marble and granite, and -have generally an overhanging lip. There is one in the Vatican of -porphyry over 12 ft. in diameter. The term _labrum_ is used in zoology, -of a lip or lip-like part; in entomology it is applied specifically to -the upper lip of an insect, the lower lip being termed _labium_. - - - - -LA BRUYERE, JEAN DE (1643-1696), French essayist and moralist, was born -in Paris on the 16th of August 1645, and not as was once the common -statement, at Dourdan (Seine-et-Oise) in 1639. His family was of the -middle class, and his reference to a certain Geoffroy de la Bruyere, a -crusader, is only a satirical illustration of a method of -self-ennoblement common in France as in some other countries. Indeed he -himself always signed the name Delabruyere in one word, thus avowing his -_roture_. His progenitors, however, were of respectable position, and he -could trace them back at least as far as his great-grandfather, who had -been a strong Leaguer. La Bruyere's own father was controller-general of -finance to the Hotel de Ville. The son was educated by the Oratorians -and at the university of Orleans; he was called to the bar, and in 1673 -bought a post in the revenue department at Caen, which gave the status -of noblesse and a certain income. In 1687 he sold this office. His -predecessor in it was a relation of Bossuet, and it is thought that the -transaction was the cause of La Bruyere's introduction to the great -orator. Bossuet, who from the date of his own preceptorship of the -dauphin, was a kind of agent-general for tutorships in the royal family, -introduced him in 1684 to the household of the great Conde, to whose -grandson Henri Jules de Bourbon as well as to that prince's girl-bride -Mlle de Nantes, one of Louis XIV.'s natural children, La Bruyere became -tutor. The rest of his life was passed in the household of the prince or -else at court, and he seems to have profited by the inclination which -all the Conde family had for the society of men of letters. Very little -is known of the events of this part--or, indeed, of any part--of his -life. The impression derived from the few notices of him is of a silent, -observant, but somewhat awkward man, resembling in manners Joseph -Addison, whose master in literature La Bruyere undoubtedly was. Yet -despite the numerous enemies which his book raised up for him, most of -these notices are favourable--notably that of Saint-Simon, an acute -judge and one bitterly prejudiced against _roturiers_ generally. There -is, however, a curious passage in a letter from Boileau to Racine in -which he regrets that "nature has not made La Bruyere as agreeable as he -would like to be." His _Caracteres_ appeared in 1688, and at once, as -Nicolas de Malezieu had predicted, brought him "bien des lecteurs et -bien des ennemis." At the head of these were Thomas Corneille, -Fontenelle and Benserade, who were pretty clearly aimed at in the book, -as well as innumerable other persons, men and women of letters as well -as of society, on whom the cap of La Bruyere's fancy-portraits was -fitted by manuscript "keys" compiled by the scribblers of the day. The -friendship of Bossuet and still more the protection of the Condes -sufficiently defended the author, and he continued to insert fresh -portraits of his contemporaries in each new edition of his book, -especially in the 4th (1689). Those, however, whom he had attacked were -powerful in the Academy, and numerous defeats awaited La Bruyere before -he could make his way into that guarded hold. He was defeated thrice in -1691, and on one memorable occasion he had but seven votes, five of -which were those of Bossuet, Boileau, Racine, Pellisson and -Bussy-Rabutin. It was not till 1693 that he was elected, and even then -an epigram, which, considering his admitted insignificance in -conversation, was not of the worst, _haesit lateri_:-- - - "Quand la Bruyere se presente - Pourquoi faut il crier haro? - Pour faire un nombre de quarante - Ne falloit il pas un zero?" - -His unpopularity was, however, chiefly confined to the subjects of his -sarcastic portraiture, and to the hack writers of the time, of whom he -was wont to speak with a disdain only surpassed by that of Pope. His -description of the _Mercure galant_ as "_immediatement au dessous de -rien_" is the best-remembered specimen of these unwise attacks; and -would of itself account for the enmity of the editors, Fontenelle and -the younger Corneille. La Bruyere's discourse of admission at the -Academy, one of the best of its kind, was, like his admission itself, -severely criticized, especially by the partisans of the "Moderns" in the -"Ancient and Modern" quarrel. With the _Caracteres_, the translation of -Theophrastus, and a few letters, most of them addressed to the prince de -Conde, it completes the list of his literary work, with the exception of -a curious and much-disputed posthumous treatise. La Bruyere died very -suddenly, and not long after his admission to the Academy. He is said to -have been struck with dumbness in an assembly of his friends, and, being -carried home to the Hotel de Conde, to have expired of apoplexy a day or -two afterwards, on the 10th of May 1696. It is not surprising that, -considering the recent panic about poisoning, the bitter personal -enmities which he had excited and the peculiar circumstances of his -death, suspicions of foul play should have been entertained, but there -was apparently no foundation for them. Two years after his death -appeared certain _Dialogues sur le Quietisme_, alleged to have been -found among his papers incomplete, and to have been completed by the -editor. As these dialogues are far inferior in literary merit to La -Bruyere's other works, their genuineness has been denied. But the -straightforward and circumstantial account of their appearance given by -this editor, the Abbe du Pin, a man of acknowledged probity, the -intimacy of La Bruyere with Bossuet, whose views in his contest with -Fenelon these dialogues are designed to further, and the entire absence, -at so short a time after the alleged author's death, of the least -protest on the part of his friends and representatives, seem to be -decisive in their favour. - -Although it is permissible to doubt whether the value of the -_Caracteres_ has not been somewhat exaggerated by traditional French -criticism, they deserve beyond all question a high place. The plan of -the book is thoroughly original, if that term may be accorded to a novel -and skilful combination of existing elements. The treatise of -Theophrastus may have furnished the first idea, but it gave little more. -With the ethical generalizations and social Dutch painting of his -original La Bruyere combined the peculiarities of the Montaigne essay, -of the _Pensees_ and _Maximes_ of which Pascal and La Rochefoucauld are -the masters respectively, and lastly of that peculiar 17th-century -product, the "portrait" or elaborate literary picture of the personal -and mental characteristics of an individual. The result was quite unlike -anything that had been before seen, and it has not been exactly -reproduced since, though the essay of Addison and Steele resembles it -very closely, especially in the introduction of fancy portraits. In the -titles of his work, and in its extreme desultoriness, La Bruyere reminds -the reader of Montaigne, but he aimed too much at sententiousness to -attempt even the apparent continuity of the great essayist. The short -paragraphs of which his chapters consist are made up of maxims proper, -of criticisms literary and ethical, and above all of the celebrated -sketches of individuals baptized with names taken from the plays and -romances of the time. These last are the great feature of the work, and -that which gave it its immediate if not its enduring popularity. They -are wonderfully piquant, extraordinarily life-like in a certain sense, -and must have given great pleasure or more frequently exquisite pain to -the originals, who were in many cases unmistakable and in most -recognizable. - -But there is something wanting in them. The criticism of Charpentier, -who received La Bruyere at the Academy, and who was of the opposite -faction, is in fact fully justified as far as it goes. La Bruyere -literally "est [trop] descendu dans le particulier." He has neither, -like Moliere, embodied abstract peculiarities in a single life-like -type, nor has he, like Shakespeare, made the individual pass _sub -speciem aeternitatis_, and serve as a type while retaining his -individuality. He is a photographer rather than an artist in his -portraiture. So, too, his maxims, admirably as they are expressed, and -exact as their truth often is, are on a lower level than those of La -Rochefoucauld. Beside the sculpturesque precision, the Roman brevity, -the profoundness of ethical intuition "piercing to the accepted hells -beneath," of the great Frondeur, La Bruyere has the air of a literary -_petit-maitre_ dressing up superficial observation in the finery of -_esprit_. It is indeed only by comparison that he loses, but then it is -by comparison that he is usually praised. His abundant wit and his -personal "malice" have done much to give him his rank in French -literature, but much must also be allowed to his purely literary merits. -With Racine and Massillon he is probably the very best writer of what is -somewhat arbitrarily styled classical French. He is hardly ever -incorrect--the highest merit in the eyes of a French academic critic. He -is always well-bred, never obscure, rarely though sometimes "precious" -in the turns and niceties of language in which he delights to indulge, -in his avowed design of attracting readers by form, now that, in point -of matter, "tout est dit." It ought to be added to his credit that he -was sensible of the folly of impoverishing French by ejecting old words. -His chapter on "Les ouvrages de l'esprit" contains much good criticism, -though it shows that, like most of his contemporaries except Fenelon, he -was lamentably ignorant of the literature of his own tongue. - - The editions of La Bruyere, both partial and complete, have been - extremely numerous. _Les Caracteres de Theophraste traduits du Grec, - avec les caracteres et les moeurs de ce siecle_, appeared for the - first time in 1688, being published by Michallet, to whose little - daughter, according to tradition, La Bruyere gave the profits of the - book as a dowry. Two other editions, little altered, were published in - the same year. In the following year, and in each year until 1694, - with the exception of 1693, a fresh edition appeared, and, in all - these five, additions, omissions and alterations were largely made. A - ninth edition, not much altered, was put forth in the year of the - author's death. The Academy speech appeared in the eighth edition. The - Quietist dialogues were published in 1699; most of the letters, - including those addressed to Conde, not till 1867. In recent times - numerous editions of the complete works have appeared, notably those - of Walckenaer (1845), Servois (1867, in the series of _Grands - ecrivains de la France_), Asselineau (a scholarly reprint of the last - original edition, 1872) and finally Chassang (1876); the last is one - of the most generally useful, as the editor has collected almost - everything of value in his predecessors. The literature of "keys" to - La Bruyere is extensive and apocryphal. Almost everything that can be - done in this direction and in that of general illustration was done by - Edouard Fournier in his learned and amusing _Comedie de La Bruyere_ - (1866); M. Paul Morillot contributed a monograph on La Bruyere to the - series of _Grands ecrivains francais_ in 1904. (G. Sa.) - - - - -LABUAN (a corruption of the Malay word _labuh-an_, signifying an -"anchorage"), an island of the Malay Archipelago, off the north-west -coast of Borneo in 5 deg. 16' N., 115 deg. 15' E. Its area is 30.23 sq. -m.; it is distant about 6 m. from the mainland of Borneo at the nearest -point, and lies opposite to the northern end of the great Brunei Bay. -The island is covered with low hills rising from flats near the shore to -an irregular plateau near the centre. About 1500 acres are under rice -cultivation, and there are scattered patches of coco-nut and sago palms -and a few vegetable gardens, the latter owned for the most part by -Chinese. For the rest Labuan is covered over most of its extent by -vigorous secondary growth, amidst which the charred trunks of trees rise -at frequent intervals, the greater part of the forest of the island -having been destroyed by great accidental conflagrations. Labuan was -ceded to Great Britain in 1846, chiefly through the instrumentality of -Sir James Brooke, the first raja of Sarawak, and was occupied two years -later. - -At the time of its cession the island was uninhabited, but in 1881 the -population numbered 5731, though it had declined to 5361 in 1891. The -census returns for 1901 give the population at 8411. The native -population consists of Malay fishermen, Chinese, Tamils and small -shifting communities of Kadayans, Tutongs and other natives of the -neighbouring Bornean coast. There are about fifty European residents. At -the time of its occupation by Great Britain a brilliant future was -predicted for Labuan, which it was thought would become a second -Singapore. These hopes have not been realized. The coal deposits, which -are of somewhat indifferent quality, have been worked with varying -degrees of failure by a succession of companies, one of which, the -Labuan & Borneo Ltd., liquidated in 1902 after the collapse of a shaft -upon which large sums had been expended. It was succeeded by the Labuan -Coalfields Ltd. The harbour is a fine one, and the above-named company -possesses three wharves capable of berthing the largest Eastern-going -ocean steamers. To-day Labuan chiefly exists as a trading depot for the -natives of the neighbouring coast of Borneo, who sell their -produce--beeswax, edible birds-nests, camphor, gutta, trepang, &c.,--to -Chinese shopkeepers, who resell it in Singapore. There is also a -considerable trade in sago, much of which is produced on the mainland, -and there are three small sago-factories on the island where the raw -product is converted into flour. The Eastern Extension Telegraph Company -has a central station at Labuan with cables to Singapore, Hong-Kong and -British North Borneo. Monthly steam communication is maintained by a -German firm between Labuan, Singapore and the Philippines. The colony -joined the Imperial Penny Postage Union in 1889. There are a few miles -of road on the island and a metre-gauge railway from the harbour to the -coal mines, the property of the company. There is a Roman Catholic -church with a resident priest, an Anglican church, visited periodically -by a clergyman from the mainland, two native and Chinese schools, and a -sailors' club, built by the Roman Catholic mission. The bishop of -Singapore and Sarawak is also bishop of Labuan. The European graveyard -has repeatedly been the scene of outrages perpetrated, it is believed, -by natives from the mainland of Borneo, the graves being rifled and the -hair of the head and other parts of the corpses being carried off to -furnish ornaments to weapons and ingredients in the magic philtres of -the natives. Pulau Dat, a small island in the near neighbourhood of -Labuan, is the site of a fine coco-nut plantation whence nuts and copra -are exported in bulk. The climate is hot and very humid. - - Until 1869 the expenditure of the colony was partly defrayed by - imperial grants-in-aid, but after that date it was left to its own - resources. A garrison of imperial troops was maintained until 1871, - when the troops were withdrawn after many deaths from fever and - dysentery had occurred among them. Since then law and order have been - maintained without difficulty by a small mixed police force of - Punjabis and Malays. From the 1st of January 1890 to the 1st of - January 1906 Labuan was transferred for administrative purposes to the - British North Borneo Company, the governor for the time being of the - company's territories holding also the royal commission as governor of - Labuan. This arrangement did not work satisfactorily and called forth - frequent petitions and protests from the colonists. Labuan was then - placed under the government of the Straits Settlements, and is - administered by a deputy governor who is a member of the Straits Civil - Service. - - - - -LABURNUM, known botanically as _Laburnum vulgare_ (or _Cytisus -Laburnum_), a familiar tree of the pea family (Leguminosae); it is also -known as "golden chain" and "golden rain." It is a native of the -mountains of France, Switzerland, southern Germany, northern Italy, &c., -has long been cultivated as an ornamental tree throughout Europe, and -was introduced into north-east America by the European colonists. Gerard -records it as growing in his garden in 1597 under the names of anagyris, -laburnum or beane trefoyle (_Herball_, p. 1239), but the date of its -introduction into England appears to be unknown. In France it is called -_l'aubour_--a corruption from laburnum according to Du Hamel--as also -_arbois_, i.e. _arc-bois_, "the wood having been used by the ancient -Gauls for bows. It is still so employed in some parts of the Maconnois, -where the bows are found to preserve their strength and elasticity for -half a century" (Loudon, _Arboretum_, ii. 590). - -Several varieties of this tree are cultivated, differing in the size of -the flowers, in the form of the foliage, &c., such as the "oak-leafed" -(_quercifolium_), _pendulum_, _crispum_, &c.; var. _aureum_ has golden -yellow leaves. One of the most remarkable forms is _Cytisus Adami (C. -purpurascens)_, which bears three kinds of blossoms, viz. racemes of -pure yellow flowers, others of a purple colour and others of an -intermediate brick-red tint. The last are hybrid blossoms, and are -sterile, with malformed ovules, though the pollen appears to be good. -The yellow and purple "reversions" are fertile. It originated in Paris -in 1828 by M. Adam, who inserted a "shield" of the bark of Cytisus -purpureus into a stock of Laburnum. A vigorous shoot from this bud was -subsequently propagated. Hence it would appear that the two distinct -species became united by their cambium layers, and the trees propagated -therefrom subsequently reverted to their respective parentages in -bearing both yellow and purple flowers, but produce as well blossoms of -an intermediate or hybrid character. Such a result may be called a -"graft-hybrid." For full details see Darwin's _Animals and Plants under -Domestication_. - -The laburnum has highly poisonous properties. The roots taste like -liquorice, which is a member of the same family as the laburnum. It has -proved fatal to cattle, though hares and rabbits eat the bark of it with -avidity (_Gardener's Chronicle_, 1881, vol. xvi. p. 666). The seeds also -are highly poisonous, possessing emetic as well as acrid narcotic -principles, especially in a green state. Gerard (loc. cit.) alludes to -the powerful effect produced on the system by taking the bruised leaves -medicinally. Pliny states that bees will not visit the flowers (_N.H._ -xvi. 31), but this is an error, as bees and butterflies play an -important part in the fertilization of the flowers, which they visit for -the nectar. - -The heart wood of the laburnum is of a dark reddish-brown colour, hard -and durable, and takes a good polish. Hence it is much prized by -turners, and used with other coloured woods for inlaying purposes. The -laburnum has been called false ebony from this character of its wood. - - - - -LABYRINTH (Gr. [Greek: labyrinthos], Lat. _labyrinthus_), the name given -by the Greeks and Romans to buildings, entirely or partly subterranean, -containing a number of chambers and intricate passages, which rendered -egress puzzling and difficult. The word is considered by some to be of -Egyptian origin, while others connect it with the Gr. [Greek: laura], -the passage of a mine. Another derivation suggested is from [Greek: -labrys], a Lydian or Carian word meaning a "double-edged axe" (_Journal -of Hellenic Studies_, xxi. 109, 268), according to which the Cretan -labyrinth or palace of Minos was the house of the double axe, the symbol -of Zeus. - -Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 19, 91) mentions the following as the four -famous labyrinths of antiquity. - -1. The Egyptian: of which a description is given by Herodotus (ii. 148) -and Strabo (xvii. 811). It was situated to the east of Lake Moeris, -opposite the ancient site of Arsinoe or Crocodilopolis. According to -Egyptologists, the word means "the temple at the entrance of the lake." -According to Herodotus, the entire building, surrounded by a single -wall, contained twelve courts and 3000 chambers, 1500 above and 1500 -below ground. The roofs were wholly of stone, and the walls covered with -sculpture. On one side stood a pyramid 40 orgyiae, or about 243 ft. -high. Herodotus himself went through the upper chambers, but was not -permitted to visit those underground, which he was told contained the -tombs of the kings who had built the labyrinth, and of the sacred -crocodiles. Other ancient authorities considered that it was built as a -place of meeting for the Egyptian nomes or political divisions; but it -is more likely that it was intended for sepulchral purposes. It was the -work of Amenemhe III., of the 12th dynasty, who lived about 2300 B.C. It -was first located by the Egyptologist Lepsius to the north of Hawara in -the Fayum, and (in 1888) Flinders Petrie discovered its foundation, the -extent of which is about 1000 ft. long by 800 ft. wide. Immediately to -the north of it is the pyramid of Hawara, in which the mummies of the -king and his daughter have been found (see W. M. Flinders Petrie, -_Hawara, Biahmu, and Arsinoe_, 1889). - -2. The Cretan: said to have been built by Daedalus on the plan of the -Egyptian, and famous for its connexion with the legend of the Minotaur. -It is doubtful whether it ever had any real existence and Diodorus -Siculus says that in his time it had already disappeared. By the older -writers it was placed near Cnossus, and is represented on coins of that -city, but nothing corresponding to it has been found during the course -of the recent excavations, unless the royal palace was meant. The rocks -of Crete are full of winding caves, which gave the first idea of the -legendary labyrinth. Later writers (for instance, Claudian, _De sexto -Cons. Honorii_, 634) place it near Gortyna, and a set of winding -passages and chambers close to that place is still pointed out as the -labyrinth; these are, however, in reality ancient quarries. - -3. The Lemnian: similar in construction to the Egyptian. Remains of it -existed in the time of Pliny. Its chief feature was its 150 columns. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Labyrinth of London and Wise.] - -4. The Italian: a series of chambers in the lower part of the tomb of -Porsena at Clusium. This tomb was 300 ft. square and 50 ft. high, and -underneath it was a labyrinth, from which it was exceedingly difficult -to find an exit without the assistance of a clew of thread. It has been -maintained that this tomb is to be recognized in the mound named Poggio -Gajella near Chiusi. - -Lastly, Pliny (xxxvi. 19) applies the word to a rude drawing on the -ground or pavement, to some extent anticipating the modern or garden -maze. - - On the Egyptian labyrinth see A. Wiedemann, _Agyptische Geschichte_ - (1884), p. 258, and his edition of the second book of Herodotus - (1890); on the Cretan, C. Hock, _Kreta_ (1823-1829), and A. J. Evans - in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_; on the subject generally, articles - in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ and Daremberg and Saglio's - _Dictionnaire des antiquites_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Labyrinth of Batty Langley.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Labyrinth at Versailles.] - -In gardening, a labyrinth or _maze_ means an intricate network of -pathways enclosed by hedges or plantations, so that those who enter -become bewildered in their efforts to find the centre or make their -exit. It is a remnant of the old geometrical style of gardening. There -are two methods of forming it. That which is perhaps the more common -consists of walks, or alleys as they were formerly called, laid out and -kept to an equal width or nearly so by parallel hedges, which should be -so close and thick that the eye cannot readily penetrate them. The task -is to get to the centre, which is often raised, and generally contains -a covered seat, a fountain, a statue or even a small group of trees. -After reaching this point the next thing is to return to the entrance, -when it is found that egress is as difficult as ingress. To every design -of this sort there should be a key, but even those who know the key are -apt to be perplexed. Sometimes the design consists of alleys only, as in -fig. 1, published in 1706 by London and Wise. In such a case, when the -farther end is reached, there only remains to travel back again. Of a -more pretentious character was a design published by Switzer in 1742. -This is of octagonal form, with very numerous parallel hedges and paths, -and "six different entrances, whereof there is but one that leads to the -centre, and that is attended with some difficulties and a great many -stops." Some of the older designs for labyrinths, however, avoid this -close parallelism of the alleys, which, though equally involved and -intricate in their windings, are carried through blocks of thick -planting, as shown in fig. 2, from a design published in 1728 by Batty -Langley. These blocks of shrubbery have been called wildernesses. To -this latter class belongs the celebrated labyrinth at Versailles (fig. -3), of which Switzer observes, that it "is allowed by all to be the -noblest of its kind in the world." - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Maze at Hampton Court.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Maze at Somerleyton Hall.] - - Whatever style be adopted, it is essential that there should be a - thick healthy growth of the hedges or shrubberies that confine the - wanderer. The trees used should be impenetrable to the eye, and so - tall that no one can look over them; and the paths should be of gravel - and well kept. The trees chiefly used for the hedges, and the best for - the purpose, are the hornbeam among deciduous trees, or the yew among - evergreens. The beech might be used instead of the hornbeam on - suitable soil. The green holly might be planted as an evergreen with - very good results, and so might the American arbor vitae if the - natural soil presented no obstacle. The ground must be well prepared, - so as to give the trees a good start, and a mulching of manure during - the early years of their growth would be of much advantage. They must - be kept trimmed in or clipped, especially in their earlier stages; - trimming with the knife is much to be preferred to clipping with - shears. Any plants getting much in advance of the rest should be - topped, and the whole kept to some 4 ft. or 5 ft. in height until the - lower parts are well thickened, when it may be allowed to acquire the - allotted height by moderate annual increments. In cutting, the hedge - (as indeed all hedges) should be kept broadest at the base and - narrowed upwards, which prevents it from getting thin and bare below - by the stronger growth being drawn to the tops. - - The maze in the gardens at Hampton Court Palace (fig. 4) is considered - one of the finest examples in England. It was planted in the early - part of the reign of William III., though it has been supposed that a - maze had existed there since the time of Henry VIII. It is constructed - on the hedge and alley system, and was, it is believed, originally - planted with hornbeam, but many of the plants have been replaced by - hollies, yews, &c., so that the vegetation is mixed. The walks are - about half a mile in length, and the ground occupied is a little over - a quarter of an acre. The centre contains two large trees, with a seat - beneath each. The key to reach this resting place is to keep the right - hand continuously in contact with the hedge from first to last, going - round all the stops. - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Labyrinth in Horticultural Society's Garden.] - - The maze in the gardens at Somerleyton Hall, near Lowestoft (fig. 5), - was designed by Mr John Thomas. The hedges are of English yew, are - about 6(1/2) ft. high, and have been planted about sixty years. In the - centre is a grass mound, raised to the height of the hedges, and on - this mound is a pagoda, approached by a curved grass path. At the two - corners on the western side are banks of laurels 15 or 16 ft. high. On - each side of the hedges throughout the labyrinth is a small strip of - grass. - - There was also a labyrinth at Theobald's Park, near Cheshunt, when - this place passed from the earl of Salisbury into the possession of - James I. Another is said to have existed at Wimbledon House, the seat - of Earl Spencer, which was probably laid out by Brown in the 18th - century. There is an interesting labyrinth, somewhat after the plan of - fig. 2, at Mistley Place, Manningtree. - - When the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at South - Kensington were being planned, Albert, Prince Consort, the president - of the society, especially desired that there should be a maze formed - in the ante-garden, which was made in the form shown in fig. 6. This - labyrinth, designed by Lieut. W. A. Nesfield, was for many years the - chief point of attraction to the younger visitors to the gardens; but - it was allowed to go to ruin, and had to be destroyed. The gardens - themselves are now built over. (T. Mo.) - - - - -LABYRINTHULIDEA, the name given by Sir Ray Lankester (1885) to Sarcodina -(q.v.) forming a reticulate plasmodium, the denser masses united by fine -pseudopodical threads, hardly distinct from some Proteomyxa, such as -_Archerina_. - -This is a small and heterogeneous group. _Labyrinthula_, discovered by -L. Cienkowsky, forms a network of relatively stiff threads on which are -scattered large spindle-shaped enlargements, each representing an -amoeba, with a single nucleus. The threads are pseudopods, very slowly -emitted and withdrawn. The amoebae multiply by fission in the active -state. The nearest approach to a "reproductive" state is the -approximation of the amoebae, and their separate encystment in an -irregular heap, recalling the Acrasieae. From each cyst ultimately -emerges a single amoeba, or more rarely four (figs. 6, 7). The -saprophyte _Diplophrys (?) stercorea_ (Cienk.) appears closely allied to -this. - -[Illustration: Labyrinthulidea. - - 1. A colony or "cell-heap" of _Labyrinthula vitellina_, Cienk., - crawling upon an Alga. - - 2. A colony or "cell-heap" of _Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides_, Archer, - with fully expanded network of threads on which the oat-shaped - corpuscles (cells) are moving. o, Is an ingested food particle; at c a - portion of the general protoplasm has detached itself and become - encysted. - - 3 A portion of the network of _Labyrinthula vitellina_, Cienk., more - highly magnified. p, Protoplasmic mass apparently produced by fusion - of several filaments. p', Fusion of several cells which have lost - their definite spindle-shaped contour. s, Corpuscles which have become - spherical and are no longer moving (perhaps about to be encysted). - - 4. A single spindle cell and threads of _Labyrinthula macrocystis_, - Cienk. n, Nucleus. - - 5. A group of encysted cells of _L. Macrocystis_, embedded in a tough - secretion. - - 6, 7. Encysted cells of _L. macrocystis_, with enclosed protoplasm - divided into four spores. - - 8, 9. Transverse division of a non-encysted spindle-cell of _L. - macrocystis_.] - -_Chlamydomyxa_ (W. Archer) resembles _Labyrinthula_ in its freely -branched plasmodium, but contains yellowish chromatophores, and minute -oval vesicles ("physodes") filled with a substance allied to -tannin--possibly phloroglucin--which glide along the plasmodial tracks. -The cell-body contains numerous nuclei; but in its active state is not -resolvable into distinct oval amoeboids. It is amphitrophic, ingesting -and digesting other Protista, as well as "assimilating" by its -chromatophores, the product being oil, not starch. The whole body may -form a laminated cellulose resting cyst, from which it may only -temporarily emerge (fig. 2), or it may undergo resolution into nucleate -cells which then encyst, and become multinucleate before rupturing the -cyst afresh. - -_Leydenia_ (F. Schaudinn) is a parasite in malignant diseases of the -pleura. The pseudopodia of adjoining cells unite to form a network; but -its affinities seem to such social naked Foraminifera as _Mikrogromia_. - - See Cienkowsky, _Archiv f. Microscopische Anatomie_, iii. 274 (1867), - xii. 44 (1876); W. Archer, _Quart. Jour. Microscopic Science_, xv. 107 - (1875); E. R. Lankester, _Ibid._, xxxix., 233 (1896); Hieronymus and - Jenkinson, _Ibid._, xiii. 89 (1899); W. Zopf, _Beitrage zur - Physiologie und Morphologie niederer Organismen_, ii. 36 (1892), iv. - 60 (1894); Penard, _Archiv fur Protistenkunde_, iv. 296 (1904); F. - Schaudinn and Leyden, _Sitzungsberichte der Koniglich preussischen - Akademie der Wissenschaft_, vi. (1896). - - - - -LAC, a resinous incrustation formed on the twigs and young branches of -various trees by an insect, _Coccus lacca_, which infests them. The term -lac (_laksha_, Sanskrit; _lakh_, Hindi) is the same as the numeral -lakh--a hundred thousand--and is indicative of the countless hosts of -insects which make their appearance with every successive generation. -Lac is a product of the East Indies, coming especially from Bengal, -Pegu, Siam and Assam, and is produced by a number of trees of the -species _Ficus_, particularly _F. religiosa_. The insect which yields it -is closely allied to the cochineal insect, _Coccus cacti_; kermes, _C. -ilicis_ and Polish grains, _C. polonicus_, all of which, like the lac -insect, yield a red colouring matter. The minute larval insects fasten -in myriads on the young shoots, and, inserting their long proboscides -into the bark, draw their nutriment from the sap of the plant. The -insects begin at once to exude the resinous secretion over their entire -bodies; this forms in effect a cocoon, and, the separate exudations -coalescing, a continuous hard resinous layer regularly honeycombed with -small cavities is deposited over and around the twig. From this living -tomb the female insects, which form the great bulk of the whole, never -escape. After their impregnation, which takes place on the liberation of -the males, about three months from their first appearance, the females -develop into a singular amorphous organism consisting in its main -features of a large smooth shining crimson-coloured sac--the ovary--with -a beak stuck into the bark, and a few papillary processes projected -above the resinous surface. The red fluid in the ovary is the substance -which forms the lac dye of commerce. To obtain the largest amount of -both resin and dye-stuff it is necessary to gather the twigs with their -living inhabitants in or near June and November. Lac encrusting the -twigs as gathered is known in commerce as "stick lac"; the resin crushed -to small fragments and washed in hot water to free it from colouring -matter constitutes "seed lac"; and this, when melted, strained through -thick canvas, and spread out into thin layers, is known as "shellac," -and is the form in which the resin is usually brought to European -markets. Shellac varies in colour from a dark amber to an almost pure -black; the palest, known as "orange-lac," is the most valuable; the -darker varieties--"liver-coloured," "ruby," "garnet," &c.--diminish in -value as the colour deepens. Shellac may be bleached by dissolving it in -a boiling lye of caustic potash and passing chlorine through the -solution till all the resin is precipitated, the product being known as -white shellac. Bleached lac takes light delicate shades of colour, and -dyed a golden yellow it is much used in the East Indies for working into -chain ornaments for the head and for other personal adornments. Lac is -a principal ingredient in sealing-wax, and forms the basis of some of -the most valuable varnishes, besides being useful in various cements, -&c. Average stick lac contains about 68% of resin, 10 of lac dye and 6 -of a waxy substance. Lac dye is obtained by evaporating the water in -which stick lac is washed, and comes into commerce in the form of small -square cakes. It is in many respects similar to, although not identical -with, cochineal. - - - - -LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE (1713-1762), French astronomer, was born at -Rumigny, in the Ardennes, on the 15th of March 1713. Left destitute by -the death of his father, who held a post in the household of the duchess -of Vendome, his theological studies at the College de Lisieux in Paris -were prosecuted at the expense of the duke of Bourbon. After he had -taken deacon's orders, however, he devoted himself exclusively to -science, and, through the patronage of J. Cassini, obtained employment, -first in surveying the coast from Nantes to Bayonne, then, in 1739, in -remeasuring the French arc of the meridian. The success of this -difficult operation, which occupied two years, and achieved the -correction of the anomalous result published by J. Cassini in 1718, was -mainly due to Lacaille's industry and skill. He was rewarded by -admission to the Academy and the appointment of mathematical professor -in Mazarin college, where he worked in a small observatory fitted for -his use. His desire to observe the southern heavens led him to propose, -in 1750, an astronomical expedition to the Cape of Good Hope, which was -officially sanctioned, and fortunately executed. Among its results were -determinations of the lunar and of the solar parallax (Mars serving as -an intermediary), the first measurement of a South African arc of the -meridian, and the observation of 10,000 southern stars. On his return to -Paris in 1754 Lacaille was distressed to find himself an object of -public attention; he withdrew to Mazarin college, and there died, on the -21st of March 1762, of an attack of gout aggravated by unremitting toil. -Lalande said of him that, during a comparatively short life, he had made -more observations and calculations than all the astronomers of his time -put together. The quality of his work rivalled its quantity, while the -disinterestedness and rectitude of his moral character earned him -universal respect. - - His principal works are: _Astronomiae Fundamenta_ (1757), containing a - standard catalogue of 398 stars, re-edited by F. Baily (_Memoirs Roy. - Astr. Society_, v. 93); Tabulae Solares (1758); _Coelum australe - stelliferum_ (1763) (edited by J. D. Maraldi), giving - zone-observations of 10,000 stars, and describing fourteen new - constellations; "Observations sur 515 etoiles du Zodiaque" (published - in t. vi. of his _Ephemerides_, 1763); _Lecons elementaires de - Mathematiques_ (1741), frequently reprinted; ditto _de Mecanique_ - (1743), &c.; ditto _d'Astronomie_ (1746), 4th edition augmented by - Lalande (1779); ditto _d'Optique_ (1750), &c. Calculations by him of - eclipses for eighteen hundred years were inserted in _L'Art de - verifier les dates_ (1750); he communicated to the Academy in 1755 a - classed catalogue of forty-two southern nebulae, and gave in t. ii. of - his _Ephemerides_ (1755) practical rules for the employment of the - lunar method of longitudes, proposing in his additions to Pierre - Bouguer's _Traite de Navigation_ (1760) the model of a nautical - almanac. - - See G. de Fouchy, "Eloge de Lacaille," _Hist. de l'Acad. des - Sciences_, p. 197 (1762); G. Brotier, Preface to Lacaille's _Coelum - australe_; Claude Carlier, _Discours historique_, prefixed to - Lacaille's _Journal historique du voyage fait au Cap_ (1763); J. J. - Lalande, _Connoissance des temps_, p. 185 (1767); _Bibl. astr._ pp. - 422, 456, 461, 482; J. Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siecle_, - pp. 457-542; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. moderne_, tomes ii., - iii., _passim_; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. Handworterbuch_; R. - Grant, _Hist. of Physical Astronomy_, pp. 486, &c.; R. Wolf, - _Geschichte der Astronomie_. A catalogue of 9766 stars, reduced from - Lacaille's observations by T. Henderson, under the supervision of F. - Baily, was published in London in 1847. - - - - -LACAITA, SIR JAMES [GIACOMO] (1813-1895), Anglo-Italian politician and -writer. Born at Manduria in southern Italy, he practised law in Naples, -and having come in contact with a number of prominent Englishmen and -Americans in that city, he acquired a desire to study the English -language. Although a moderate Liberal in politics, he never joined any -secret society, but in 1851 after the restoration of Bourbon autocracy -he was arrested for having supplied Gladstone with information on -Bourbon misrule. Through the intervention of the British and Russian -ministers he was liberated, but on the publication of Gladstone's -famous letters to Lord Aberdeen he was obliged to leave Naples. He first -settled in Edinburgh, where he married Maria Carmichael, and then in -London where he made numerous friends in literary and political circles, -and was professor of Italian at Queen's College from 1853 to 1856. In -the latter year he accompanied Lord Minto to Italy, on which occasion he -first met Cavour. From 1857 to 1863 he was private secretary -(non-political) to Lord Lansdowne, and in 1858 he accompanied Gladstone -to the Ionian Islands as secretary, for which services he was made a -K.C.M.G. the following year. In 1860 Francis II. of Naples had implored -Napoleon III. to send a squadron to prevent Garibaldi from crossing over -from Sicily to Calabria; the emperor expressed himself willing to do so -provided Great Britain co-operated, and Lord John Russell was at first -inclined to agree. At this juncture Cavour, having heard of the scheme, -entrusted Lacaita, at the suggestion of Sir James Hudson, the British -minister at Turin, with the task of inducing Russell to refuse -co-operation. Lacaita, who was an intimate friend both of Russell and -his wife, succeeded, with the help of the latter, in winning over the -British statesman just as he was about to accept the Franco-Neapolitan -proposal, which was in consequence abandoned. He returned to Naples late -in 1860 and the following year was elected member of parliament for -Bitonto, although he had been naturalized a British subject in 1855. He -took little part in parliamentary politics, but in 1876 was created -senator. He was actively interested in a number of English companies -operating in Italy, and was made one of the directors of the Italian -Southern Railway Co. He had a wide circle of friends in many European -countries and in America, including a number of the most famous men in -politics and literature. He died in 1895 at Posilipo near Naples. - - An authority on Dante, he gave many lectures on Italian literature and - history while in England; and among his writings may be mentioned a - large number of articles on Italian subjects in the _Encyclopaedia - Britannica_ (1857-1860), and an edition of Benvenuto da Imola's Latin - lectures on Dante delivered in 1375; he co-operated with Lord Vernon - in the latter's great edition of Dante's _Inferno_ (London, - 1858-1865), and he compiled a catalogue in four volumes of the duke of - Devonshire's library at Chatsworth (London, 1879). - - - - -LA CALLE, a seaport of Algeria, in the arrondissement of Bona, -department of Constantine, 56 m. by rail E. of Bona and 10 m. W. of the -Tunisian frontier. It is the centre of the Algerian and Tunisian coral -fisheries and has an extensive industry in the curing of sardines; but -the harbour is small and exposed to the N.E. and W. winds. The old -fortified town, now almost abandoned, is built on a rocky peninsula -about 400 yds. long, connected with the mainland by a bank of sand. -Since the occupation of La Calle by the French in 1836 a new town has -grown up along the coast. Pop. (1906) of the town, 2774; of the commune, -4612. - -La Calle from the times of its earliest records in the 10th century has -been the residence of coral merchants. In the 16th century exclusive -privileges of fishing for coral were granted by the dey of Algiers to -the French, who first established themselves on a bay to the westward of -La Calle, naming their settlement Bastion de France; many ruins still -exist of this town. In 1677 they moved their headquarters to La Calle. -The company--_Compagnie d'Afrique_--who owned the concession for the -fishery was suppressed in 1798 on the outbreak of war between France and -Algeria. In 1806 the British consul-general at Algiers obtained the -right to occupy Bona and La Calle for an annual rent of L11,000; but -though the money was paid for several years no practical effect was -given to the agreement. The French regained possession in 1817, were -expelled during the wars of 1827, when La Calle was burnt, but returned -and rebuilt the place in 1836. The boats engaged in the fishery were -mainly Italian, but the imposition, during the last quarter of the 19th -century, of heavy taxes on all save French boats drove the foreign -vessels away. For some years the industry was abandoned, but was -restarted on a small scale in 1903. - - See Abbe Poiret, _Voyage en Barbarie_ ... (Paris, 1789); E. Broughton, - _Six Years' Residence in Algiers_ (London, 1839) and Sir R. L. - Playfair, _Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce_ (London, 1877). - - - - -LA CALPRENEDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES, SEIGNEUR DE (_c._ 1610-1663), French -novelist and dramatist, was born at the Chateau of Tolgou, near Sarlat -(Dordogne), in 1609 or 1610. After studying at Toulouse, he came to -Paris and entered the regiment of the guards, becoming in 1650 -gentleman-in-ordinary of the royal household. He died in 1663 in -consequence of a kick from his horse. He was the author of several long -heroic romances ridiculed by Boileau. They are: _Cassandre_ (10 vols., -1642-1650); _Cleopatre_ (1648); _Faramond_ (1661); and _Les Nouvelles, -ou les Divertissements de la princesse Alcidiane_ (1661) published under -his wife's name, but generally attributed to him. His plays lack the -spirit and force that occasionally redeem the novels. The best is _Le -Comte d'Essex_, represented in 1638, which supplied some ideas to Thomas -Corneille for his tragedy of the same name. - - - - -LA CARLOTA, a town of the province of Negros Occidental, Philippine -Islands, on the W. coast of the island and the left bank of San Enrique -river, about 18 m. S. of Bacolod, the capital of the province. Pop. -(1903), after the annexation of San Enrique, 19,192. There are -fifty-four villages or barrios in the town; the largest had a population -in 1903 of 3254 and two others had each more than 1000 inhabitants. The -Panayano dialect of the Visayan language is spoken by most of the -inhabitants. At La Carlota the Spanish government established a station -for the study of the culture of sugar-cane; by the American government -this has been converted into a general agricultural experiment station, -known as "Government Farm." - - - - -LACCADIVE ISLANDS, a group of coral reefs and islands in the Indian -Ocean, lying between 10 deg. and 12 deg. 20' N. and 71 deg. 40' and 74 -deg. E. The name Laccadives (_laksha dwipa_, the "hundred thousand -isles") is that given by the people of the Malabar coast, and was -probably meant to include the Maldives; they are called by the natives -simply _Divi_, "islands," or _Amendivi_, from the chief island. There -are seventeen separate reefs, "round each of which the 100-fathom line -is continuous" (J. S. Gardiner). There are, however, only thirteen -islands, and of these only eight are inhabited. They fall into two -groups--the northern, belonging to the collectorate of South Kanara, and -including the inhabited islands of Amini, Kardamat, Kiltan and Chetlat; -and the southern, belonging to the administrative district of Malabar, -and including the inhabited islands of Agatti, Kavaratti, Androth and -Kalpeni. Between the Laccadives and the Maldives to the south lies the -isolated Minikoi, which physically belongs to neither group, though -somewhat nearer to the Maldives (q.v.). The principal submerged banks -lie north of the northern group of islands; they are Munyal, Coradive -and Sesostris, and are of greater extent than those on which the islands -lie. The general depth over these is from 23 to 28 fathoms, but -Sesostris has shallower soundings "indicating patches growing up, and -some traces of a rim" (J. S. Gardiner). The islands have in nearly all -cases emerged from the eastern and protected side of the reef, the -western being completely exposed to the S.W. monsoon. The islands are -small, none exceeding a mile in breadth, while the total area is only -about 80 sq. m. They lie so low that they would be hardly discernible -but for the coco-nut groves with which they are thickly covered. The -soil is light coral sand, beneath which, a few feet down, lies a stratum -of coral stretching over the whole of the islands. This coral, generally -a foot to a foot and a half in thickness, has been in the principal -islands wholly excavated, whereby the underlying damp sand is rendered -available for cereals. These excavations--a work of vast labour--were -made at a remote period, and according to the native tradition by -giants. In these spaces (_totam_, "garden") coarse grain, pulse, bananas -and vegetables are cultivated; coco-nuts grow abundantly everywhere. For -rice the natives depend upon the mainland. - -_Population and Trade._--The population in 1901 was 10,274. The people -are Moplas, i.e. of mixed Hindu and Arab descent, and are Mahommedans. -Their manners and customs are similar to those of the coast Moplas; but -they maintain their own ancient caste distinctions. The language spoken -is Malayalim, but it is written in the Arabic character. Reading and -writing are common accomplishments among the men. The chief industry is -the manufacture of coir. The various processes are entrusted to the -women. The men employ themselves with boatbuilding and in conveying the -island produce to the coast. The exports from the Laccadives are of the -annual value of about L17,000. - - _History._--No data exist for determining at what period the - Laccadives were first colonized. The earliest mention of them as - distinguished from the Maldives seems to be by Albiruni (c. 1030), who - divides the whole archipelago (Dibajat) into the _Divah Kuzah_ or - Cowrie Islands (the Maldives), and the _Divah Kanbar_ or Coir Islands - (the Laccadives). (See _Journ. Asiat. Soc._, September 1844, p. 265). - The islanders were converted to Islam by an Arab apostle named Mumba - Mulyaka, whose grave at Androth still imparts a peculiar sanctity to - that island. The kazee of Androth was in 1847 still a member of his - family, and was said to be the twenty-second who had held the office - in direct line from the saint. This gives colour to the tradition that - the conversion took place about 1250. It is also further corroborated - by the story given by the Ibn Batuta of the conversion of the - Maldives, which occurred, as he heard, four generations (say one - hundred and twenty years) before his visit to these islands in 1342. - The Portuguese discovered the Laccadives in May 1498, and built forts - upon them, but about 1545 the natives rose upon their oppressors. The - islands subsequently became a suzerainty of the raja of Cannanore, and - after the peace of Seringapatam, 1792 the southern group was permitted - to remain under the management of the native chief at a yearly - tribute. This was often in arrear, and on this account these islands - were sequestrated by the British government in 1877. - - See _The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive - Archipelagoes_, ed. J. Stanley Gardiner (Cambridge 1901-1905); - _Malabar District Gazetteer_ (Madras, 1908); G. Pereira, "As Ilhas de - Dyve" (_Boletim da Soc. Geog._, Lisbon, 1898-1899) gives details - relating to the Laccadives from the 16th-century MS. volume _De - insulis et peregrinatione lusitanorum_ in the National Library, - Lisbon. - - - - -LACCOLITE (Gr. [Greek: lakkos], cistern, [Greek: lithos], stone), in -geology, the name given by Grove K. Gilbert to intrusive masses of -igneous rock possessing a cake-like form, which he first described from -the Henry Mountains of southern Utah. Their characteristic is that they -have spread out along the bedding planes of the strata, but are not so -broad and thin as the sheets or intrusive sills which, consisting -usually of basic rocks, have spread over immense distances without -attaining any great thickness. Laccolites cover a comparatively small -area and have greater thickness. Typically they have a domed upper -surface while their base is flat. In the Henry Mountains they are from 1 -to 5 m. in diameter and range in thickness up to about 5000 ft. The -cause of their peculiar shape appears to be the viscosity of the rock -injected, which is usually of intermediate character and comparatively -rich in alkalis, belonging to the trachytes and similar lithological -types. These are much less fluid than the basalts, and the latter in -consequence spread out much more readily along the bedding planes, -forming thin flat-topped sills. At each side the laccolites thin out -rapidly so that their upper surface slopes steeply to the margins. The -strata above them which have been uplifted and bent are often cracked by -extension, and as the igneous materials well into the fissures a large -number of dikes is produced. At the base of the laccolite, on the other -hand, the strata are flat and dikes are rare, though there may be a -conduit up which the magma has flowed into the laccolite. The rocks -around are often much affected by contact alteration, and great masses -of them have sometimes sunk into the laccolite, where they may be partly -melted and absorbed. - -Gilbert obtained evidence that these laccolites were filled at depths of -7000 to 10,000 ft. and did not reach the surface, giving rise to -volcanoes. From the effects on the drainage of the country it seemed -probable that above the laccolites the strata swelled up in flattish -eminences. Often they occur side by side in groups belonging to a single -period, though all the members of each group are not strictly of the -same age. One laccolite may be formed on the side of an earlier one, and -compound laccolites also occur. When exposed by erosion they give rise -to hills, and their appearance varies somewhat with the stage of -development. - - In the western part of South America laccolites agreeing in all - essential points with those described by Gilbert occur in considerable - numbers and present some diversity of types. Occasionally they are - asymmetrical, or have one steep or vertical side while the other is - gently inclined. In other cases they split into a number of sheets - spreading outwards through the rocks around. But the term laccolite - has also been adopted by geologists in Britain and elsewhere to - describe a variety of intrusive masses not strictly identical in - character with those of the Henry Mountains. Some of these rest on a - curved floor, like the gabbro masses of the Cuillin Hills in Skye; - others are injected along a flattish plane of unconformability where - one system of rocks rests on the upturned and eroded edges of an older - series. An example of the latter class is furnished by the felsite - mass of the Black Hill in the Pentlands, near Edinburgh, which has - followed the line between the Silurian and the Old Red Sandstone, - forcing the rocks upwards without spreading out laterally to any great - extent. - - The term laccolite has also been applied to many granite intrusions, - such as those of Cornwall. We know from the evidence of mining shafts - which have been sunk in the country near the edge of these granites - that they slope downwards underground with an angle of twenty to - thirty degrees. They have been proved also to have been injected along - certain wall-marked horizons; so that although the rocks of the - country have been folded in a very complicated manner the granite can - often be shown to adhere closely to certain members of the - stratigraphical sequence for a considerable distance. Hence it is - clear that their upper surfaces are convex and gently arched, and it - is conjectured that the strata must extend below them, though at a - great depth, forming a floor. The definite proof of this has not been - attained for no borings have penetrated the granites and reached - sedimentary rocks beneath them. But often in mountainous countries - where there are deep valleys the bases of great granite laccolites are - exposed to view in the hill sides. These granite sills have a - considerable thickness in proportion to their length, raise the rocks - above them and fill them with dikes, and behave generally like typical - laccolites. In contradistinction to intrusions of this type with a - well-defined floor we may place the batholiths, bysmaliths, plutonic - plugs and stocks, which have vertical margins and apparently descend - to unknown depths. It has been conjectured that masses of this type - eat their way upwards by dissolving the rock above them and absorbing - it, or excavate a passage by breaking up the roof of the space they - occupy while the fragments detached sink downwards and are lost in the - ascending magma. (J. S. F.) - - - - -LACE (corresponding to Ital. _merletto_, _trina_; Genoese _pizzo_; Ger. -_spitzen_; Fr. _dentelle_; Dutch _kanten_; Span. _encaje_; the English -word owes something to the Fr. _lassis_ or _lacis_, but both are -connected with the earlier Lat. _laqueus_; early French laces were also -called _passements_ or insertions and _dents_ or edgings), the name -applied to ornamental open work formed of threads of flax, cotton, silk, -gold or silver, and occasionally of mohair or aloe fibre, looped or -plaited or twisted together by hand, (1) with a needle, when the work is -distinctively known as "needlepoint lace"; (2) with bobbins, pins and a -pillow or cushion, when the work is known as "pillow lace"; and (3) by -steam-driven machinery, when imitations of both needlepoint and pillow -laces are produced. Lace-making implies the production of ornament and -fabric concurrently. Without a pattern or design the fabric of lace -cannot be made. - -The publication of patterns for needlepoint and pillow laces dates from -about the middle of the 16th century. Before that period lace described -such articles as cords and narrow braids of plaited and twisted threads, -used not only to fasten shoes, sleeves and corsets together, but also in -a decorative manner to braid the hair, to wind round hats, and to be -sewn as trimmings upon costumes. In a Harleian MS. of the time of Henry -VI. and Edward IV., about 1471, directions are given for the making of -"lace Bascon, lace indented, lace bordered, lace covert, a brode lace, a -round lace, a thynne lace, an open lace, lace for hattys," &c. The MS. -opens with an illuminated capital letter, in which is the figure of a -woman making these articles. The MS. supplies a clear description how -threads in combinations of twos, threes, fours, fives, to tens and -fifteens, were to be twisted and plaited together. Instead of the -pillow, bobbins and pins with which pillow lace soon afterwards was -made, the hands were used, each finger of a hand serving as a peg upon -which was placed a "bowys" or "bow," or little ball of thread. Each ball -might be of different colour from the other. The writer of the MS. says -that the first finger next the thumb shall be called A, the next B, and -so on. According to the sort of cord or braid to be made, so each of the -four fingers, A, B, C, D might be called into service. A "thynne lace" -might be made with three threads, and then only fingers A, B, C would be -required. A "round" lace, stouter than the "thynne" lace, might require -the service of four or more fingers. By occasionally dropping the use of -threads from certain fingers a sort of indented lace or braid might be -made. But when laces of more importance were wanted, such as a broad -lace for "hattys," the fingers on the hands of assistants were required. -The smaller cords or "thynne laces," when fastened in simple or -fantastic loops along the edges of collars and cuffs, were called -"purls" (see the small edge to the collar worn by Catherine de' Medici, -Pl. II. fig. 4). In another direction from which some suggestion may be -derived as to the evolution of lace-making, notice should be taken of -the fact that at an early period the darning of varied ornamental -devices, stiff and geometric in treatment into hand-made network of -small square meshes (see squares of "lacis," Pl. I. fig. 1) became -specialized in many European countries. This is held by some writers to -be "opus filatorium," or "opus araneum" (spider work). Examples of this -"opus filatorium," said to date from the 13th century exist in public -collections. The productions of this darning in the early part of the -16th century came to be known as "punto a maglia quadra" in Italy and as -"lacis" in France, and through a growing demand for household and -wearing linen, very much of the "lacis" was made in white threads not -only in Italy and France but also in Spain. In appearance it is a filmy -fabric. With white threads also were the "purlings" above mentioned -made, by means of leaden bobbins or "fuxii," and were called "merletti a -piombini" (see lower border, Pl. II. fig. 3). Cut and drawn thread linen -work (the latter known as "tela tirata" in Italy and as "deshilado" in -Spain) were other forms of embroidery as much in vogue as the darning on -net and the "purling." The ornament of much of this cut and drawn linen -work (see collar of Catherine de' Medici, Pl. II. fig. 4), more -restricted in scope than that of the darning on net, was governed by the -recurrence of open squares formed by the withdrawal of the threads. -Within these squares and rectangles radiating devices usually were -worked by means of whipped and buttonhole stitches (Pl. fig. 5). The -general effect in the linen was a succession of insertions or borders of -plain or enriched reticulations, whence the name "punto a reticella" -given to this class of embroidery in Italy. Work of similar style and -especially that with whipped stitches was done rather earlier in the -Grecian islands, which derived it from Asia Minor and Persia. The close -connexion of the Venetian republic with Greece and the eastern islands, -as well as its commercial relations with the East, sufficiently explains -an early transplanting of this kind of embroidery into Venice, as well -as in southern Spain. At Venice besides being called "reticella," cut -work was also called "punto tagliato." Once fairly established as home -industries such arts were quickly exploited with a beauty and variety of -pattern, complexity of stitch and delicacy of execution, until -insertions and edgings made independently of any linen as a starting -base (see first two borders, Pl. II. fig. 3) came into being under the -name of "Punto in aria" (Pl. II. fig. 7). This was the first variety of -Venetian and Italian needlepoint lace in the middle of the 16th -century,[1] and its appearance then almost coincides in date with that -of the "merletti a piombini," which was the earliest Italian cushion or -pillow lace (see lower edging, Pl. II. fig. 3). - -The many varieties of needlepoint and pillow laces will be touched on -under the heading allotted to each of these methods of making lace. -Here, however, the general circumstances of their genesis may be briefly -alluded to. The activity in cord and braid-making and in the particular -sorts of ornamental needlework already mentioned clearly postulated such -special labour as was capable of being converted into lace-making. And -from the 16th century onwards the stimulus to the industry in Europe was -afforded by regular trade demand, coupled with the exertions of those -who encouraged their dependents or proteges to give their spare time to -remunerative home occupations. Thus the origin and perpetuation of the -industry have come to be associated with the women folk of peasants and -fishermen in circumstances which present little dissimilarity whether in -regard to needle lace workers now making lace in whitewashed cottages -and cabins at Youghal and Kenmare in the south of Ireland, or those who -produced their "punti in aria" during the 16th century about the lagoons -of Venice, or Frenchwomen who made the sumptuous "Points de France" at -Alencon and elsewhere in the 17th and 18th centuries; or pillow lace -workers to be seen at the present day at little seaside villages tucked -away in Devonshire dells, or those who were engaged more than four -hundred years ago in "merletti a piombini" in Italian villages or on -"Dentelles au fuseau" in Flemish lowlands. The ornamental character, -however, of these several laces would be found to differ much; but -methods, materials, appliances and opportunities of work would in the -main be alike. As fashion in wearing laces extended, so workers came to -be drawn together into groups by employers who acted as channels for -general trade.[2] Nuns in the past as in the present have also devoted -attention to the industry, often providing in the convent precincts -workrooms not only for peasant women to carry out commissions in the -service of the church or for the trade, but also for the purpose of -training children in the art. Elsewhere lace schools have been founded -by benefactors or organized by some leading local lace-maker[3] as much -for trading as for education. In all this variety of circumstance, -development of finer work has depended upon the abilities of the workers -being exercised under sound direction, whether derived through their own -intuitions, or supplied by intelligent and tasteful employers. Where any -such direction has been absent the industry viewed commercially has -suffered, its productions being devoid of artistic effect or -adaptability to the changing tastes of demand. - -It is noteworthy that the two widely distant regions of Europe where -pictorial art first flourished and attained high perfection, north Italy -and Flanders, were precisely the localities where lace-making first -became an industry of importance both from an artistic and from a -commercial point of view. Notwithstanding more convincing evidence as to -the earlier development of pillow lace making in Italy the invention of -pillow lace is often credited to the Flemings; but there is no distinct -trace of the time or the locality. In a picture said to exist in the -church of St Gomar at Lierre, and sometimes attributed to Quentin Matsys -(1495), is introduced a girl apparently working at some sort of lace -with pillow, bobbins, &c., which are somewhat similar to the implements -in use in more recent times.[4] From the very infancy of Flemish art an -active intercourse was maintained between the Low Countries and the -great centres of Italian art; and it is therefore only what might be -expected that the wonderful examples of the art and handiwork of Venice -in lace-making should soon have come to be known to and rivalled among -the equally industrious, thriving and artistic Flemings. At the end of -the 16th century pattern-books were issued in Flanders having the same -general character as those published for the guidance of the Venetian -and other Italian lace-makers. - -[Illustration: PLATE I. - - FIG. 1.--PORTION OF A COVERLET COMPOSED OF SQUARES OF "LACIS" OR - DARNED NETTING, DIVIDED BY LINEN CUT-WORK BANDS. - - The squares are worked with groups representing the twelve months, and - with scenes from the old Spanish dramatic story "Celestina." Spanish - or Portuguese. 16th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.) - - FIG. 2.--CORNER OF A BED-COVER OF PILLOW-MADE LACE OF A TAPE-LIKE - TEXTURE WITH CHARACTERISTICS IN THE TWISTED AND PLAITED THREADS - RELATING THE WORK TO ITALIAN "MERLETTI A PIOMBINI" OR EARLY ENGLISH - "BONE LACE." - - Possibly made in Flanders or Italy during the early part of the 17th - or at the end of the 16th century. The design includes the Imperial - double-headed eagle of Austria with the ancient crown of the German - Empire. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)] - -[Illustration: PLATE II. - - FIG. 3.--THREE VANDYKE OR DENTATED BORDERS OF ITALIAN LACE OF THE LATE - 16TH CENTURY. - - Style usually called "Reticella" on account of the patterns being - based on repeated squares or reticulations. The two first borders are - of needlepoint work; the lower border is of such pillow lace as was - known in Italy as "merletti a piombini." - - FIG. 4.--CATHERINE DE MEDICI, WEARING A LINEN UPTURNED COLLAR OF CUT - WORK AND NEEDLEPOINT LACE. - - Louvre. About 1540. - - FIG. 5.--CORNER OF A NAPKIN OR HANDKERCHIEF BORDERED WITH "RETICELLA" - NEEDLEPOINT LACE IN THE DESIGN OF WHICH ACORNS AND CARNATIONS ARE - MINGLED WITH GEOMETRIC RADIATIONS. - - Probably of English early 17th century. - - FIG. 6.--AMELIE ELISABETH, COMTESSE DE HAINAULT, WEARING A RUFF OF - NEEDLEPOINT RETICELLA LACE. - - By Morcelse. The Hague. About 1600. - - FIG. 7.--BORDER OF FLAT NEEDLEPOINT LACE OF FULLER TEXTURE THAN THAT - OF FIG. 3, AND FROM A FREER STYLE OF DESIGN IN WHICH CONVENTIONALIZED - FLORAL FORMS HELD TOGETHER BY SMALL BARS OR TYES ARE USED. - - Style called "Punto in Aria," chiefly on account of its independence - of squares or reticulations. Italian. Early 17th century. - - (_Figs._ 4 _and_ 6 _by permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., - Dornach (Alsace), and Paris_.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Portion of a Flounce of Needlepoint Lace, -French, early 18th century, "Point de France." The honeycomb ground is -considered to be a peculiarity of "Point d'Argentan": some of the -fillings are made in the manner of the "Point d'Alencon" _reseau_.] - -France and England were not far behind Venice and Flanders in making -needle and pillow lace. Henry III. of France (1574-1589) appointed a -Venetian, Frederic Vinciolo, pattern maker for varieties of linen needle -works and laces to his court. Through the influence of this fertile -designer the seeds of a taste for lace in France were principally sown. -But the event which _par excellence_ would seem to have fostered the -higher development of the French art of lace-making was the aid -officially given it in the following century by Louis XIV., acting on -the advice of his minister Colbert. Intrigue and diplomacy were put into -action to secure the services of Venetian lace-workers; and by an edict -dated 1665 the lace-making centres at Alencon, Quesnoy, Arras, Reims, -Sedan, Chateau Thierry, Loudun and elsewhere were selected for the -operations of a company in aid of which the state made a contribution of -36,000 francs; at the same time the importation of Venetian, Flemish and -other laces was strictly forbidden.[5] The edict contained instructions -that the lace-makers should produce all sorts of thread work, such as -those done on a pillow or cushion and with the needle, in the style of -the laces made at Venice, Genoa, Ragusa and other places; these French -imitations were to be called "points de France." By 1671 the Italian -ambassador at Paris writes, "Gallantly is the minister Colbert on his -way to bring the 'lavori d'aria' to perfection." Six years later an -Italian, Domenigo Contarini, alludes to the "punto in aria," "which the -French can now do to admiration." The styles of design which emanated -from the chief of the French lace centre, Alencon, were more fanciful -and less severe than the Venetian, and it is evident that the Flemish -lace-makers later on adopted many of these French patterns for their own -use. The provision of French designs (fig. 24) which owes so much to the -state patronage, contrasts with the absence of corresponding provision -in England and was noticed early in the 18th century by Bishop Berkeley. -"How," he asks, "could France and Flanders have drawn so much money from -other countries for figured silk, lace and tapestry, if they had not had -their academies of design?" - -The humble endeavours of peasantry in England (which could boast of no -schools of design), Germany, Sweden, Russia and Spain could not result -in work of so high artistic pretension as that of France and Flanders. -In the 18th century good lace was made in Devonshire, but it is only in -recent years that to some extent the hand lace-makers of England and -Ireland have become impressed with the necessity of well-considered -designs for their work. Pillow lace making under the name of "bone lace -making" was pursued in the 17th century in Buckinghamshire, -Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire, and in 1724 Defoe refers to the -manufacture of bone lace in which villagers were "wonderfully exercised -and improved within these few years past." "Bone" lace dates from the -17th century in England and was practically the counterpart of Flemish -"dentelles au fuseau," and related also to the Italian "merletti a -piombini" (see Pl. fig. 10). In Germany, Barbara Uttmann, a native of -Nuremberg, instructed peasants of the Harz mountains to twist and plait -threads in 1561. She was assisted by certain refugees from Flanders. A -sort of "purling" or imitation of the Italian "merletti a piombini" was -the style of work produced then. - -Lace of comparatively simple design has been made for centuries in -villages of Andalusia as well as in Spanish conventual establishments. -The "point d'Espagne," however, appears to have been a commercial name -given by French manufacturers of a class of lace made in France with -gold or silver threads on the pillow and greatly esteemed by Spaniards -in the 17th century. No lace pattern-books have been found to have been -published in Spain. The needle-made laces which came out of Spanish -monasteries in 1830, when these institutions were dissolved, were mostly -Venetian needle-made laces. The lace vestments preserved at the -cathedral at Granada hitherto presumed to be of Spanish work are -verified as being Flemish of the 17th century (similar in style to Pl. -fig. 14). The industry is not alluded to in Spanish ordinances of the -15th, 16th or 17th centuries, but traditions which throw its origin back -to the Moors or Saracens are still current in Seville and its -neighbourhood, where a twisted and knotted arrangement of fine cords is -often worked[6] under the name of "Morisco" fringe, elsewhere called -macrame lace. Black and white silk pillow laces, or "blondes," date from -the 18th century. They were made in considerable quantity in the -neighbourhood of Chantilly, and imported for mantillas by Spain, where -corresponding silk lace making was started. Although after the 18th -century the making of silk laces more or less ceased at Chantilly and -the neighbourhood, the craft is now carried on in Normandy--at Bayeux -and Caen--as well as in Auvergne, which is also noted for its simple -"torchon" laces. Silk pillow lace making is carried on in Spain, -especially at Barcelona. The patterns are almost entirely imitations -from 18th-century French ones of a large and free floral character. -Lace-making is said to have been promoted in Russia through the -patronage of the court, after the visit of Peter the Great to Paris in -the early days of the 18th century. Peasants in the districts of -Vologda, Balakhua (Nijni-Novgorod), Bieleff (Tula) and Mzensk (Orel) -make pillow laces of simple patterns. Malta is noted for producing a -silk pillow lace of black or white, or red threads, chiefly of patterns -in which repetitions of circles, wheels and radiations of shapes -resembling grains of wheat are the main features. This characteristic of -design, appearing in white linen thread laces of similar make which have -been identified as Genoese pillow laces of the early 17th century, -reappears in Spanish and Paraguayan work. Pillow lace in imitation of -Maltese, Buckinghamshire and Devonshire laces is made to a small extent -in Ceylon, in different parts of India and in Japan. A successful effort -has also been made to re-establish the industry in the island of Burano -near Venice, and pillow and needlepoint lace of good design is made -there. - -At present the chief sources of hand-made lace are France, Belgium, -Ireland and England. - -France is faithful to her traditions in maintaining a lively and -graceful taste in lace-making. Fashion of late years has called for -ampler and more boldly effective laces, readily produced with both -braids and cords and far less intricate needle or pillow work than was -required for the dainty and smaller laces of earlier date. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Collar and Berthe of Irish Crochet Lace.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Collar of Irish Crochet Lace.] - -In Belgium the social and economic conditions are, as they have been in -the past, more conducive and more favourable than elsewhere to -lace-making at a sufficiently remunerative rate of wages. The production -of hand-made laces in Belgium was in 1900 greater than that of France. -The principal modern needle-made lace of Belgium is the "Point de Gaze"; -"Duchesse" and Bruges laces are the chief pillow-made laces; whilst -"Point Applique" and "Plat Applique" are frequently the results not only -of combining needle-made and pillow work, but also of using them in -conjunction with machine-made net. Ireland is the best producer of that -substantial looped-thread work known as crochet (see figs. 25, 26, 27), -which must be regarded as a hand-made lace fabric although not -classifiable as a needlepoint or pillow lace. It is also quite distinct -in character from pseudo-laces, which are really embroideries with a -lace-like appearance, e.g. embroideries on net, cut and embroidered -cambrics and fine linen. For such as these Ireland maintains a -reputation in its admirable Limerick and Carrickmacross laces, made not -only in Limerick and Carrickmacross, but also in Kinsale, Newry, -Crossmaglen and elsewhere. The demand from France for Irish crochet is -now far beyond the supply, a condition which leads not only to the rapid -repetition by Irish workers of old patterns, but tends also to a gradual -debasement of both texture and ornament. Attempts have been made to -counteract this tendency, with some success, as the specimens of Irish -crochet in figs. 25, 26 and 27 indicate. - -[Illustration: PLATE III. - - FIG. 8.--MARY, COUNTESS OF PEMBROKE, WEARING A COIF AND CUFFS OF - RETICELLA LACE. - - National Portrait Gallery. Dated 1614. - - FIG. 9.--HENRI II., DUC DE MONTMORENCY, WEARING A FALLING LACE COLLAR. - By LE NAIN. Louvre. About 1628. - - (_By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., Dornach (Alsace), and - Paris_.) - - FIG. 10.--SCALLOPPED COLLAR OF TAPE-LIKE PILLOW-MADE LACE. - - Possibly of English early 17th-century work. Its texture is typical of - a development in pillow-lace-making later than that of the lower edge - of "merletti a piombini" in Pl. II. fig. 3. - - FIG. 11.--JAMES II. WEARING A JABOT AND CUFFS OF RAISED NEEDLEPOINT - LACE. - - By RILEY. National Portrait Gallery. About 1685. - - FIG. 12.--JABOT OF NEEDLEPOINT LACE WORKED PARTLY IN RELIEF, AND - USUALLY KNOWN AS "GROS POINT DE VENISE." - - Middle of 17th century. Conventional scrolling stems with off-shooting - pseudo-blossoms and leafs are specially characteristic. - - (_Figs._ 8 _and_ 11, _photo by Emery Walker_.)] - -[Illustration: PLATE IV. - - FIG. 13.--MME VERBIEST, WEARING PILLOW-MADE LACE _A RESEAU_. - - From the family group by GONZALES COQUER. Buckingham Palace. About - 1664. - - (_By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., Dornach (Alsace), and - Paris_.) - - FIG. 14.--PIECE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE USUALLY KNOWN AS "POINT DE - FLANDRES A BRIDES." - - Of the middle of the 17th century, the designs for which were often - adaptations from those made for such needlepoint lace as that of the - Jabot in fig. 12. - - FIG. 15.--PRINCESS MARIA TERESA STUART, WEARING A FLOUNCE OR TABLIER - OF LACE SIMILAR TO THAT IN FIG. 17. Dated 1695. - - From a group by LARGILLIERE. National Portrait Gallery. (_Photo by - Emery Walker_.) - - FIG. 16.--FLOUNCE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE _A RESEAU_. - - Flemish, of the middle of the 17th century. This lace is usually - thought to be the earliest type of "Point d'Angleterre" in - contradistinction to the "Point de Flandres" (fig. 14). - - FIG. 17--VERY DELICATE NEEDLEPOINT LACE WITH CLUSTERS OF SMALL RELIEF - WORK. - - Venetian, middle of the 17th century, and often called "rose-point - lace," and sometimes "Point de Neige."] - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Lady's Sleeve of Irish Crochet Lace.] - -An appreciable amount of pillow-made lace is annually supplied from -Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and Northampton, but it is -bought almost wholly for home use. The English laces are made almost -entirely in accordance with the precedents of the 19th century--that is -to say, in definite lengths and widths, as for borders, insertions and -flounces, although large shaped articles, such as panels for dresses, -long sleeves complete skirts, jackets, blouses, and fancifully shaped -collars of considerable dimensions have of late been freely made -elsewhere. To make such things entirely of lace necessitates many -modifications in the ordinary methods; the English lace-workers are slow -to adapt their work in the manner requisite, and hence are far behind in -the race to respond to the fashionable demand. No countries succeed so -well in promptly answering the variable call of fashion as France and -Belgium. - - As regards trade in lace, America probably buys more from Belgium than - from France; France and England come next as purchasers of nearly - equal quantities, after which come Russia and Italy. - - The greatest amount of lace now made is that which issues from - machines in England, France and Germany. The total number of persons - employed in the lace industry in England in 1871 was 49,370, and in - 1901 about 34,929, of whom not more than 5000 made lace by hand. - -The early history[7] of the lace-making machine coincides with that of -the stocking frame, that machine having been adapted about the year 1768 -for producing open-looped fabrics which had a net-like appearance. About -1786 frames for making point nets by machinery first appear at Mansfield -and later at Ashbourne and Nottingham and soon afterwards modifications -were introduced into such frames in order to make varieties of meshes in -the point nets which were classed as figured nets. In 1808 and 1809 John -Heathcoat of Nottingham obtained patents for machines for making bobbin -net with a simpler and more readily produced mesh than that of the point -net just mentioned. For at least thirty years thousands of women had -been employed in and about Nottingham in the embroidery of simple -ornament on net. In 1813 John Leavers began to improve the figured net -weaving machines above mentioned, and from these the lace-making -machines in use at the present time were developed. But it was the -application of the celebrated Jacquard apparatus to such machines that -enabled manufacturers to produce all sorts of patterns in thread-work in -imitation of the patterns for hand-made lace. A French machine called -the "dentelliere" was devised (see La Nature for the 3rd of March 1881), -and the patterns produced by it were of plaited threads. The expense, -however, attending the production of plaited lace by the "dentelliere" -is as great as that of pillow lace made by the hand, and so the machine -has not succeeded for ordinary trade purposes. More successful results -have been secured by the new patent circular lace machine of Messrs. -Birkin & Co. of Nottingham, the productions of which, all of simple -design, cannot be distinguished from hand-made pillow lace of the same -style (see figs. 57, 58, 59). - -Before dealing with technical details in processes of making lace -whether by hand or by the machine, the component parts of different -makes of lace may be considered. These are governed by the ornaments or -patterns, which may be so designed, as they were in the earlier laces, -that the different component parts may touch one another without any -intervening groundwork. But as a wish arose to vary the effect of the -details in a pattern ground-works were gradually developed and at first -consisted of links or ties between the substantial parts of the pattern. -The bars or ties were succeeded by grounds of meshes, like nets. -Sometimes the substantial parts of a pattern were outlined with a single -thread or by a strongly marked raised edge of buttonhole-stitched or of -plaited work. Minute fanciful devices were then introduced to enrich -various portions of the pattern. Some of the heavier needle-made laces -resemble low relief carving in ivory, and the edges of the relief -portions are often decorated with clusters of small loops. For the most -part all this elaboration was brought to a high pitch of variety and -finish by French designers and workers; and French terms are more usual -in speaking of details in laces. Thus the solid part of the pattern is -called the _toile_ or clothing, the links or ties are called _brides_, -the meshed grounds are called _reseaux_, the outline to the edges of a -pattern is called _cordonnet_ or _brode_, the insertions of fanciful -devices _modes_, the little loops _picots_. These terms are applicable -to the various portions of laces made with the needle, on the pillow or -by the machine. - -The sequence of patterns in lace (which may be verified upon referring -to figs. 1 to 23) is roughly as follows. From about 1540 to 1590 they -were composed of geometric forms set within squares, or of crossed and -radiating line devices, resulting in a very open fabric, stiff and -almost wiry in effect, without _brides_ or _reseaux_. From 1590 may be -dated the introduction into patterns of very conventional floral and -even human and animal forms and slender scrolls, rendered in a tape-like -texture, held together by _brides_. To the period from 1620 to 1670 -belongs the development of long continuous scroll patterns with -_reseaux_ and _brides_, accompanied in the case of needle-made laces -with an elaboration of details, e.g. _cordonnet_ with massings of -_picots_. Much of these laces enriched with fillings or _modes_ was made -at this time. From 1650 to 1700 the scroll patterns gave way to -arrangements of detached ornamental details (as in Pl. VI. fig. 22): and -about 1700 to 1760 more important schemes or designs were made (as in -Pl. fig. 19, and in fig. 24 in text), into which were introduced -naturalistic renderings of garlands, flowers, birds, trophies, -architectural ornament and human figures. Grounds composed entirely of -varieties of _modes_ as in the case of the _reseau rosace_ (Pl. V. fig. -21) were sometimes made then. From 1760 to 1800 small details consisting -of bouquets, sprays of flowers, single flowers, leaves, buds, spots and -such like were adopted, and sprinkled over meshed grounds, and the -character of the texture was gauzy and filmy (as in figs. 40 and 42). -Since that time variants of the foregoing styles of pattern and textures -have been used according to the bent of fashion in favour of simple or -complex ornamentation, or of stiff, compact or filmy textures. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.] - -_Needlepoint Lace._--The way in which the early Venetian "punto in aria" -was made corresponds with that in which needlepoint lace is now worked. -The pattern is first drawn upon a piece of parchment. The parchment is -then stitched to two pieces of linen. Upon the leading lines drawn on -the parchment a thread is laid, and fastened through to the parchment -and linen by means of stitches, thus constructing a skeleton thread -pattern (see left-hand part of fig. 30). Those portions which are to be -represented as the "clothing" or _toile_ are usually worked as indicated -in the enlarged diagram (fig. 29), and then edged as a rule with -buttonhole stitching (fig. 28). Between these _toile_ portions of the -pattern are worked ties (_brides_) or meshes (_reseaux_), and thus the -various parts united into one fabric are wrought on to the face of the -parchment pattern and reproducing it (see right-hand part of fig. 30). A -knife is passed between the two pieces of linen at the back of the -parchment, cutting the stitches which have passed through the parchment -and linen, and so releasing the lace itself from its pattern parchment. -In the earlier stages, the lace was made in lengths to serve as -insertions (_passements_) and also in vandykes (_dentelles_) to serve as -edgings. Later on insertions and vandykes were made in one piece. All of -such were at first of a geometric style of pattern (Pl. figs. 3-5 and -6). - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Parchment Pattern showing work in progress: the -more complete lace is on the right half of the pattern.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.] - -Following closely upon them came the freer style of design already -mentioned, without and then with links or ties--_brides_--interspersed -between the various details of the patterns (Pl. II. fig. 7), which were -of flat tape-like texture. In elaborate specimens of this flat point -lace some lace workers occasionally used gold thread with the white -thread. These flat laces ("Punto in Aria") are also called "flat -Venetian point." About 1640 "rose (raised) point" laces began to be made -(Pl. III. fig. 12). They were done in relief and those of bold design -with stronger reliefs are called "gros point de Venise." Lace of this -latter class was used for altar cloths, flounces, _jabots_ or neckcloths -which hung beneath the chin over the breast (Pl. III. fig. 11), as well -as for trimming the turned-over tops of jack boots. _Tabliers_ and -ladies' aprons were also made of such lace. In these no regular ground -was introduced. All sorts of minute embellishments, like little knots, -stars and loops or _picots_, were worked on to the irregularly arranged -_brides_ or ties holding the main patterns together, and the more dainty -of these raised laces (Pl. fig. 17) exemplify the most subtle uses to -which the buttonhole stitch appears capable of being put in making -ornaments. But about 1660 came laces with _brides_ or ties arranged in a -honeycomb reticulation or regular ground. To them succeeded lace in -which the compact relief gave place to daintier and lighter material -combined with a ground of meshes or _reseau_. The needle-made meshes -were sometimes of single and sometimes of double threads. A diagram is -given of an ordinary method of making such meshes (fig. 31). At the end -of the 17th century the lightest of the Venetian needlepoint laces were -made; and this class which was of the filmiest texture is usually known -as "point de Venise a reseau" (Pl. V. fig. 20a). It was contemporary -with the needle-made French laces of Alencon and Argentan[8] that became -famous towards the latter part of the 17th century (Pl. V. fig. 20b). -"Point d'Argentan" has been thought to be especially distinguished on -account of its delicate honeycomb ground of hexagonally arranged -_brides_ (fig. 32), a peculiarity already referred to in certain -antecedent Venetian point laces. Often intermixed with this hexagonal -_brides_ ground is the fine-meshed ground or _reseau_ (fig. 20b), which -has been held to be distinctive of "point d'Alencon." But the styles of -patterns and the methods of working them, with rich variety of -insertions or _modes_, with the _brode_ or _cordonnet_ of raised -buttonhole stitched edging, are alike in Argentan and Alencon -needle-made laces (Pl. V. fig. 20b and fig. 32). Besides the hexagonal -_brides_ ground and the ground of meshes another variety of grounding -(_reseau rosace_) was used in certain Alencon designs. This ground -consisted of buttonhole-stitched skeleton hexagons within each of which -was worked a small hexagon of _toile_ connected with the outer -surrounding hexagon by means of six little ties or _brides_ (Pl. V. fig. -21). Lace with this particular ground has been called "Argentella," and -some writers have thought that it was a specialty of Genoese or Venetian -work. But the character of the work and the style of the floral patterns -are those of Alencon laces. The industry at Argentan was virtually an -offshoot of that nurtured at Alencon, where "lacis," "cut work" and -"velin" (work on parchment) had been made for years before the -well-developed needle-made "point d'Alencon" came into vogue under the -favouring patronage of the state-aided lace company mentioned as having -been formed in 1665. Madame Despierre in her _Histoire du point -d'Alencon_ gives an interesting and trustworthy account of the industry. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Border of Needlepoint Lace made in France about -1740-1750, the clear hexagonal mesh ground, which is compactly stitched, -being usually regarded as characteristic of the point de France made at -Argentan.] - -In Belgium, Brussels has acquired some celebrity for needle-made laces. -These, however, are chiefly in imitation of those made at Alencon, but -the _toile_ is of less compact texture and sharpness in definition of -pattern. Brussels needlepoint lace is often worked with meshed grounds -made on a pillow, and a plain thread is used as a _cordonnet_ for their -patterns instead of a thread overcast with buttonhole stitches as in the -French needlepoint laces. Note the bright sharp outline to the various -ornamental details in Pl. V. fig. 20b. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Shirt decorated with Insertions of Flat -Needlepoint Lace. (English, 17th century. Victoria and Albert Museum.)] - -[Illustration: PLATE IV. - - FIG. 18.--CHARLES GASPARD GUILLAUME DE VINTI-MILLE, WEARING LACE - SIMILAR IN STYLE OF DESIGN SHOWN IN FIG. 19. About 1730. - - FIG. 19.--PORTION OF FLOUNCE, NEEDLEPOINT LACE COPIED AT THE BURANO - LACE SCHOOL FROM THE ORIGINAL OF THE SO-CALLED "POINT DE VENISE A - BRIDES PICOTEES." - - 17th century. Formerly belonging to Pope Clement XIII., but now the - property of the queen of Italy. The design and work, however, are - indistinguishable from those of important flounces of "Point de - France." The pattern consists of repetitions of two - vertically-arranged groups of fantastic pine-apples and vases with - flowers, intermixed with bold rococo bands and large leaf devices. The - hexagonal meshes of the ground, although similar to the Venetian - "brides picotees," are much akin to the buttonhole stitched ground of - "Point d'Argentan." (Victoria and Albert Museum.) - - FIG. 20. - - A.--A LAPPET OF "POINT DE VENISE A RESEAU." - - The conventional character of the pseudo-leaf and floral forms - contrasts with that of the realistic designs of contemporary French - laces. Italian. Early 18th century. - - B.--A LAPPET OF FINE "POINT D'ALENCON." Louis XV. period. The variety - of the fillings of geometric design is particularly remarkable in this - specimen, as is the buttonhole stitched cordonnat or outline to the - various ornamental forms. - - FIG. 21.--BORDER OF FRENCH NEEDLEPOINT LACE, WITH GROUND OF "RESEAU - ROSACE." 18th century.] - -[Illustration: PLATE VI. - - FIG. 22.--JABOT OR CRAVAT OF PILLOW-MADE LACE. Brussels. Late 17th - century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.) - - FIG. 23.--JABOT OR CRAVAT OF PILLOW-MADE LACE OF FANTASTIC FLORAL - DESIGN, THE GROUND OF WHICH IS COMPOSED OF LITTLE FLOWERS AND LEAVES - ARRANGED WITHIN SMALL OPENWORK VERTICAL STRIPS. - - Brussels. 18th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)] - -Needlepoint lace has also been occasionally produced in England. Whilst -the character of its design in the early 17th century was rather more -primitive, as a rule, than that of the contemporary Italian, the method -of its workmanship is virtually the same and an interesting specimen of -English needle-made lace inset into an early 17th-century shirt is -illustrated in fig. 33. Specimens of needle-made work done by English -school children may be met with in samplers of the 17th and 18th -centuries. Needlepoint lace is successfully made at Youghal, Kenmare and -New Ross in Ireland, where of late years attention has been given to the -study of designs for it. The lace-making school at Burano near Venice -produces hand-made laces which are, to a great extent, careful -reproductions of the more celebrated classes of point laces, such as -"punto in aria," "rose point de Venise," "point de Venise a reseau," -"point d'Alencon," "point d'Argentan" and others. Some good needlepoint -lace is made in Bohemia and elsewhere in the Austrian empire. - -_Pillow-made Lace._--Pillow-made lace is built upon no substructure -corresponding with a skeleton thread pattern such as is used for -needlepoint lace, but is the representation of a pattern obtained by -twisting and plaiting threads. - -These patterns were never so strictly geometric in style as those -adopted for the earliest point lace making from the antecedent cut linen -and drawn thread embroideries. Curved forms, almost at the outset of -pillow lace, seem to have been found easy of execution (see lower -border, Pl. II. fig. 3); its texture was more lissom and less crisp and -wiry in appearance than that of contemporary needle-made lace. The early -twisted and plaited thread laces, which had the appearance of small -cords merging into one another, were soon succeeded by laces of similar -make but with flattened and broader lines more like fine braids or tapes -(Pl. I. fig. 2, and Pl. fig. 10). But pillow laces of this tapey -character must not be confused with laces in which actual tape or braid -is used. That peculiar class of lace-work does not arise until after the -beginning of the 17th century when the weaving of tape is said to have -commenced in Flanders. In England this sort of tape-lace dates no -farther back than 1747, when two Dutchmen named Lanfort were invited by -an English firm to set up tape looms in Manchester. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Diagram showing six Bobbins in use.] - -The process by which lace is made on the pillow is roughly and briefly -as follows. A pattern is first drawn upon a piece of paper or parchment. -It is then pricked with holes by a skilled "pattern pricker," who -determines where the principal pins shall be stuck for guiding the -threads. This pricked pattern is then fastened to the pillow. The pillow -or cushion varies in shape in different countries. Some lace-makers use -a circular pad, backed with a flat board, in order that it may be placed -upon a table and easily moved. Other lace-workers use a well-stuffed -round pillow or short bolster, flattened at the two ends, so that they -may hold it conveniently on their laps. From the upper part of pillow -with the pattern fastened on it hang the threads from the bobbins. The -bobbin threads thus hang across the pattern. Fig. 34 shows the -commencement, for instance, of a double set of three-thread plaitings. -The compact portion in a pillow lace has a woven appearance (fig. 35). - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.] - -About the middle of the 17th century pillow lace of formal scroll -patterns somewhat in imitation of those for point lace was made, chiefly -in Flanders. The earlier of these had grounds of ties or _brides_ and -was often called "point de Flandres" (Pl. fig. 14) in contradistinction -to scroll patterns with a mesh ground, which were called "point -d'Angleterre" (Pl. fig. 16). Into Spain and France much lace from Venice -and Flanders was imported as well as into England, where from the 16th -century the manufacture of the simple pattern "bone lace" by peasants in -the midland and southern counties was still being carried on. In Charles -II.'s time its manufacture was threatened with extinction by the -preference given to the more artistic and finer Flemish laces. The -importation of the latter was accordingly prohibited. Dealers in Flemish -lace sought to evade the prohibitions by calling certain of their laces -"point d'Angleterre," and smuggling them into England. But smuggling was -made so difficult that English dealers were glad to obtain the services -of Flemish lace-makers and to induce them to settle in England. It is -from some such cause that the better 17th- and 18th-century English -pillow laces bear resemblance to pillow laces of Brussels, of Mechlin -and of Valenciennes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Border of English Pillow-made (Devonshire) Lace -in the style of a Brussels design of the middle of the 18th century.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 37--Border of English (Bucks. or Beds.) Pillow-made -Lace in the Style of a Mechlin design of the latter part of the 18th -century.] - -As skill in the European lace-making developed soon after the middle of -the 17th century, patterns and particular plaitings came to be -identified with certain localities. Mechlin, for instance, enjoyed a -high reputation for her productions. The chief technical features of -this pillow lace lie in the plaiting of the meshes, and the outlining of -the clothing or _toile_ with a thread _cordonnet_. The ordinary Mechlin -mesh is hexagonal in shape. Four of the sides are of double twisted -threads, two are of four threads plaited three times (fig. 39). - -[Illustration: FIG. 38--Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, from a -design similar to such as was used for point d'Alencon of the Louis XV. -period.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Mechlin Mesh.] - -In Brussels pillow lace, which has greater variety of design, the mesh -is also hexagonal; but in contrast with the Mechlin mesh whilst four of -its sides are of double-twisted threads the other two are of four -threads plaited four times (fig. 41). The finer specimens of Brussels -lace are remarkable for the fidelity and grace with which the botanical -forms in many of its patterns are rendered (Pl. VI. fig. 23). These are -mainly reproductions or adaptations of designs for point d'Alencon, and -the soft quality imparted to them in the texture of pillow-made lace -contrasts with the harder and more crisp appearance in needlepoint -lace. An example of dainty Brussels pillow lace is given in fig. 42. In -the Brussels pillow lace a delicate modelling effect is often imparted -to the close textures of the flowers by means of pressing them with a -bone instrument which gives concave shapes to petals and leaves, the -edges of which consist in part of slightly raised _cordonnet_ of compact -plaited work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, end of the -18th century.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Enlargement of Brussels Mesh.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Portion of a Wedding Veil, 7 ft. 6 in. X 6 ft. -6 in., of Pillow-made Lace, Brussels, late 18th century. The design -consists of light leafy garlands of orange blossoms and other flowers -daintily festooned. Little feathery spirals and stars are powdered over -the ground, which is of Brussels _vrai reseau_. In the centre upon a -more open ground of pillow-made hexagonal _brides_ is a group of two -birds, one flying towards the other which appears ready to take wing -from its nest; an oval frame containing two hearts pierced by an arrow, -and a hymeneal torch. Throughout this veil is a profusion of pillow -renderings of various _modes_, the _reseau rosace_, star devices, &c. -The ornamental devices are partly applied and partly worked into the -ground (Victoria and Albert Museum).] - -Honiton pillow lace resembles Brussels lace, but in most of the English -pillow laces (Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire) the _reseau_ is -of a simple character (fig. 43). As a rule, English lace is made with a -rather coarser thread than that used in the older Flemish laces. In real -Flemish Valenciennes lace there are no twisted sides to the mesh; all -are closely plaited (fig. 44) and as a rule the shape of the mesh is -diamond but without the openings as shown in fig. 44. No outline or -_cordonnet_ to define the pattern is used in Valenciennes lace (see fig. -45). Much lace of the Valenciennes type (fig. 54) is made at Ypres. -Besides these distinctive classes of pillow-like laces, there are others -in which equal care in plaiting and twisting threads is displayed, -though the character of the design is comparatively simple, as for -instance in ordinary pillow laces from Italy, from the Auvergne, from -Buckinghamshire, or rude and primitive as in laces from Crete, southern -Spain and Russia. Pillow lace-making in Crete is now said to be extinct. -The laces were made chiefly of silk. The patterns in many specimens are -outlined with one, two or three bright-coloured silken threads. -Uniformity in simple character of design may also be observed in many -Italian, Spanish, Bohemian, Swedish and Russian pillow laces (see the -lower edge of fig. 46). - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Lappet of delicate Pillow-made Lace, -Valenciennes, about 1750. The peculiarity of Valenciennes lace is the -filmy cambric-like texture and the absence of any cordonnet to define -the separate parts of the ornament such as is used in needlepoint lace -of Alencon, and in pillow Mechlin and Brussels lace.] - -_Guipure._--This name is often applied to needlepoint and pillow laces -in which the ground consists of ties or _brides_, but it more properly -designates a kind of lace or "passementerie," made with gimp of fine -wires whipped round with silk, and with cotton thread. An earlier kind -of gimp was formed with "Cartisane," a little strip of thin parchment or -vellum covered with silk, gold or silver thread. These stiff gimp -threads, formed into a pattern, were held together by stitches worked -with the needle. Gold and silver thread laces have been usually made on -the pillow, though gold thread has been used with fine effect in -17th-century Italian needlepoint laces. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Border to a Cloth. The wide part bearing the -double-headed eagle of Russia is of drawn thread embroidery: the -scalloped edging is of Russian pillow-made lace, though the style of its -pattern is often seen in pillow laces made by peasants in Danubian -provinces as well as in the south of Spain.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Section of Lace Machine.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Machine-made Lace in imitation of 16th-century -Needlepoint "Reticella" Lace.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Border of Machine-made Lace in the style of -17th-century Pillow Guipure Lace.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Border of Machine-made Lace in imitation of -17th-century Pillow Lace.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Machine-made Trimming Border in imitation of -Irish Crochet Lace.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--A Piece of Hand-made Pillow Lace, Belgian -(Ypres), 20th century. (The machine imitation is given in fig. 55.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Machine-made Lace in imitation of the Hand-made -Specimen of fig. 54. (Nottingham, 20th century.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Small Borders (a) Hand-made and (b) -Machine-made Lace Valenciennes. (Nottingham, 20th century.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Specimen of Hand-made Pillow Lace.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Specimen of Machine-made Lace in which the -twisting and plaiting of the threads are identical with those of the -hand-made specimen of fig. 57. (Nottingham, 20th century.)] - -_Machine-made Lace._--We have already seen that a technical peculiarity -in making needlepoint lace is that a single thread and needle are alone -used to form the pattern, and that the buttonhole stitch and other -loopings which can be worked by means of a needle and thread mark a -distinction between lace made in this manner and lace made on the -pillow. For the process of pillow lace making a series of threads are in -constant employment, plaited and twisted the one with another. A -buttonhole stitch is not producible by it. The Leavers lace machine does -not make either a buttonhole stitch or a plait. An essential principle -of this machine-made work is that the threads are twisted together as in -stocking net. The Leavers lace machine is that generally in use at -Nottingham and Calais. French ingenuity has developed improvements in -this machine whereby laces of delicate thread are made; but as fast as -France makes an improvement England follows with another, and both -countries virtually maintain an equal position in this branch of -industry. The number of threads brought into operation in a Leavers -machine is regulated by the pattern to be produced, the threads being of -two sorts, beam or warp threads and bobbin or weft threads. Upwards of -8880 are sometimes used, sixty pieces of lace being made simultaneously, -each piece requiring 148 threads--100 beam threads and 48 bobbin -threads. The ends of both sets of threads are fixed to a cylinder upon -which as the manufacture proceeds the lace becomes wound. The supply of -the beam or warp threads is held upon reels, and that of the bobbins or -weft threads is held in bobbins. The beam or warp thread reels are -arranged in frames or trays beneath the stage, above which and between -it and the cylinder the twisting of the bobbin or weft with beam or warp -threads takes place. The bobbins containing the bobbin or weft threads -are flattened in shape so as to pass conveniently between the stretched -beam or warp threads. Each bobbin can contain about 120 yds. of thread. -By most ingenious mechanism varying degrees of tension can be imparted -to warp and weft threads as required. As the bobbins or weft threads -pass like pendulums between the warp threads the latter are made to -oscillate, thus causing them to become twisted with the bobbin threads. -As the twistings take place, combs passing through both warp and weft -threads compress the twistings. Thus the texture of the clothing or -_toile_ in machine-made lace may generally be detected by its ribbed -appearance, due to the compressed twisted threads. Figs. 47 and 48 are -intended to show effects obtained by varying the tensions of weft and -warp threads. For instance, if the weft, as threads b, b, b, b in fig. -47, be tight and the warp thread slack, the warp thread a will be -twisted upon the weft threads. But if the warp thread a be tight and the -weft threads b, b, b, b, be slack, as in fig. 48, then the weft threads -will be twisted on the warp thread. At the same time the twisting in -both these cases arises from the conjunction of movements given to the -two sets of threads, namely, an oscillation or movement from side to -side of the beam or warp threads, and the swinging or pendulum-like -movement of the bobbin or weft threads between the warp threads. Fig. 49 -is a diagram of a sectional elevation of a lace machine representing its -more essential parts. E is the cylinder or beam upon which the lace is -rolled as made, and upon which the ends of both warp and weft threads -are fastened at starting. Beneath are w, w, w, a series of trays or -beams, one above the other, containing the reels of the supplies of warp -threads; c, c represent the slide bars for the passage of the bobbin b -with its thread from k to k, the landing bars, one on each side of the -rank of warp threads; s, t are the combs which take it in turns to press -together the twistings as they are made. The combs come away clear from -the threads as soon as they have pressed them together and fall into -positions ready to perform their pressing operations again. The -contrivances for giving each thread a particular tension and movement at -a certain time are connected with an adaptation of the Jacquard system -of pierced cards. The machine lace pattern drafter has to calculate how -many holes shall be punched in a card, and to determine the position of -such holes. Each hole regulates the mechanism for giving movement to a -thread. Fig. 54 displays a piece of hand-made Valenciennes (Ypres) lace -and fig. 55 a corresponding piece woven by the machine. The latter shows -the advantage that can be gained by using very fine gauge machines, thus -enabling a very close imitation of the real lace to be made by securing -a very open and clear _reseau_ or net, such as would be made on a coarse -machine, and at the same time to keep the pattern fine and solid and -standing out well from the net, as is the case with the real lace, which -cannot be done by using a coarse gauge machine. In this example the -machine used is a 16 point (that is 32 carriages to the inch), and the -ground is made half gauge, that is 8 point, and the weaving is made the -full gauge of the machine, that is 16 point. Fig. 56 gives other -examples of hand- and machine-made Valenciennes lace. The machine-made -lace (b) imitating the real (a) is made on a 14-point machine (that is -28 carriages to the inch), the ground being 7 point and the pattern -being full gauge or 14 point. Although the principle in these examples -of machine work is exactly the same, in so far that they use half gauge -net and full gauge clothing to produce the contrast as mentioned above, -the fabrication of these two examples is quite different, that in fig. -55 being an example of tight bobbins or weft, and slack warp threads as -shown in fig. 47. Whereas the example in fig. 56 is made with slack -bobbins or weft threads and tight warp threads as in fig. 48. In fig. 57 -is a piece of hand-made lace of stout thread, very similar to much Cluny -lace made in the Auvergne and to the Buckinghamshire "Maltese" lace. -Close to it are specimens of lace (figs. 58 and 59) made by the new -patent circular lace machine of Messrs Birkin of Nottingham. This -machine although very slow in production actually reproduces the real -lace, at a cost slightly below that of the hand-made lace. In another -branch of lace-making by machinery, mechanical ingenuity, combined with -chemical treatment, has led to surprising results (figs. 53 and 50). -Swiss, German and other manufacturers use machines in which a principle -of the sewing-machine is involved. A fine silken tissue is thereby -enriched with an elaborately raised cotton or thread embroidery. The -whole fabric is then treated with chemical mordants which, whilst -dissolving the silky web, do not attack the cotton or thread embroidery. -A relief embroidery possessing the appearance of hand-made raised -needlepoint lace is thus produced. Figs. 60 and 61 give some idea of -the high quality to which this admirable counterfeit has been brought. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Specimens of Machine-made Torchon Lace, in the -same manner as such lace is made on the pillow by hand. (Nottingham, -20th century.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Machine-made Lace of Modern Design.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Machine-made Lace in imitation of 17th-century -Needlepoint Lace, "Gros point de Venise."] - -Collections of hand-made lace chiefly exist in museums and technical -institutions, as for instance the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, -the Musee des Arts Decoratifs in Paris, and museums at Lyons, Nuremberg, -Berlin, Turin and elsewhere. In such places the opportunity is presented -of tracing in chronological sequence the stages of pattern and texture -development. - - _Literature._--The literature of the art of lace-making is - considerable. The series of 16th- and 17th-century lace pattern-books, - of which the more important are perhaps those by F. Vinciolo (Paris, - 1587), Cesare Vecellio (Venice, 1592), and Isabetta Catanea Parasole - (Venice, 1600), not to mention several kindred works of earlier and - later date published in Germany and the Netherlands, supplies a large - field for exploration. Signor Ongania of Venice published a limited - number of facsimiles of the majority of such works. M. Alvin of - Brussels issued a brochure in 1863 upon these patterns, and in the - same year the marquis Girolamo d'Adda contributed two bibliographical - essays upon the same subject to the _Gazette des Beaux-Arts_ (vol. xv. - p. 342 seq., and vol. xvii. p. 421 seq.). In 1864 Cavaliere A. Merli - wrote a pamphlet (with illustrations) entitled _Origine ed uso delle - trine a filo di rete_; Mons F. de Fertiault compiled a brief and - rather fanciful _Histoire de la dentelle_ in 1843, in which he - reproduced statements to be found in Diderot's _Encyclopedie_, - subsequently quoted by Roland de la Platiere. The first _Report of the - Department of Practical Art_ (1853) contains a "Report on Cotton - Print Works and Lace-Making" by Octavius Hudson, and in the first - _Report of the Department of Science and Art_ are some "Observations - on Lace." Reports upon the International Exhibitions of 1851 (London) - and 1867 (Paris), by M. Aubry, Mrs Palliser and others contain - information concerning lace-making. The most important work first - issued upon the history of lace-making is that by Mrs Bury Palliser - (_History of Lace_, 1869). In this work the history is treated rather - from an antiquarian than a technical point of view; and wardrobe - accounts, inventories, state papers, fashionable journals, diaries, - plays, poems, have been laid under contribution with surprising - diligence. A new edition published in 1902 presents the work as - entirely revised, rewritten and enlarged under the editorship of M. - Jourdain and Alice Dryden. In 1875 the Arundel Society brought out - _Ancient Needlepoint and Pillow Lace_, a folio volume of permanently - printed photographs taken from some of the finest specimens of ancient - lace collected for the International Exhibition of 1874. These were - accompanied by a brief history of lace, written from the technical - aspect of the art, by Alan S. Cole. At the same time appeared a bulky - imperial 4to volume by Seguin, entitled _La Dentelle_, illustrated - with wood-cuts and fifty photo-typographical plates. Seguin divides - his work into four sections. The first is devoted to a sketch of the - origin of laces; the second deals with pillow laces, bibliography of - lace and a review of sumptuary edicts; the third relates to - needle-made lace; and the fourth contains an account of places where - lace has been and is made, remarks upon commerce in lace, and upon the - industry of lace makers. Without sufficient conclusive evidence Seguin - accords to France the palm for having excelled in producing - practically all the richer sorts of laces, notwithstanding that both - before and since the publication of his otherwise valuable work, many - types of them have been identified as being Italian in origin. - Descriptive catalogues are issued of the lace collections at South - Kensington Museum, at the Science and Art Museum, Dublin, and at the - Industrial Museum, Nuremberg. In 1881 a series of four Cantor Lectures - on the art of lace-making were delivered before the Society of Arts by - Alan S. Cole. - - _A Technical History of the Manufacture of Venetian Laces_, by G. M. - Urbani de Gheltof, with plates, was translated by Lady Layard, and - published at Venice by Signor Ongania. The _History of Machine-wrought - Hosiery and Lace Manufacture_ (London, 1867), by Felkin, has already - been referred to. There is also a technological essay upon lace made - by machinery, with diagrams of lace stitches and patterns - (_Technologische Studien im sachsischen Erzgebirge_, Leipzig, 1878), - by Hugo Fischer. In 1886 the Libraire Renouard, Paris, published a - _History of Point d'Alencon_, written by Madame G. Despierres, which - gives a close and interesting account of the industry, together with a - list, compiled from local records, of makers and dealers from 1602 - onwards.--_Embroidery and Lace: their manufacture and history from the - remotest antiquity to the present day_, by Ernest Lefebure, lace-maker - and administrator of the Ecole des Arts Decoratifs, translated and - enlarged with notes by Alan S. Cole, was published in London in 1888. - It is a well-illustrated handbook for amateurs, collectors and general - readers.--Irish laces made from modern designs are illustrated in a - _Renascence of the Irish Art of Lace-making_, published in 1888 - (London).--_Anciennes Dentelles belges formant la collection de feue - madame Augusta Baronne Liedts et donnees au Musee de Grunthuis a - Bruges_, published at Antwerp in 1889, consists of a folio volume - containing upwards of 181 phototypes--many full size--of fine - specimens of lace. The ascriptions of country and date of origin are - occasionally inaccurate, on account of a too obvious desire to credit - Bruges with being the birthplace of all sorts of lace-work, much of - which shown in this work is distinctly Italian in style.--The - _Encyclopaedia of Needlework_, by Therese de Dillmont-Dornach (Alsace, - 1891), is a detailed guide to several kinds of embroidery, knitting, - crochet, tatting, netting and most of the essential stitches for - needlepoint lace. It is well illustrated with wood-cuts and process - blocks.--An exhaustive history of Russian lace-making is given in _La - Dentelle russe_, by Madame Sophie Davidoff, published at Leipzig, - 1895. Russian lace is principally pillow-work with rather heavy - thread, and upwards of eighty specimens are reproduced by - photo-lithography in this book. - - A short account of the best-known varieties of _Point and Pillow - Lace_, by A. M. S. (London, 1899), is illustrated with typical - specimens of Italian, Flemish, French and English laces, as well as - with magnified details of lace, enabling any one to identify the - plaits, the twists and loops of threads in the actual making of the - fabric.--_L'Industrie des tulles et dentelles mecaniques dans le - Pas de Calais_, 1815-1900, by Henri Henon (Paris, 1900), is an - important volume of over 600 pages of letterpress, interspersed with - abundant process blocks of the several kinds of machine nets and laces - made at Calais since 1815. It opens with a short account of the Arras - hand-made laces, the production of which is now almost extinct. The - book was sold for the benefit of a public subscription towards the - erection of a statue in Calais to Jacquard, the inventor of the - apparatus by means of which all figured textile fabrics are - manufactured. It is of some interest to note that machine net and - lace-making at Calais owe their origin to Englishmen, amongst whom "le - sieur R. Webster arrive a St Pierre-les-Calais en Decembre, 1816, - venant d'Angleterre, est l'un des premiers qui ont etabli dans la - communaute une fabrique de tulles," &c. _Lace-making in the Midlands: - Past and Present_, by C. C. Channer and M. E. Roberts (London, 1900) - upon the lace-making industry in Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and - Northamptonshire contains many illustrations of laces made in these - counties from the 17th century to the present time. _Musee - retrospectif. Dentelles a l'exposition universelle internationale de - 1900 a Paris. Rapport de Mons. E. Lefebvre_ contains several good - illustrations, especially of important specimens of Point de France of - the 17th and 18th centuries. _Le Point de France et les autres - dentelliers au XVII^e et au XVIII^e siecles_, by Madame Laurence de - Laprade (Paris, 1905), brings together much hitherto scattered - information throwing light upon operations in many localities in - France where the industry has been carried on for considerable - periods. The book is well and usefully illustrated. - - See also _Irische Spitzen_ (30 half-tone plates), with a short - historical introduction by Alan S. Cole (Stuttgart, 1902); _Pillow - Lace_, a practical handbook by Elizabeth Mincoff and Margaret S. - Marriage (London, 1907); _The Art of Bobbin Lace_, a practical - text-book of workmanship, &c., by Louisa Tebbs (London, 1907); - _Antiche trine italiane_, by Elisa Ricci (Bergamo, 1908), well - illustrated; _Seven Centuries of Lace_, by Mrs John Hungerford Pollen - (London and New York, 1908), very fully illustrated. (A. S. C.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The prevalence of fashion in the above-mentioned sorts of - embroidery during the 16th century is marked by the number of - pattern-books then published. In Venice a work of this class was - issued by Alessandro Pagannino in 1527; another of a similar nature, - printed by Pierre Quinty, appeared in the same year at Cologne; and - La _Fleur de la science de pourtraicture et patrons de broderie, - facon arabicque et ytalique_, was published at Paris in 1530. From - these early dates until the beginning of the 17th century - pattern-books for embroidery in Italy, France, Germany and England - were published in great abundance. The designs contained in many of - those dating from the early 16th century were to be worked for - costumes and hangings, and consisted of scrolls, arabesques, birds, - animals, flowers, foliage, herbs and grasses. So far, however, as - their reproduction as laces might be concerned, the execution of - complicated work was involved which none but practised lace-workers, - such as those who arose a century later, could be expected to - undertake. - - [2] A very complete account of how these conditions began and - developed at Alencon, for instance, is given in Madame Despierre's - _Histoire du Point d'Alencon_ (1886) to which is appended an - interesting and annotated list of merchants, designers and makers of - Point d'Alencon. - - [3] _E.g._ The family of Camusat at Alencon from 1602 until 1795. - - [4] The picture, however, as Seguin has pointed out, was probably - painted some thirty years later, and by Jean Matsys. - - [5] See the poetical skit _Revolte des passements et broderies_, - written by Mademoiselle de la Tousse, cousin of Madame de Sevigne, in - the middle of the 17th century, which marks the favour which foreign - laces at that time commanded amongst the leaders of French fashion. - It is fairly evident too that the French laces themselves, known as - "bisette," "gueuse," "campane" and "mignonette," were small and - comparatively insignificant works, without pretence to design. - - [6] Useful information has been communicated to the writer of the - present article on lace by Mrs B. Wishaw of Seville. - - [7] See Felkin's _Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures_. - - [8] After 1650 the lace-workers at Alencon and its neighbourhood - produced work of a daintier kind than that which was being made by - the Venetians. As a rule the hexagonal _bride_ grounds of Alencon - laces are smaller than similar details in Venetian laces. The average - size of a diagonal taken from angle to angle in an Alencon (or - so-called Argentan) hexagon was about one-sixth of an inch, and each - side of the hexagon was about one-tenth of an inch. An idea of the - minuteness of the work can be formed from the fact that a side of a - hexagon would be overcast with some nine or ten buttonhole stitches. - - - - -LACE-BARK TREE, a native of Jamaica, known botanically as _Lagetta -lintearia_, from its native name lagetto. The inner bark consists of -numerous concentric layers of interlacing fibres resembling in -appearance lace. Collars and other articles of apparel have been made of -the fibre, which is also used in the manufacture of whips, &c. The tree -belongs to the natural order Thymelaeaceae, and is grown in hothouses in -Britain. - - - - -LACEDAEMON, in historical times an alternative name of LACONIA (q.v.). -Homer uses only the former, and in some passages seems to denote by it -the Achaean citadel, the Therapnae of later times, in contrast to the -lower town Sparta (G. Gilbert, _Studien zur altspartanischen -Geschichte_, Gottingen, 1872, p. 34 foll.). It is described by the -epithets [Greek: koile] (hollow) and [Greek: ketoessa] (spacious or -hollow), and is probably connected etymologically with [Greek: lakkos], -_lacus_, any hollow place. Lacedaemon is now the name of a separate -department, which had in 1907 a population of 87,106. - - - - -LACEPEDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ETIENNE DE LA VILLE, COMTE DE (1756-1825), -French naturalist, was born at Agen in Guienne on the 26th of December -1756. His education was carefully conducted by his father, and the early -perusal of Buffon's _Natural History_ awakened his interest in that -branch of study, which absorbed his chief attention. His leisure he -devoted to music, in which, besides becoming a good performer on the -piano and organ, he acquired considerable mastery of composition, two of -his operas (which were never published) meeting with the high approval -of Gluck; in 1781-1785 he also brought out in two volumes his _Poetique -de la musique_. Meantime he wrote two treaties, _Essai sur -l'electricite_ (1781) and _Physique generale et particuliere_ -(1782-1784), which gained him the friendship of Buffon, who in 1785 -appointed him subdemonstrator in the Jardin du Roi, and proposed to him -to become the continuator of his _Histoire naturelle_. This continuation -was published under the titles _Histoire des quadrupedes ovipares et des -serpents_ (2 vols., 1788-1789) and _Histoire naturelle des reptiles_ -(1789). After the Revolution Lacepede became a member of the legislative -assembly, but during the Reign of Terror he left Paris, his life having -become endangered by his disapproval of the massacres. When the Jardin -du Roi was reorganized as the Jardin des Plantes, Lacepede was appointed -to the chair allocated to the study of reptiles and fishes. In 1798 he -published the first volume of _Histoire naturelle des poissons_, the -fifth volume appearing in 1803; and in 1804 appeared his _Histoire des -cetaces_. From this period till his death the part he took in politics -prevented him making any further contribution of importance to science. -In 1799 he became a senator, in 1801 president of the senate, in 1803 -grand chancellor of the legion of honour, in 1804 minister of state, and -at the Restoration in 1819 he was created a peer of France. He died at -Epinay on the 6th of October 1825. During the latter part of his life he -wrote _Histoire generale physique et civile de l'Europe_, published -posthumously in 18 vols., 1826. - - A collected edition of his works on natural history was published in - 1826. - - - - -LACEWING-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of the families -_Hemerobiidae_ and _Chrysopidae_, related to the ant-lions, -scorpion-flies, &c., with long filiform antennae, longish bodies and two -pairs of large similar richly veined wings. The larvae are short grubs -beset with hair-tufts and tubercles. They feed upon _Aphidae_ or "green -fly" and cover themselves with the emptied skins of their prey. -Lacewing-flies of the genus _Chrysopa_ are commonly called golden-eye -flies. - - - - -LA CHAISE, FRANCOIS DE (1624-1709), father confessor of Louis XIV., was -born at the chateau of Aix in Forey on the 25th of August 1624, being -the son of Georges d'Aix, seigneur de la Chaise, and of Renee de -Rochefort. On his mother's side he was a grandnephew of Pere Coton, the -confessor of Henry IV. He became a novice of the Society of Jesus before -completing his studies at the university of Lyons, where, after taking -the final vows, he lectured on philosophy to students attracted by his -fame from all parts of France. Through the influence of Camille de -Villeroy, archbishop of Lyons, Pere de la Chaise was nominated in 1674 -confessor of Louis XIV., who intrusted him during the lifetime of Harlay -de Champvallon, archbishop of Paris, with the administration of the -ecclesiastical patronage of the crown. The confessor united his -influence with that of Madame de Maintenon to induce the king to abandon -his liaison with Madame de Montespan. More than once at Easter he is -said to have had a convenient illness which dispensed him from granting -absolution to Louis XIV. With the fall of Madame de Montespan and the -ascendancy of Madame de Maintenon his influence vastly increased. The -marriage between Louis XIV. and Madame de Maintenon was celebrated in -his presence at Versailles, but there is no reason for supposing that -the subsequent coolness between him and Madame de Maintenon arose from -his insistence on secrecy in this matter. During the long strife over -the temporalities of the Gallican Church between Louis XIV. and Innocent -XI. Pere de la Chaise supported the royal prerogative, though he used -his influence at Rome to conciliate the papal authorities. He must be -held largely responsible for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but -not for the brutal measures applied against the Protestants. He -exercised a moderating influence on Louis XIV.'s zeal against the -Jansenists, and Saint-Simon, who was opposed to him in most matters, -does full justice to his humane and honourable character. Pere de la -Chaise had a lasting and unalterable affection for Fenelon, which -remained unchanged by the papal condemnation of the _Maximes_. In spite -of failing faculties he continued his duties as confessor to Louis XIV. -to the end of his long life. He died on the 20th of January 1709. The -cemetery of Pere-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired by the -Jesuits in 1826, and not, as is often stated, on property personally -granted to him. - - See R. Chantelauze, _Le Pere de la Chaize. Etudes d'histoire - religieuse_ (Paris and Lyons, 1859). - - - - -LA CHAISE-DIEU, a town of central France, in the department of Haute -Loire, 29 m. N.N.W. of Le Puy by rail. Pop. (1906) 1203. The town, which -is situated among fir and pine woods, 3500 ft. above the sea, preserves -remains of its ramparts and some houses of the 14th and 15th centuries, -but owes its celebrity to a church, which, after the cathedral of -Clermont-Ferrand, is the most remarkable Gothic building in Auvergne. -The west facade, approached by a flight of steps, is flanked by two -massive towers. The nave and aisles are of equal height and are -separated from the choir by a stone rood screen. The choir, terminating -in an apse with radiating chapel, contains the fine tomb and statue of -Clement VI., carved stalls and some admirable Flemish tapestries of the -early 16th century. There is a ruined cloister on the south side. The -church, which dates from the 14th century, was built at the expense of -Pope Clement VI., and belonged to a powerful Benedictine abbey founded -in 1043. There are spacious monastic buildings of the 18th century. The -abbey was formerly defended by fortifications, the chief survival of -which is a lofty rectangular keep to the south of the choir. Trade in -timber and the making of lace chiefly occupy the inhabitants of the -town. - - - - -LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENE DE CARADEUC DE (1701-1785), French jurist, was -born at Rennes, on the 6th of March 1701. He was for 60 years procureur -general at the parliament of Brittany. He was an ardent opponent of the -Jesuits; drew up in 1761 for the parliament a memoir on the -constitutions of the Order, which did much to secure its suppression in -France; and in 1763 published a remarkable "Essay on National -Education," in which he proposed a programme of scientific studies as a -substitute for those taught by the Jesuits. The same year began the -conflict between the Estates of Brittany and the governor of the -province, the duc d'Aiguillon (q.v.). The Estates refused to vote the -extraordinary imposts demanded by the governor in the name of the king. -La Chalotais was the personal enemy of d'Aiguillon, who had served him -an ill turn with the king, and when the parliament of Brittany sided -with the Estates, he took the lead in its opposition. The parliament -forbade by decrees the levy of imposts to which the Estates had not -consented. The king annulling these decrees, all the members of the -parliament but twelve resigned (October 1764 to May 1765). The -government considered La Chalotais one of the authors of this affair. At -this time the secretary of state who administered the affairs of the -province, Louis Philypeaux, duc de la Vrilliere, comte de -Saint-Florentin (1705-1777), received two anonymous and abusive letters. -La Chalotais was suspected of having written them, and three experts in -handwriting declared that they were by him. The government therefore -arrested him, his son and four other members of the parliament. The -arrest made a great sensation. There was much talk of "despotism." -Voltaire stated that the procureur general, in his prison of Saint Malo, -was reduced, for lack of ink, to write his defence with a toothpick -dipped in vinegar--which was apparently pure legend; but public opinion -all over France was strongly aroused against the government. On the 16th -of November 1765 a commission of judges was named to take charge of the -trial. La Chalotais maintained that the trial was illegal; being -procureur general he claimed the right to be judged by the parliament of -Rennes, or failing this by the parliament of Bordeaux, according to the -custom of the province. The judges did not dare to pronounce a -condemnation on the evidence of experts in handwriting, and at the end -of a year, things remained where they were at the first. Louis XV. then -decided on a sovereign act, and brought the affair before his council, -which without further formality decided to send the accused into exile. -That expedient but increased the popular agitation; _philosophes_, -members of the parliament, patriot Bretons and Jansenists all declared -that La Chalotais was the victim of the personal hatred of the duc -d'Aiguillon and of the Jesuits. The government at last gave way, and -consented to recall the members of the parliament of Brittany who had -resigned. This parliament, when it met again, after the formal -accusation of the duc d'Aiguillon, demanded the recall of La Chalotais. -This was accorded in 1775, and La Chalotais was allowed to transmit his -office to his son. In this affair public opinion showed itself stronger -than the absolutism of the king. The opposition to the royal power -gained largely through it, and it may be regarded as one of the preludes -to the revolution of 1789. La Chalotais, who was personally a violent, -haughty and unsympathetic character, died at Rennes on the 12th of July -1785. - - See, besides the _Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jesuites_ and - the _Essai d'education nationale_, the _Memoires de la Chalotais_ (3 - vols., 1766-1767). Two works containing detailed bibliographies are - Marion, _La Bretagne et le duc d'Aiguillon_ (Paris, 1893), and B. - Pocquet, _Le Duc d'Aiguillon et La Chalotais_ (Paris, 1901). See also - a controversy between these two authors in the _Bulletin critique_ for - 1902. - - - - -LA CHARITE, a town of central France in the department of Nievre, on the -right bank of the Loire, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nevers on the -Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway. Pop. (1906) 3990. La Charite possesses -the remains of a fine Romanesque basilica, the church of Sainte-Croix, -dating from the 11th and early 12th centuries. The plan consists of a -nave, rebuilt at the end of the 17th century, transept and choir with -ambulatory and side chapels. Surmounting the transept is an octagonal -tower of one story, and a square Romanesque tower of much beauty flanks -the main portal. There are ruins of the ramparts, which date from the -14th century. The manufacture of hosiery, boots and shoes, files and -iron goods, lime and cement and woollen and other fabrics are among the -industries; trade is chiefly in wood and iron. - - La Charite owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in the - 8th century and reorganized as a dependency of the abbey of Cluny in - 1052. It became the parent of many priories and monasteries, some of - them in England and Italy. The possession of the town was hotly - contested during the wars of religion of the 16th century, at the end - of which its fortifications were dismantled. - - - - -LA CHAUSSEE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE (1692-1754), French dramatist, was -born in Paris in 1692. In 1731 he published an _Epitre a Clio_, a -didactic poem in defence of Leriget de la Faye in his dispute with -Antoine Houdart de la Motte, who had maintained that verse was useless -in tragedy. La Chaussee was forty years old before he produced his first -play, _La Fausse Antipathie_ (1734). His second play, _Le Prejuge a la -mode_ (1735) turns on the fear of incurring ridicule felt by a man in -love with his own wife, a prejudice dispelled in France, according to La -Harpe, by La Chaussee's comedy. _L'Ecole des amis_ (1737) followed, and, -after an unsuccessful attempt at tragedy in _Maximinien_, he returned to -comedy in _Melanide_ (1741). In _Melanide_ the type known as _comedie -larmoyante_ is fully developed. Comedy was no longer to provoke -laughter, but tears. The innovation consisted in destroying the sharp -distinction then existing between tragedy and comedy in French -literature. Indications of this change had been already offered in the -work of Marivaux, and La Chaussee's plays led naturally to the domestic -drama of Diderot and of Sedaine. The new method found bitter enemies. -Alexis Piron nicknames the author "_le Reverend Pere Chaussee_," and -ridiculed him in one of his most famous epigrams. Voltaire maintained -that the _comedie larmoyante_ was a proof of the inability of the author -to produce either of the recognized kinds of drama, though he himself -produced a play of similar character in _L'Enfant prodigue_. The -hostility of the critics did not prevent the public from shedding tears -nightly over the sorrows of La Chaussee's heroine. _L'Ecole des meres_ -(1744) and _La Gouvernante_ (1747) form, with those already mentioned, -the best of his work. The strict moral aims pursued by La Chaussee in -his plays seem hardly consistent with his private preferences. He -frequented the same gay society as did the comte de Caylus and -contributed to the _Recueils de ces messieurs_. La Chaussee died on the -14th of May 1754. Villemain said of his style that he wrote prosaic -verses with purity, while Voltaire, usually an adverse critic of his -work, said he was "_un des premiers apres ceux qui ont du genie_." - - For the _comedie larmoyante_ see G. Lanson, _Nivelle de la Chaussee et - la comedie larmoyante_ (1887). - - - - -LACHES (from Anglo-French _lachesse_, negligence, from _lasche_, modern -_lache_, unloosed, slack), a term for slackness or negligence, used -particularly in law to signify negligence on the part of a person in -doing that which he is by law bound to do, or unreasonable lapse of time -in asserting a right, seeking relief, or claiming a privilege. Laches is -frequently a bar to a remedy which might have been had if prosecuted in -proper time. Statutes of limitation specify the time within which -various classes of actions may be brought. Apart from statutes of -limitation courts of equity will often refuse relief to those who have -allowed unreasonable time to elapse in seeking it, on the principle -_vigilantibus ac non dormientibus jura subveniunt_. - - - - -LACHINE, an incorporated town in Jacques Cartier county, Quebec, Canada, -8 m. W. of Montreal, on Lake St Louis, an expansion of the St Lawrence -river, and at the upper end of the Lachine canal. Pop. (1901) 5561. It -is a station on the Grand Trunk railway and a port of call for steamers -plying between Montreal and the Great Lakes. It is a favourite summer -resort for the people of Montreal. It was named in 1669 in mockery of -its then owner, Robert Cavelier de la Salle (1643-1687), who dreamed of -a westward passage to China. In 1689 it was the scene of a terrible -massacre of the French by the Iroquois. - - - - -LACHISH, a town of great importance in S. Palestine, often mentioned in -the Tell el-Amarna tablets. It was destroyed by Joshua for joining the -league against the Gibeonites (Joshua x. 31-33) and assigned to the -tribe of Judah (xv. 39). Rehoboam fortified it (2 Chron. xi. 9). King -Amaziah having fled hither, was here murdered by conspirators (2 Kings -xiv. 19). Sennacherib here conducted a campaign (2 Kings xviii. 13) -during which Hezekiah endeavoured to make terms with him: the campaign -is commemorated by bas-reliefs found in Nineveh, now in the British -Museum (see G. Smith's _History of Sennacherib_, p. 69). It was one of -the last cities that resisted Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xxxiv. 7). The -meaning of Micah's denunciation (i. 13) of the city is unknown. The -_Onomasticon_ places it 7 m. from Eleutheropolis on the S. road, which -agrees with the generally received identification, Tell el-Hesi, an -important mound excavated for the Palestine Exploration Fund by Petrie -and Bliss, 1890-1893. The name is preserved in a small Roman site in the -neighbourhood, Umm Lakis, which probably represents a later -dwelling-place of the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the -city. - - See W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Tell el-Hesy_, and F. J. Bliss, _A Mound - of many Cities_, both published by the Palestine Exploration Fund. - (R. A. S. M.) - - - - -LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1793-1851), German philologist -and critic, was born at Brunswick on the 4th of March 1793. He studied at -Leipzig and Gottingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies. -In 1815 he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer _chasseur_ and -accompanied his detachment to Paris, but did not encounter the enemy. In -1816 he became an assistant master in the Friedrich Werder gymnasium at -Berlin, and a _privat-docent_ at the university. The same summer he -became one of the principal masters in the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of -Konigsberg, where he assisted his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl -Kopke (1785-1865) with his edition of Rudolf von Ems' _Barlaam und -Josaphat_ (1818), and also assisted his friend in a contemplated edition -of the works of Walther von der Vogelweide. In January 1818 he became -professor extraordinarius of classical philology in the university of -Konigsberg, and at the same time began to lecture on Old German grammar -and the Middle High German poets. He devoted himself during the following -seven years to an extraordinarily minute study of those subjects, and in -1824 obtained leave of absence in order that he might search the -libraries of middle and south Germany for further materials. In 1825 -Lachmann was nominated extraordinary professor of classical and German -philology in the university of Berlin (ordinary professor 1827); and in -1830 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences. The remainder -of his laborious and fruitful life as an author and a teacher was -uneventful. He died on the 13th of March 1851. - - Lachmann, who was the translator of the first volume of P. E. Muller's - _Sagabibliothek des skandinavischen Altertums_ (1816), is a figure of - considerable importance in the history of German philology (see Rudolf - von Raumer, _Geschichte der germanischen Philologie_, 1870). In his - "Habilitationsschrift" _Uber die ursprungliche Gestalt des Gedichts - der Nibelunge Not_ (1816), and still more in his review of Hagen's - _Nibelungen_ and Benecke's _Bonerius_, contributed in 1817 to the - _Jenaische Literaturzeitung_ he had already laid down the rules of - textual criticism and elucidated the phonetic and metrical principles - of Middle High German in a manner which marked a distinct advance in - that branch of investigation. The rigidly scientific character of his - method becomes increasingly apparent in the _Auswahl aus den - hochdeutschen Dichtern des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts_ (1820), in the - edition of Hartmann's _Iwein_ (1827), in those of Walther von der - Vogelweide (1827) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (1833), in the papers - "Uber das Hildebrandslied," "Uber althochdeutsche Betonung und - Verskunst," "Uber den Eingang des Parzivals," and "Uber drei - Bruchstucke niederrheinischer Gedichte" published in the - _Abhandlungen_ of the Berlin Academy, and in _Der Nibelunge Not und - die Klage_ (1826, 11th ed., 1892), which was followed by a critical - commentary in 1836. Lachmann's _Betrachtungen uber Homer's Ilias_, - first published in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Berlin Academy in 1837 - and 1841, in which he sought to show that the _Iliad_ consists of - sixteen independent "lays" variously enlarged and interpolated, have - had considerable influence on modern Homeric criticism (see HOMER), - although his views are no longer accepted. His smaller edition of the - New Testament appeared in 1831, 3rd ed. 1846; the larger, in two - volumes, in 1842-1850. The plan of Lachmann's edition, explained by - himself in the _Stud. u. Krit._ of 1830, is a modification of the - unaccomplished project of Bentley. It seeks to restore the most - ancient reading current in Eastern MSS., using the consent of the - Latin authorities (Old Latin and Greek Western Uncials) as the main - proof of antiquity of a reading where the oldest Eastern authorities - differ. Besides _Propertius_ (1816), Lachmann edited _Catullus_ - (1829); _Tibullus_ (1829); _Genesius_ (1834); _Terentianus Maurus_ - (1836); _Babrius_ (1845); _Avianus_ (1845); _Gaius_ (1841-1842); the - _Agrimensores Romani_ (1848-1852); _Lucilius_ (edited after his death - by Vahlen, 1876); and _Lucretius_ (1850). The last, which was the main - occupation of the closing years of his life, from 1845, was perhaps - his greatest achievement, and has been characterized by Munro as "a - work which will be a landmark for scholars as long as the Latin - language continues to be studied." Lachmann also translated - Shakespeare's sonnets (1820) and _Macbeth_ (1829). - - See M. Hertz, _Karl Lachmann, eine Biographie_ (1851), where a full - list of Lachmann's works is given; F. Leo, _Rede zur Sacularfeier K. - Lachmanns_ (1893); J. Grimm, biography in _Kleine Schriften_; W. - Scherer in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xvii., and J. E. Sandys, - _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. (1908), pp. 127-131. - - - - -LACINIUM, PROMUNTURIUM (mod. Capo delle Colonne), 7 m S.E. of Crotona -(mod. Cotrone); the easternmost point of Bruttii (mod. Calabria). On the -cape still stands a single column of the temple erected to Hera Lacinia, -which is said to have been fairly complete in the 16th century, but to -have been destroyed to build the episcopal palace at Cotrone. It is a -Doric column with capital, about 27 ft. in height. Remains of marble -roof-tiles have been seen on the spot (Livy xlii. 3) and architectural -fragments were excavated in 1886-1887 by the Archaeological Institute of -America. The sculptures found were mostly buried again, but a few -fragments, some decorative terra-cottas and a dedicatory inscription to -Hera of the 6th century B.C., in private possession at Cotrone, are -described by F. von Duhn in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1897, 343 seq. The -date of the erection of the temple may be given as 480-440 B.C.; it is -not recorded by any ancient writer. - - See R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, _Die griechischen Tempel in - Unteritalien und Sicilien_ (Berlin 1899, 41). - - - - -LA CIOTAT, a coast town of south-eastern France in the department of -Bouches-du-Rhone, on the west shore of the Bay of La Ciotat, 26 m. S.E. -of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,562. The port is easily accessible -and well sheltered. The large shipbuilding yards and repairing docks of -the Messageries Maritimes Company give employment to between 2000 and -3000 workmen. Fishing and an active coasting trade are carried on; the -town is frequented for sea-bathing. La Ciotat was in ancient times the -port of the neighbouring town of _Citharista_ (now the village of -Ceyreste). - - - - -LA CLOCHE, JAMES DE ["Prince James Stuart"] (1644?-1669), a character -who was brought into the history of England by Lord Acton in 1862 (_Home -and Foreign Review_, i. 146-174: "The Secret History of Charles II."). -From information discovered by Father Boero in the archives of the -Jesuits in Rome, Lord Acton averred that Charles II., when a lad at -Jersey, had a natural son, James. The evidence follows. On the 2nd of -April 1668, as the register of the Jesuit House of Novices at Rome -attests, "there entered Jacobus de la Cloche." His baggage was exiguous, -his attire was clerical. He is described as "from the island of Jersey, -under the king of England, aged 24." He possessed two documents in -French, purporting to have been written by Charles II. at Whitehall, on -the 25th of September 1665, and on the 7th of February 1667. In both -Charles acknowledges James to be his natural son, he styles him "James -de la Cloche de Bourg du Jersey," and avers that to recognize him -publicly "would imperil the peace of the kingdoms"--why is not apparent. -A third certificate of birth, in Latin, undated, was from Christina of -Sweden, who declares that James, previously a Protestant, has been -received into the church of Rome at Hamburg (where in 1667-1668 she was -residing) on the 29th of July 1667. The next paper purports to be a -letter from Charles II. of August 3/13 to Oliva, general of the Jesuits. -The king writes, in French, that he has long wished to be secretly -received into the church. He therefore desires that James, his son by a -young lady "of the highest quality," and born to him when he was about -sixteen, should be ordained a priest, come to England and receive him. -Charles alludes to previous attempts of his own to be secretly admitted -(1662). James must be sent secretly to London at once, and Oliva must -say nothing to Christina of Sweden (then meditating a journey to Rome), -and must never write to Charles except when James carries the letter. -Charles next writes on August 29/September 9. He is most anxious that -Christina should not meet James; if she knows Charles's design of -changing his creed she will not keep it secret, and Charles will -infallibly lose his life. With this letter there is another, written -when the first had been sealed. Charles insists that James must not be -accompanied, as novices were, when travelling, by a Jesuit socius or -guardian. Charles's wife and mother have just heard that this is the -rule, but the rule must be broken. James, who is to travel as "Henri de -Rohan," must not come by way of France. Oliva will supply him with -funds. On the back of this letter Oliva has written the draft of his -brief reply to Charles (from Leghorn, October 14, 1668). He merely says -that the bearer, a French gentleman (James spoke only French), will -inform the king that his orders have been executed. Besides these two -letters is one from Charles to James, of date August 4/14. It is -addressed to "Le Prince Stuart," though none of Charles's bastards was -allowed to bear the Stuart name. James is told that he may desert the -clerical profession if he pleases. In that case "you may claim higher -titles from us than the duke of Monmouth." (There was no higher title -save prince of Wales!) If Charles and his brother, the duke of York, die -childless, "the kingdoms belong to you, and parliament cannot legally -oppose you, unless as, at present, they can only elect Protestant -kings." This letter ought to have opened the eyes of Lord Acton and -other historians who accept the myth of James de la Cloche. Charles knew -that the crown of England was not elective, that there was no Exclusion -Act, and that there were legal heirs if he and his brother died without -issue. The last letter of Charles is dated November 18/28, and purports -to have been brought from England to Oliva by James de la Cloche on his -return to Rome. It reveals the fact that Oliva, despite Charles's -orders, did send James by way of France, with a _socius_ or guardian -whom he was to pick up in France on his return to England. Charles says -that James is to communicate certain matters to Oliva, and come back at -once. Oliva is to give James all the money he needs, and Charles will -later make an ample donation to the Jesuits. He acknowledges a debt to -Oliva of L800, to be paid in six months. The reader will remark that the -king has never paid a penny to James or to Oliva, and that Oliva has -never communicated directly with Charles. The truth is that all of -Charles's letters are forgeries. This is certain because in all he -writes frequently as if his mother, Henrietta Maria, were in London, and -constantly in company with him. Now she had left England for France in -1665, and to England she never returned. As the letters--including that -to "Prince Stuart"--are all forged, it is clear that de la Cloche was an -impostor. His aim had been to get money from Oliva, and to pretend to -travel to England, meaning to enjoy himself. He did not quite succeed, -for Oliva sent a socius with him into France. His precautions to avoid a -meeting with Christina of Sweden were necessary. She knew no more of him -than did Charles, and would have exposed him. - -The name of James de la Cloche appears no more in documents. He reached -Rome in December 1668, and in January a person calling himself "Prince -James Stuart" appears in Naples, accompanied by a _socius_ styling -himself a French knight of Malta. Both are on their way to England, but -Prince James falls ill and stays in Naples, while his companion departs. -The knight of Malta may be a Jesuit. In Naples, Prince James marries a -girl of no position, and is arrested on suspicion of being a coiner. To -his confessors (he had two in succession) he says that he is a son of -Charles II. Our sources are the despatches of Kent, the English agent at -Naples, and the _Lettere_, vol. iii., of Vincenzo Armanni (1674), who -had his information from one of the confessors of the "Prince." The -viceroy of Naples communicated with Charles II., who disowned the -impostor; Prince James, however, was released, and died at Naples in -August 1669, leaving a wild will, in which he claims for his son, still -unborn, the "apanage" of Monmouth or Wales, "which it is usual to bestow -on natural sons of the king." The son lived till about 1750, a penniless -pretender, and writer of begging letters. - -It is needless to pursue Lord Acton's conjectures about later mysterious -appearances of James de la Cloche at the court of Charles, or to discuss -the legend that his mother was a lady of Jersey--or a sister of Charles! -The Jersey myths may be found in _The Man of the Mask_ (1908), by -Monsignor Barnes, who argued that James was the man in the iron mask -(see IRON MASK). Later Monsignor Barnes, who had observed that the -letter of Charles to Prince James Stuart is a forgery, noticed the -impossibility that Charles, in 1668, should constantly write of his -mother as resident in London, which she left for ever in 1665. - -Who de la Cloche really was it is impossible to discover, but he was a -bold and successful swindler, who took in, not only the general of the -Jesuits, but Lord Acton and a generation of guileless historians. - (A. L.) - - - - -LA CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE DE (1701-1774), French geographer and -mathematician, was born at Paris on the 28th of January 1701. He was -trained for the military profession, but turned his attention to science -and geographical exploration. After taking part in a scientific -expedition in the Levant (1731), he became a member with Louis Godin and -Pierre Bouguer of the expedition sent to Peru in 1735 to determine the -length of a degree of the meridian in the neighbourhood of the equator. -His associations with his principals were unhappy; the expedition was -beset by many difficulties, and finally La Condamine separated from the -rest and made his way from Quito down the Amazon, ultimately reaching -Cayenne. His was the first scientific exploration of the Amazon. He -returned to Paris in 1744 and published the results of his measurements -and travels with a map of the Amazon in _Mem. de l'academie des -sciences_, 1745 (English translation 1745-1747). On a visit to Rome La -Condamine made careful measurements of the ancient buildings with a view -to a precise determination of the length of the Roman foot. The journal -of his voyage to South America was published in Paris in 1751. He also -wrote in favour of inoculation, and on various other subjects, mainly -connected with his work in South America. He died at Paris on the 4th of -February 1774. - - - - -LACONIA (Gr. [Greek: Lakonike]), the ancient name of the south-eastern -district of the Peloponnese, of which Sparta was the capital. It has an -area of some 1,048,000 acres, slightly greater than that of -Somersetshire, and consists of three well-marked zones running N. and S. -The valley of the Eurotas, which occupies the centre, is bounded W. by -the chain of Taygetus (mod. Pentedaktylon, 7900 ft.), which starts from -the Arcadian mountains on the N., and at its southern extremity forms -the promontory of Taenarum (Cape Matapan). The eastern portion of -Laconia consists of a far more broken range of hill country, rising in -Mt. Parnon to a height of 6365 ft. and terminating in the headland of -Malea. The range of Taygetus is well watered and was in ancient times -covered with forests which afforded excellent hunting to the Spartans, -while it had also large iron mines and quarries of an inferior bluish -marble, as well as of the famous _rosso antico_ of Taenarum. Far poorer -are the slopes of Parnon, consisting for the most part of barren -limestone uplands scantily watered. The Eurotas valley, however, is -fertile, and produces at the present day maize, olives, oranges and -mulberries in great abundance. Laconia has no rivers of importance -except the Eurotas and its largest tributary the Oenus (mod. Kelefina). -The coast, especially on the east, is rugged and dangerous. Laconia has -few good harbours, nor are there any islands lying off its shores with -the exception of Cythera (Cerigo), S. of Cape Malea. The most important -towns, besides Sparta and Gythium, were Bryseae, Amyclae and Pharis in -the Eurotas plain, Pellana and Belbina on the upper Eurotas, Sellasia on -the Oenus, Caryae on the Arcadian frontier, Prasiae, Zarax and Epidaurus -Limera on the east coast, Geronthrae on the slopes of Parnon, Boeae, -Asopus, Helos, Las and Teuthrone on the Laconian Gulf, and Hippola, -Messa and Oetylus on the Messenian Gulf. - -The earliest inhabitants of Laconia, according to tradition, were the -autochthonous Leleges (q.v.). Minyan immigrants then settled at various -places on the coast and even appear to have penetrated into the interior -and to have founded Amyclae. Phoenician traders, too, visited the shores -of the Laconian Gulf, and there are indications of trade at a very early -period between Laconia and Crete, e.g. a number of blocks of green -Laconian porphyry from the quarries at Croceae have been found in the -palace of Minos at Cnossus. In the Homeric poems Laconia appears as the -realm of an Achaean prince, Menelaus, whose capital was perhaps Therapne -on the left bank of the Eurotas, S.E. of Sparta; the Achaean conquerors, -however, probably contented themselves with a suzerainty over Laconia -and part of Messenia (q.v.) and were too few to occupy the whole land. -The Achaean kingdom fell before the incoming Dorians, and throughout the -classical period the history of Laconia is that of its capital Sparta -(q.v.). In 195 B.C. the Laconian coast towns were freed from Spartan -rule by the Roman general T. Quinctius Flamininus, and became members of -the Achaean League. When this was dissolved in 146 B.C., they remained -independent under the title of the "Confederation of the Lacedaemonians" -or "of the Free-Laconians" ([Greek: koinon ton Lakedaimonion] or [Greek: -Eleutherolakonon]), the supreme officer of which was a [Greek: -strategos] (general) assisted by a [Greek: tamias] (treasurer). Augustus -seems to have reorganized the league in some way, for Pausanias (iii. -21, 6) speaks of him as its founder. Of the twenty-four cities which -originally composed the league, only eighteen remained as members by the -reign of Hadrian (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE). In A.D. 395 a Gothic horde under -Alaric devastated Laconia, and subsequently it was overrun by large -bands of Slavic immigrants. Throughout the middle ages it was the scene -of vigorous struggles between Slavs, Byzantines, Franks, Turks and -Venetians, the chief memorials of which are the ruined strongholds of -Mistra near Sparta, Geraki (anc. Geronthrae) and Monemvasia, "the -Gibraltar of Greece," on the east coast, and Passava near Gythium. A -prominent part in the War of Independence was played by the Maniates or -Mainotes, the inhabitants of the rugged peninsula formed by the southern -part of Taygetus. They had all along maintained a virtual independence -of the Turks and until quite recently retained their medieval customs, -living in fortified towers and practising the vendetta or blood-feud. - -The district has been divided into two departments (nomes), Lacedaemon -and Laconia, with their capitals at Sparta and Gythium respectively. -Pop. of Laconia (1907) 61,522. - -_Archaeology._--Until 1904 archaeological research in Laconia was -carried on only sporadically. Besides the excavations undertaken at -Sparta, Gythium and Vaphio (q.v.), the most important were those at the -Apollo sanctuary of Amyclae carried out by C. Tsountas in 1890 ([Greek: -Ephem. archaiol.] 1892, 1 ff.) and in 1904 by A. Furtwangler. At Kampos, -on the western side of Taygetus, a small domed tomb of the "Mycenean" -age was excavated in 1890 and yielded two leaden statuettes of great -interest, while at Arkina a similar tomb of poor construction was -unearthed in the previous year. Important inscriptions were found at -Geronthrae (Geraki), notably five long fragments of the _Edictum -Diocletiani_, and elsewhere. In 1904 the British Archaeological school -at Athens undertook a systematic investigation of the ancient and -medieval remains in Laconia. The results, of which the most important -are summarized in the article SPARTA, are published in the British -School _Annual_, x. ff. The acropolis of Geronthrae, a hero-shrine at -Angelona in the south-eastern highlands, and the sanctuary of -Ino-Pasiphae at Thalamae have also been investigated. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the Greek histories and many of the works cited - under SPARTA, see W. M. Leake, _Travels in the Morea_ (London, 1830), - cc. iv.-viii., xxii., xxiii.; E. Curtius, _Peloponnesos_ (Gotha, - 1852), ii. 203 ff.; C. Bursian, _Geographie von Griechenland_ - (Leipzig, 1868), ii. 102 ff.; Strabo viii. 5; Pausanias iii. and the - commentary in J. G. Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_ - (London, 1898), vol. iii.; W. G. Clark, _Peloponnesus_ (London, 1858), - 155 ff.; E. P. Boblaye, _Recherches geographiques sur les ruines de la - Moree_ (Paris, 1835), 65 ff.; L. Ross, _Reisen im Peloponnes_ (Berlin, - 1841), 158 ff.; W. Vischer, _Erinnerungen u. Eindrucke aus - Griechenland_ (Basel, 1857), 360 ff.; J. B. G. M. Bory de - Saint-Vincent, _Relation du voyage de l'expedition scientifique de - Moree_ (Paris, 1836), cc. 9, 10; G. A. Blouet, _Expedition - scientifique de Moree_ (Paris, 1831-1838), ii. 58 ff.; A. Philippson, - _Der Peloponnes_ (Berlin, 1892), 155 ff.; _Annual_ of British School - at Athens, 1907-8. - - _Inscriptions_: Le Bas-Foucart, _Voyage archeologique: Inscriptions_, - Nos. 160-290; _Inscriptiones Graecae_, v.; _Corpus Inscriptionum - Graecarum_ (Berlin, 1828), Nos. 1237-1510; Collitz-Bechtel, _Sammlung - der griech. Dialektinschriften_, iii. 2 (Gottingen, 1898), Nos. - 4400-4613. _Coins: Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum: - Peloponnesus_ (London, 1887), xlvi. ff., 121 ff.; B. V. Head, - _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), 363 ff. _Cults_: S. Wide, - _Lakonische Kulte_ (Leipzig, 1893). _Ancient roads_: W. Loring, "Some - Ancient Routes in the Peloponnese" in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, - xv. 25 ff. (M. N. T.) - - - - -LACONIA, a city and the county-seat of Belknap county, New Hampshire, -U.S.A., on both sides of the Winnepesaukee river, 28 m. N.N.E. of -Concord. Pop. (1900) 8042 (1770 foreign-born); (1910) 10,183. Laconia is -served by two divisions of the Boston & Maine railway, which has a very -handsome granite passenger station (1892) and repair shops here. It is -pleasantly situated in the lake district of central New Hampshire, and -in the summer season Lake Winnisquam on the S. and W. and Lake -Winnepesaukee on the N.E. attract many visitors. The city covers an area -of 24.65 sq. m. (5.47 sq. m. annexed since 1890). Within the city -limits, and about 6 m. from its centre, are the grounds of the -Winnepesaukee Camp-Meeting Association, and the camping place for the -annual reunions of the New Hampshire Veterans of the Civil War, both at -The Weirs, the northernmost point in the territory claimed by colonial -Massachusetts; about 2 m. from the centre of Laconia is Lakeport (pop. -1900, 2137), which, like The Weirs, is a summer resort and a ward in the -city of Laconia. Among the public institutions are the State School for -Feeble-minded Children, a cottage hospital and the Laconia Public -Library, lodged in the Gale Memorial Library building (1903). Another -fine building is the Congregational Church (1906). The New Hampshire -State Fish Hatchery is in Laconia. Water-power is furnished by the -river. In 1905 Laconia ranked first among the cities of the state in the -manufacture of hosiery and knit goods, and the value of these products -for the year was 48.4% of the total value of the city's factory product; -among its other manufactures are yarn, knitting machines, needles, -sashes and blinds, axles, paper boxes, boats, gas and gasolene engines, -and freight, passenger and electric cars. The total value of the factory -products increased from $2,152,379 in 1900 to $3,096,878 in 1905, or -43.9%. The portion of the city N. of the river, formerly known as -Meredith Bridge, was set apart from the township of Meredith and -incorporated as a township under the name of Laconia in 1855; a section -S. of the river was taken from the township of Gilford in 1874; and -Lakeport was added in 1893, when Laconia was chartered as a city. The -same Laconia was first applied in New England to the region granted in -1629 to Mason and Gorges (see MASON, JOHN). - - - - -LACONICUM (i.e. Spartan, _sc. balneum_, bath), the dry sweating room of -the Roman thermae, contiguous to the caldarium or hot room. The name was -given to it as being the only form of warm bath that the Spartans -admitted. The laconicum was usually a circular room with niches in the -axes of the diagonals and was covered by a conical roof with a circular -opening at the top, according to Vitruvius (v. 10), "from which a -brazen shield is suspended by chains, capable of being so lowered and -raised as to regulate the temperature." The walls of the laconicum were -plastered with marble stucco and polished, and the conical roof covered -with plaster and painted blue with gold stars. Sometimes, as in the old -baths at Pompeii, the laconicum was provided in an apse at one end of -the caldarium, but as a rule it was a separate room raised to a higher -temperature and had no bath in it. In addition to the hypocaust under -the floor the wall was lined with flue tiles. The largest laconicum, -about 75 ft. in diameter, was that built by Agrippa in his thermae on -the south side of the Pantheon, and is referred to by Cassius (liii. -23), who states that, in addition to other works, "he constructed the -hot bath chamber which he called the Laconicum Gymnasium." All traces of -this building are lost; but in the additions made to the thermae of -Agrippa by Septimius Severus another laconicum was built farther south, -portions of which still exist in the so-called Arco di Giambella. - - - - -LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI (1802-1861), French ecclesiastic and -orator, was born at Recey-sur-Ource, Cote d'Or, on the 12th of March -1802. He was the second of a family of four, the eldest of whom, Jean -Theodore (1801-1870), travelled a great deal in his youth, and was -afterwards professor of comparative anatomy at Liege. For several years -Lacordaire studied at Dijon, showing a marked talent for rhetoric; this -led him to the pursuit of law, and in the local debates of the advocates -he attained a high celebrity. At Paris he thought of going on the stage, -but was induced to finish his legal training and began to practise as an -advocate (1817-1824). Meanwhile Lamennais had published his _Essai sur -l'Indifference_,--a passionate plea for Christianity and in particular -for Roman Catholicism as necessary for the social progress of mankind. -Lacordaire read, and his ardent and believing nature, weary of the -theological negations of the Encyclopaedists, was convinced. In 1823 he -became a theological student at the seminary of Saint Sulpice; four -years later he was ordained and became almoner of the college Henri IV. -He was called from it to co-operate with Lamennais in the editorship of -_L'Avenir_, a journal established to advocate the union of the -democratic principle with ultramontanism. Lacordaire strove to show that -Catholicism was not bound up with the idea of dynasty, and definitely -allied it with a well-defined liberty, equality and fraternity. But the -new propagandism was denounced from Rome in an encyclical. In the -meantime Lacordaire and Montalembert, believing that, under the charter -of 1830, they were entitled to liberty of instruction, opened an -independent free school. It was closed in two days, and the teachers -fined before the court of peers. These reverses Lacordaire accepted with -quiet dignity; but they brought his relationship with Lamennais to a -close. He now began the course of Christian _conferences_ at the College -Stanislas, which attracted the art and intellect of Paris; thence he -went to Notre Dame, and for two years his sermons were the delight of -the capital. His presence was dignified, his voice capable of indefinite -modulation, and his gestures animated and attractive. He still preached -the gospel of the people's sovereignty in civil life and the pope's -supremacy in religion, but brought to his propagandism the full -resources of a mind familiar with philosophy, history and literature, -and indeed led the reaction against Voltairean scepticism. He was asked -to edit the _Univers_, and to take a chair in the university of Louvain, -but he declined both appointments, and in 1838 set out for Rome, -revolving a great scheme for christianizing France by restoring the old -order of St Dominic. At Rome he donned the habit of the preaching friar -and joined the monastery of Minerva. His _Memoire pour le retablissement -en France de l'ordre des freres precheurs_ was then prepared and -dedicated to his country; at the same time he collected the materials -for the life of St Dominic. When he returned to France in 1841 he -resumed his preaching at Notre Dame, but he had small success in -re-establishing the order of which he ever afterwards called himself -monk. His funeral orations are the most notable in their kind of any -delivered during his time, those devoted to Marshal Drouet and Daniel -O'Connell being especially marked by point and clearness. He next -thought that his presence in the National Assembly would be of use to -his cause; but being rebuked by his ecclesiastical superiors for -declaring himself a republican, he resigned his seat ten days after his -election. In 1850 he went back to Rome and was made provincial of the -order, and for four years laboured to make the Dominicans a religious -power. In 1854 he retired to Sorreze to become director of a private -lyceum, and remained there until he died on the 22nd of November 1861. -He had been elected to the Academy in the preceding year. - - The best edition of Lacordaire's works is the _Oeuvres completes_ (6 - vols., Paris, 1872-1873), published by C. Poussielgue, which contains, - besides the _Conferences_, the exquisitely written, but uncritical, - Vie de Saint Dominique and the beautiful _Lettres a un jeune homme sur - la vie chretienne_. For a complete list of his published - correspondence see L. Petit de Julleville's _Histoire de la langue et - de la litterature francaise_, vii. 598. - - The authoritative biography is by Ch. Foisset (2 vols., Paris, 1870). - The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Pere B. - Chocarne's _Vie du Pere Lacordaire_ (2 vols., Paris, 1866--English - translation by A. Th. Drane, London, 1868); see also Count C. F. R. de - Montalembert's _Un Moine au XIX^(eme) siecle_ (Paris, 1862--English - translation by F. Aylward, London, 1867). There are lives by Mrs H. L. - Lear (London, 1882); by A. Ricard (1 vol. of _L'Ecole menaisienne_, - Paris, 1883); by Comte O. d'Haussonville (1 vol., _Les Grands - ecrivains Francais_ series, Paris, 1897); by Gabriel Ledos (Paris, - 1901); by Dora Greenwell (1867); and by the duc de Broglie (Paris, - 1889). The _Correspondance inedite du Pere Lacordaire_, edited by H. - Villard (Paris, 1870), may also be consulted. See also Saint-Beuve in - _Causeries de Lundi_. Several of Lacordaire's _Conferences_ have been - translated into English, among these being, _Jesus Christ_ (1869); - _God_ (1870); _God and Man_ (1872); _Life_ (1875). For a theological - study of the _Conferences de Notre Dame_, see an article by Bishop J. - C. Hedley in _Dublin Review_ (October 1870). - - - - -LACQUER, or LACKER, a general term for coloured and frequently opaque -varnishes applied to certain metallic objects and to wood. The term is -derived from the resin lac, which substance is the basis of lacquers -properly so called. Technically, among Western nations, lacquering is -restricted to the coating of polished metals or metallic surfaces, such -as brass, pewter and tin, with prepared varnishes which will give them a -golden, bronze-like or other lustre as desired. Throughout the East -Indies the lacquering of wooden surfaces is universally practised, large -articles of household furniture, as well as small boxes, trays, toys and -papier-mache objects, being decorated with bright-coloured and -variegated lacquer. The lacquer used in the East is, in general, -variously coloured sealing-wax, applied, smoothed and polished in a -heated condition; and by various devices intricate marbled, streaked and -mottled designs are produced. Quite distinct from these, and from all -other forms of lacquer, is the lacquer work of Japan, for which see -JAPAN, S _Art_. - - - - -LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE (1751-1824), French politician and writer, -was born at Metz on the 9th of October 1751. He practised as a barrister -in Paris; and under the Revolution was elected as a _depute suppleant_ -in the Constituent Assembly, and later as deputy in the Legislative -Assembly. He belonged to the moderate party known as the "Feuillants," -but after the 10th of August 1792 he ceased to take part in public life. -In 1803 he became a member of the Institute, taking the place of La -Harpe. Under the Restoration he was one of the chief editors of the -_Minerve francaise_; he wrote also an essay, _Sur le 18 Brumaire_ -(1799), some _Fragments politiques et litteraires_ (1817), and a -treatise _Des partis politiques et des factions de la pretendue -aristocratie d'aujourd'hui_ (1819). - -His younger brother, JEAN CHARLES DOMINIQUE DE LACRETELLE, called -Lacretelle _le jeune_ (1766-1855), historian and journalist, was also -born at Metz on the 3rd of September 1766. He was called to Paris by his -brother in 1787, and during the Revolution belonged, like him, to the -party of the _Feuillants_. He was for some time secretary to the duc de -la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, the celebrated philanthropist, and -afterwards joined the staff of the _Journal de Paris_, then managed by -Suard, and where he had as colleagues Andre Chenier and Antoine Roucher. -He made no attempt to hide his monarchist sympathies, and this, together -with the way in which he reported the trial and death of Louis XVI., -brought him in peril of his life; to avoid this danger he enlisted in -the army, but after Thermidor he returned to Paris and to his newspaper -work. He was involved in the royalist movement of the 13th Vendemiaire, -and condemned to deportation after the 18th Fructidor; but, thanks to -powerful influence, he was left "forgotten" in prison till after the -18th Brumaire, when he was set at liberty by Fouche. Under the Empire he -was appointed a professor of history in the _Faculte des lettres_ of -Paris (1809), and elected as a member of the Academie francaise (1811). -In 1827 he was prime mover in the protest made by the French Academy -against the minister Peyronnet's law on the press, which led to the -failure of that measure, but this step cost him, as it did Villemain, -his post as _censeur royal_. Under Louis Philippe he devoted himself -entirely to his teaching and literary work. In 1848 he retired to Macon; -but there, as in Paris, he was the centre of a brilliant circle, for he -was a wonderful causeur, and an equally good listener, and had many -interesting experiences to recall. He died on the 26th of March 1855. -His son Pierre Henri (1815-1899) was a humorous writer and politician of -purely contemporary interest. - - J. C. Lacretelle's chief work is a series of histories of the 18th - century, the Revolution and its sequel: _Precis historique de la - Revolution francaise_, appended to the history of Rabaud St Etienne, - and partly written in the prison of La Force (5 vols., 1801-1806); - _Histoire de France pendant le XVIII^e siecle_ (6 vols., 1808); - _Histoire de l'Assemblee Constituante_ (2 vols., 1821); _L'Assemblee - Legislative_ (1822); _La Convention Nationale_ (3 vols., 1824-1825); - _Histoire de France depuis la restauration_ (1829-1835); _Histoire du - consulat et de l'empire_ (4 vols., 1846). The author was a moderate - and fair-minded man, but possessed neither great powers of style, nor - striking historical insight, nor the special historian's power of - writing minute accuracy of detail with breadth of view. Carlyle's - sarcastic remark on Lacretelle's history of the Revolution, that it - "exists, but does not profit much," is partly true of all his books. - He had been an eyewitness of and an actor in the events which he - describes, but his testimony must be accepted with caution. - - - - -LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANCOIS ALFRED (1863- ), French mineralogist and -geologist, was born at Macon, Saone et Loire, on the 4th of February -1863. He took the degree of D. es Sc. in Paris, 1889. In 1893 he was -appointed professor of mineralogy at the _Jardin des Plantes_, Paris, -and in 1896 director of the mineralogical laboratory in the _Ecole des -Hautes Etudes_. He paid especial attention to minerals connected with -volcanic phenomena and igneous rocks, to the effects of metamorphism, -and to mineral veins, in various parts of the world, notably in the -Pyrenees. In his numerous contributions to scientific journals he dealt -with the mineralogy and petrology of Madagascar, and published an -elaborate and exhaustive volume on the eruptions in Martinique, _La -Montagne Pelee et ses eruptions_ (1904). He also issued an important -work entitled _Mineralogie de la France et de ses Colonies_ (1893-1898), -and other works in conjunction with A. Michel Levy. He was elected -member of the Academie des sciences in 1904. - - - - -LACROIX, PAUL (1806-1884), French author and journalist, was born in -Paris on the 27th of April 1806, the son of a novelist. He is best known -under his pseudonym of P. L. Jacob, _bibliophile_, or "Bibliophile -Jacob," suggested by the constant interest he took in public libraries -and books generally. Lacroix was an extremely prolific and varied -writer. Over twenty historical romances alone came from his pen, and he -also wrote a variety of serious historical works, including a history of -Napoleon III., and the life and times of the Tsar Nicholas I. of Russia. -He was the joint author with Ferdinand Sere of a five-volume work, _Le -Moyen Age et La Renaissance_ (1847), a standard work on the manners, -customs and dress of those times, the chief merit of which lies in the -great number of illustrations it contains. He also wrote many monographs -on phases of the history of culture. Over the signature Pierre Dufour -was published an exhaustive _Histoire de la Prostitution_ (1851-1852), -which has always been attributed to Lacroix. His works on bibliography -were also extremely numerous. In 1885 he was appointed librarian of the -Arsenal Library, Paris. He died in Paris on the 16th of October 1884. - - - - -LACROMA (Serbo-Croatian _Lokrum_), a small island in the Adriatic Sea, -forming part of the Austrian kingdom of Dalmatia, and lying less than -half a mile south of Ragusa. Though barely 1(1/4) m. in length, Lacroma -is remarkable for the beauty of its subtropical vegetation. It was a -favourite resort of the archduke Maximilian, afterwards emperor of -Mexico (1832-1867), who restored the chateau and park; and of the -Austrian crown prince Rudolph (1857-1889). It contains an 11th-century -Benedictine monastery; and the remains of a church, said by a very -doubtful local tradition to have been founded by Richard I. of England -(1157-1199), form part of the imperial chateau. - - See _Lacroma_, an illustrated descriptive work by the crown princess - Stephanie (afterwards Countess Lonyay) (Vienna, 1892). - - - - -LA CROSSE, a city and the county-seat of La Crosse county, Wisconsin, -U.S.A., about 180 m. W.N.W. of Milwaukee, and about 120 m. S.E. of St -Paul, Minnesota, on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, at the mouth -of the Black and of the La Crosse rivers. Pop. (1900) 28,895; (1910 -census) 30,417. Of the total population in 1900, 7222 were foreign-born, -3130 being German and 2023 Norwegian, and 17,555 were of -foreign-parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 7853 of German -parentage, 4422 of Norwegian parentage, and 1062 of Bohemian parentage. -La Crosse is served by the Chicago & North Western, the Chicago, -Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the La Crosse & -South Eastern, and the Green Bay & Western railways, and by river -steamboat lines on the Mississippi. The river is crossed here by a -railway bridge (C.M. & St P.) and wagon bridge. The city is situated on -a prairie, extending back from the river about 2(1/2) m. to bluffs, from -which fine views may be obtained. Among the city's buildings and -institutions are the Federal Building (1886-1887), the County Court -House (1902-1903), the Public Library (with more than 20,000 volumes), -the City Hall (1891), the High School Building (1905-1906), the St -Francis, La Crosse and Lutheran hospitals, a Young Men's Christian -Association Building, a Young Women's Christian Association Building, a -U.S. Weather Station (1907), and a U.S. Fish Station (1905). La Crosse -is the seat of a state Normal School (1909). Among the city's parks are -Pettibone (an island in the Mississippi), Riverside, Burns, Fair Ground -and Myrick. The city is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. La Crosse is -an important lumber and grain market, and is the principal wholesale -distributing centre for a large territory in S.W. Wisconsin, N. Iowa and -Minnesota. Proximity to both pine and hardwood forests early made it one -of the most important lumber manufacturing places in the North-west; but -this industry has now been displaced by other manufactures. The city has -grain elevators, flour mills (the value of flour and grist mill products -in 1905 was $2,166,116), and breweries (product value in 1905, -$1,440,659). Other important manufactures are agricultural implements -($542,425 in 1905), lumber and planing mill products, leather, woollen, -knit and rubber goods, tobacco, cigars and cigarettes, carriages, -foundry and machine-shop products, copper and iron products, cooperage, -pearl buttons, brooms and brushes. The total value of the factory -product in 1905 was $8,139,432, as against $7,676,581 in 1900. The city -owns and operates its water-works system, the wagon bridge (1890-1891) -across the Mississippi, and a toll road (2(1/2) m. long) to the village -of La Crescent, Minn. - -Father Hennepin and du Lhut visited or passed the site of La Crosse as -early as 1680, but it is possible that adventurous _coureurs-des-bois_ -preceded them. The first permanent settlement was made in 1841, and La -Crosse was made the county-seat in 1855 and was chartered as a city in -1856. - - - - -LACROSSE, the national ball game of Canada. It derives its name from the -resemblance of its chief implement used, the curved netted stick, to a -bishop's crozier. It was borrowed from the Indian tribes of North -America. In the old days, according to Catlin, the warriors of two -tribes in their war-paint would form the sides, often 800 or 1000 -strong. The goals were placed from 500 yds. to 1/2 m. apart with -practically no side boundaries. A solemn dance preceded the game, after -which the ball was tossed into the air and the two sides rushed to catch -it on "crosses," similar to those now in use. The medicine-men acted as -umpires, and the squaws urged on the men by beating them with switches. -The game attracted much attention from the early French settlers in -Canada. In 1763, after Canada had become British, the game was used by -the aborigines to carry out an ingenious piece of treachery. On the 4th -of June, when the garrison of Fort Michilimackinac (now Mackinac) was -celebrating the king's birthday, it was invited by the Ottawas, under -their chief Pontiac, to witness a game of "baggataway" (lacrosse). The -players gradually worked their way close to the gates, when, throwing -aside their crosses and seizing their tomahawks which the squaws -suddenly produced from under their blankets, they rushed into the fort -and massacred all the inmates except a few Frenchmen. - -The game found favour among the British settlers, but it was not until -1867, the year in which Canada became a Dominion, that G. W. Beers, a -prominent player, suggested that Lacrosse should be recognized as the -national game, and the National Lacrosse Association of Canada was -formed. From that time the game has flourished vigorously in Canada and -to a less extent in the United States. In 1868 an English Lacrosse -Association was formed, but, although a team of Indians visited the -United Kingdom in 1867, it was not until sometime later that the game -became at all popular in Great Britain. Its progress was much encouraged -by visits of teams representing the Toronto Lacrosse Club in 1888 and -1902, the methods of the Canadians and their wonderful "short-passing" -exciting much admiration. In 1907 the Capitals of Ottawa visited -England, playing six matches, all of which were won by the Canadians. -The match North v. South has been played annually in England since 1882. -A county championship was inaugurated in 1905. A North of England -League, embracing ten clubs, began playing league matches in 1897; and a -match between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge has been played -annually since 1903. A match between England and Ireland was played -annually from 1881 to 1904. - -[Illustration: The Crosse.] - - _Implements of the Game._--The ball is made of india-rubber sponge, - weighs between 4(1/4) and 4(1/2) oz., and measures 8 to 8(1/2) in. in - circumference. The "crosse" is formed of a light staff of hickory - wood, the top being bent to form a kind of hook, from the tip of which - a thong is drawn and made fast to the shaft about 2 ft. from the other - end. The oval triangle thus formed is covered with a network of gut or - rawhide, loose enough to hold the ball but not to form a bag. At no - part must the crosse measure more than 12 in. in breadth, and no metal - must be used in its manufacture. It may be of any length to suit the - player. The goals are set up not less than 100 nor more than 150 yds. - apart, the goal-posts being 6 ft. high and the same distance apart. - They are set up in the middle of the "goal-crease," a space of 12 ft. - square marked with chalk. A net extends from the top rail and sides of - the posts back to a point 6 ft. behind the middle of the line between - the posts. Boundaries are agreed upon by the captains. Shoes may have - india-rubber soles, but must be without spikes. - - _The Game._--The object of the game is to send the ball, by means of - the crosse, through the enemy's goal-posts as many times as possible - during the two periods of play, precisely as in football and hockey. - There are twelve players of each side. In every position save that of - goal there are two men, one of each side, whose duties are to "mark" - and neutralize each other's efforts. The game is opened by the act of - "facing," in which the two centres, each with his left shoulder - towards his opponents' goal, hold their crosses, wood downwards, on - the ground, the ball being placed between them. When the signal is - given the centres draw their crosses sharply inwards in order to gain - possession of the ball. The ball may be kicked or struck with the - crosse, as at hockey, but the goal-keeper alone may handle it, and - then only to block and not to throw it. Although the ball may be - thrown with the crosse for a long distance--220 yds. is about the - limit--long throws are seldom tried, it being generally more - advantageous for a player to run with the ball resting on the crosse, - until he can pass it to a member of his side who proceeds with the - attack, either by running, passing to another, or trying to throw the - ball through the opponents' goal. The crosse, usually held in both - hands, is made to retain the ball by an ingenious rocking motion only - acquired by practice. As there is no "off-side" in Lacrosse, a player - may pass the ball to the front, side or rear. No charging is allowed, - but one player may interfere with another by standing directly in - front of him ("body-check"), though without holding, tripping or - striking with the crosse. No one may interfere with a player who is - not in possession of the ball. Fouls are penalized either by the - suspension of the offender until a goal has been scored or until the - end of the game; or by allowing the side offended against a "free - position." When a "free position" is awarded each player must stand in - the position where he is, excepting the goal-keeper who may get back - to his goal, and any opponent who may be nearer the player getting the - ball than 5 yds.; this player must retire to that distance from the - one who has been given the "free position," who then proceeds with the - game as he likes when the referee says "play." This penalty may not be - carried out nearer than 10 yds. from the goal. If the ball crosses a - boundary the referee calls "stand," and all players stop where they - are, the ball being then "faced" not less than 4 yds. within the - boundary line by the two nearest players. - - See the official publications of the English Lacrosse Union; and - _Lacrosse_ by W. C. Schmeisser, in Spalding's "Athletic Library." Also - _Manners, Customs and Condition of the North American Indians_, by - George Catlin. - - - - -LA CRUZ, RAMON DE (1731-1794), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on -the 28th of March 1731. He was a clerk in the ministry of finance, and -is the author of three hundred _sainetes_, little farcical sketches of -city life, written to be played between the acts of a longer play. He -published a selection in ten volumes (Madrid, 1786-1791), and died on -the 5th of March 1794. The best of his pieces, such as _Las Tertulias de -Madrid_, are delightful specimens of satiric observation. - - See E. Cotardo y Mori, _Don Ramon de la Cruz y sus obras_ (Madrid, - 1899); C. Cambronero, _Sainetes inedites existentes en la Biblioteca - Municipal de Madrid_ (Madrid, 1900). - - - - -LACRYMATORY (from Lat. _lacrima_, a tear), a class of small vessels of -terra-cotta, or, more frequently, of glass, found in Roman and late -Greek tombs, and supposed to have been bottles into which mourners -dropped their tears. They contained unguents, and to the use of unguents -at funeral ceremonies the finding of so many of these vessels in tombs -is due. They are shaped like a spindle, or a flask with a long small -neck and a body in the form of a bulb. - - - - -LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS (c. 260-c. 340), also called Lucius Caelius (or -Caecilius) Lactantius Firmianus, was a Christian writer who from the -beauty of his style has been called the "Christian Cicero." His history -is very obscure. He was born of heathen parents in Africa about 260, and -became a pupil of Arnobius, whom he far excelled in style though his -knowledge of the Scriptures was equally slight. About 290 he went to -Nicomedia in Bithynia while Diocletian was emperor, to teach rhetoric, -but found little work to do in that Greek-speaking city. In middle age -he became a convert to Christianity, and about 306 he went to Gaul -(Treves) on the invitation of Constantine the Great, and became tutor to -his eldest son, Crispus. He probably died about 340. - -Lactantius' chief work, _Divinarum Institutionum Libri Septem_, is an -"apology" for and an introduction to Christianity, written in exquisite -Latin, but displaying such ignorance as to have incurred the charge of -favouring the Arian and Manichaean heresies. It seems to have been begun -in Nicomedia about 304 and finished in Gaul before 311. Two long -eulogistic addresses and most of the brief apostrophes to the emperor -are from a later hand, which has added some dualistic touches. The seven -books of the institutions have separate titles given to them either by -the author or by a later editor. The first, _De Falsa Religione_, and -the second, _De Origine Erroris_, attack the polytheism of heathendom, -show the unity of the God of creation and providence, and try to explain -how men have been corrupted by demons. The third book, _De Falsa -Sapientia_, describes and criticizes the various systems of prevalent -philosophy. The fourth book, _De Vera Sapientia et Religione_, insists -upon the inseparable union of true wisdom and true religion, and -maintains that this union is made real in the person of Christ. The -fifth book, _De Justitia_, maintains that true righteousness is not to -be found apart from Christianity, and that it springs from piety which -consists in the knowledge of God. The sixth book, _De Vero Cultu_, -describes the true worship of God, which is righteousness, and consists -chiefly in the exercise of Christian love towards God and man. The -seventh book, _De Vita Beata_, discusses, among a variety of subjects, -the chief good, immortality, the second advent and the resurrection. -Jerome states that Lactantius wrote an epitome of these _Institutions_, -and such a work, which may well be authentic, was discovered in MS. in -the royal library at Turin in 1711 by C. M. Pfaff. - -Besides the _Institutions_ Lactantius wrote several treatises: (1) _De -Ira Dei_, addressed to one Donatus and directed against the Epicurean -philosophy. (2) _De Opificio Dei sive de Formatione Hominis_, his -earliest work, and one which reveals very little Christian influence. He -exhorts a former pupil, Demetrianus, not to be led astray by wealth from -virtue; and he demonstrates the providence of God from the adaptability -and beauty of the human body. (3) A celebrated incendiary treatise, _De -Mortibus Persecutorum_, which describes God's judgments on the -persecutors of his church from Nero to Diocletian, and has served as a -model for numberless writings. _De Mort. Persecut._ is not in the -earlier editions of Lactantius; it was discovered and printed by Baluze -in 1679. Many critics ascribe it to an unknown Lucius Caecilius; there -are certainly serious differences of grammar, style and temper between -it and the writings already mentioned. It was probably composed in -Nicomedia, c. 315. Jerome speaks of Lactantius as a poet, and several -poems have been attributed to him:--_De Ave Phoenice_ (which Harnack -thinks makes use of 1 Clement), _De Passione Domini_ and _De -Resurrectione (Domini)_ or _De Pascha ad Felicem Episcopum_. The first -of these may belong to Lactantius's heathen days, the second is a -product of the Renaissance (c. 1500), the third was written by Venantius -Fortunatus in the 6th century. - - Editions: O. F. Fritzsche in E. G. Gersdorf's _Bibl. patr. eccl._ x., - xi. (Leipzig, 1842-1844); Migne, _Patr. Lat._ vi., vii.; S. Brandt and - G. Laubmann in the Vienna _Corpus Script. Eccles. Lat._ xix., xxvii. 1 - and 2 (1890-93-97). Translation: W. Fletcher in _Ante-Nicene Fathers_, - vii. Literature: the German histories of early Christian literature, - by A. Harnack, O. Bardenhewer, A. Ebert, A. Ehrhard, G. Kruger's - _Early Chr. Lit._ p. 307 and Hauck-Herzog's R_ealencyk._ vol. xi., - give guides to the copious literature on the subject. - - - - -LACTIC ACID (hydroxypropionic acid), C3H6O3. Two lactic acids are known, -differing from each other in the position occupied by the hydroxyl group -in the molecule; they are known respectively as [alpha]-hydroxypropionic -acid (fermentation or inactive lactic acid), CH3.CH(OH).CO2H, and -[beta]-hydroxypropionic acid (hydracrylic acid), (q.v.), -CH2(OH).CH2.CO2H. Although on structural grounds there should be only -two hydroxypropionic acids, as a matter of fact four lactic acids are -known. The third isomer (sarcolactic acid) is found in meat extract (J. -v. Liebig), and may be prepared by the action of _Penicillium glaucum_ -on a solution of ordinary ammonium lactate. It is identical with -[alpha]-hydroxypropionic acid in almost every respect, except with -regard to its physical properties. The fourth isomer, formed by the -action of _Bacillus laevo-lacti_ on cane-sugar, resembles sarcolactic -acid in every respect, except in its action on polarized light (see -STEREOISOMERISM). - - _Fermentation_, or _ethylidene lactic acid_, was isolated by K. W. - Scheele (_Trans. Stockholm Acad._ 1780) from sour milk (Lat. _lac_, - _lactis_, milk, whence the name). About twenty-four years later - Bouillon Lagrange, and independently A. F. de Fourcroy and L. N. - Vauquelin, maintained that Scheele's new acid was nothing but impure - acetic acid. This notion was combated by J. Berzelius, and finally - refuted (in 1832) by J. v. Liebig and E. Mitscherlich, who, by the - elementary analyses of lactates, proved the existence of this acid as - a distinct compound. It may be prepared by the lactic fermentation of - starches, sugars, gums, &c., the sugar being dissolved in water and - acidified by a small quantity of tartaric acid and then fermented by - the addition of sour milk, with a little putrid cheese. Zinc carbonate - is added to the mixture (to neutralize the acid formed), which is kept - warm for some days and well stirred. On boiling and filtering the - product, zinc lactate crystallizes out of the solution. The acid may - also be synthesized by the decomposition of alanine - ([alpha]-aminopropionic acid) by nitrous acid (K. Strecker, _Ann._, - 1850, 75, p. 27); by the oxidation of propylene glycol (A. Wurtz); by - boiling [alpha]-chlorpropionic acid with caustic alkalis, or with - silver oxide and water; by the reduction of pyruvic acid with sodium - amalgam; or from acetaldehyde by the cyanhydrin reaction (J. - Wislicenus, _Ann._, 1863, 128, p. 13) - - CH3.CHO --> CH3.CH(OH).CN --> CH3.CH(OH).CO2H. - - It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1.2485 (15 deg./4 - deg.), and decomposes on distillation under ordinary atmospheric - pressure; but at very low pressures (about 1 mm.) it distils at about - 85 deg. C., and then sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about - 18 deg. C. It possesses the properties both of an acid and of an - alcohol. When heated with dilute sulphuric acid to 130 deg. C., under - pressure, it is resolved into formic acid and acetaldehyde. Chromic - acid oxidizes it to acetic acid and carbon dioxide; potassium - permanganate oxidizes it to pyruvic acid; nitric acid to oxalic acid, - and a mixture of manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid to acetaldehyde - and carbon dioxide. Hydrobromic acid converts it into - [alpha]-brompropionic acid, and hydriodic acid into propionic acid. - - CH(CH3).CO - / \ - _Lactide_, O O, - \ / - CO.CH(CH3) - - a crystalline solid, of melting-point 124 deg. C., is one of the - products obtained by the distillation of lactic acid. - - - - -LACTONES, the cyclic esters of hydroxy acids, resulting from the -internal elimination of water between the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, -this reaction taking place when the hydroxy acid is liberated from its -salts by a mineral acid. The [alpha] and [beta]-hydroxy acids do not -form lactones, the tendency for lactone formation appearing first with -the [gamma]-hydroxy acids, thus [gamma]-hydroxybutyric acid, -CH2OH.CH2.CH2.CO2H, yields [gamma]-butyrolactone, - - +--------------+ - | | - CH2.CH2.CH2.CO.O. - -These compounds may also be prepared by the distillation of the -[gamma]-halogen fatty acids, or by the action of alkaline carbonates on -these acids, or from [beta][gamma]- or [gamma][delta]-unsaturated acids -by digestion with hydrobromic acid or dilute sulphuric acid. The -lactones are mostly liquids which are readily soluble in alcohol, ether -and water. On boiling with water, they are partially reconverted into -the hydroxy acids. They are easily saponified by the caustic alkalis. - - On the behaviour of lactones with ammonia, see H. Meyer, - _Monatshefte_, 1899, 20, p. 717; and with phenylhydrazine and - hydrazine hydrate, see R. Meyer, _Ber._, 1893, 26, p. 1273; L. - Gattermann, _Ber._, 1899, 32, p. 1133, E. Fischer, Ber., 1889, 22, p. - 1889. - - [gamma]-_Butyrolactone_ is a liquid which boils at 206 deg. C. It is - miscible with water in all proportions and is volatile in steam, - [gamma]-_valerolactone_, - - +-----------------+ - | | - CH3.CH.CH2.CH2.CO.O, - - is a liquid which boils at 207-208 deg. C. [delta]-_lactones_ are also - known, and may be prepared by distilling the [delta]-chlor acids. - - - - -LA CUEVA, JUAN DE (1550?-1609?), Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at -Seville, and towards 1579 began writing for the stage. His plays, -fourteen in number, were published in 1588, and are the earliest -manifestations of the dramatic methods developed by Lope de Vega. -Abandoning the Senecan model hitherto universal in Spain, Cueva took for -his themes matters of national legend, historic tradition, recent -victories and the actualities of contemporary life: this amalgam of -epical and realistic elements, and the introduction of a great variety -of metres, prepared the way for the Spanish romantic drama of the 17th -century. A peculiar interest attaches to _El Infamador_, a play in which -the character of Leucino anticipates the classic type of Don Juan. As an -initiative force, Cueva is a figure of great historical importance; his -epic poem, _La Conquista de Betica_ (1603), shows his weakness as an -artist. The last work to which his name is attached is the _Ejemplar -poetico_ (1609), and he is believed to have died shortly after its -publication. - - See the editions of _Saco de Roma_ and _El Infamador_, by E. de Ochoa, - in the _Tesoro del teatro espanol_ (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285; - and of _Ejemplar poetico_, by J. J. Lopez de Sedano, in the _Parnaso - espanol_, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, "Juan de la Cueva et - son Ejemplar poetico" in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_ (Lund, - 1904), vol. xxix.; "Poemes inedits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de - Sannio,)" edited by F. A. Wulff, in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_ - (Lund, 1886-1887), vol. xxiii.; F. A. Wulff, "De la rimas de Juan de - la Cueva, Primera Parte" in the _Homenaje a Menendez y Pelayo_ - (Madrid, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 143-148. (J. F.-K.) - - - - -LACUNAR, the Latin name in architecture for a panelled or coffered -ceiling or soffit. The word is derived from _lacuna_, a cavity or -hollow, a blank, hiatus or gap. The panels or coffers of a ceiling are -by Vitruvius called _lacunaria_. - - - - -LACUZON (O. Fr. _la cuzon_, disturbance), the name given to the -Franc-Comtois leader CLAUDE PROST (1607-1681), who was born at -Longchaumois (department of Jura) on the 17th of June 1607. He gained -his first military experience when the French invaded Burgundy in 1636, -harrying the French troops from the castles of Montaigu and St -Laurent-la-Roche, and devastating the frontier districts of Bresse and -Bugey with fire and sword (1640-1642). In the first invasion of -Franche-Comte by Louis XIV. in 1668 Lacuzon was unable to make any -effective resistance, but he played an important part in Louis's second -invasion. In 1673 he defended Salins for some time; after the -capitulation of the town he took refuge in Italy. He died at Milan on -the 21st of December 1681. - - - - -LACY, FRANZ MORITZ, Count (1725-1801), Austrian field marshal, was born -at St Petersburg on the 21st of October 1725. His father, Peter, Count -Lacy, was a distinguished Russian soldier, who belonged to an Irish -family, and had followed the fortunes of the exiled James II. Franz -Moritz was educated in Germany for a military career, and entered the -Austrian service. He served in Italy, Bohemia, Silesia and the -Netherlands during the War of the Austrian Succession, was twice -wounded, and by the end of the war was a lieut.-colonel. At the age of -twenty-five he became full colonel and chief of an infantry regiment. In -1756 with the opening of the Seven Years' War he was again on active -service, and in the first battle (Lobositz) he distinguished himself so -much that he was at once promoted major-general. He received his third -wound on this occasion and his fourth at the battle of Prague in 1757. -Later in 1757 Lacy bore a conspicuous part in the great victory of -Breslau, and at Leuthen, where he received his fifth wound, he covered -the retreat of the defeated army. Soon after this began his association -with Field-Marshal Daun, the new generalissimo of the empress's forces, -and these two commanders, powerfully assisted later by the genius of -Loudon, made head against Frederick the Great for the remainder of the -war. A general staff was created, and Lacy, a lieutenant field-marshal -at thirty-two, was made chief of staff (quartermaster-general) to Daun. -That their cautiousness often degenerated into timidity may be -admitted--Leuthen and many other bitter defeats had taught the Austrians -to respect their great opponent--but they showed at any rate that, -having resolved to wear out the enemy by Fabian methods, they were -strong enough to persist in their resolve to the end. Thus for some -years the life of Lacy, as of Daun and Loudon, is the story of the war -against Prussia (see Seven Years' War). After Hochkirch (October 15, -1758) Lacy received the grand cross of the Maria Theresa order. In 1759 -both Daun and Lacy fell into disfavour for failing to win victories, and -Lacy owed his promotion to Feldzeugmeister only to the fact that Loudon -had just received this rank for the brilliant conduct of his detachment -at Kunersdorf. His responsibilities told heavily on Lacy in the ensuing -campaigns, and his capacity for supreme command was doubted even by -Daun, who refused to give him the command when he himself was wounded at -the battle of Torgau. - -After the peace of Hubertusburg a new sphere of activity was opened, in -which Lacy's special gifts had the greatest scope. Maria Theresa having -placed her son, the emperor Joseph II., at the head of Austrian military -affairs, Lacy was made a field-marshal, and given the task of reforming -and administering the army (1766). He framed new regulations for each -arm, a new code of military law, a good supply system. As the result of -his work the Austrian army was more numerous, far better equipped, and -cheaper than it had ever been before. Joseph soon became very intimate -with his military adviser, but this did not prevent his mother, after -she became estranged from the young emperor, from giving Lacy her full -confidence. His activities were not confined to the army. He was in -sympathy with Joseph's innovations, and was regarded by Maria Theresa as -a prime mover in the scheme for the partition of Poland. But his -self-imposed work broke down Lacy's health, and in 1773, in spite of the -remonstrances of Maria Theresa and of the emperor, he laid down all his -offices and went to southern France. On returning he was still unable to -resume office, though as an unofficial adviser in political and military -matters he was far from idle. In the brief and uneventful War of the -Bavarian Succession, Lacy and Loudon were the chief Austrian commanders -against the king of Prussia, and when Joseph II. at Maria Theresa's -death, became the sovereign of the Austrian dominions as well as -emperor, Lacy remained his most trusted friend. More serious than the -War of the Bavarian Succession was the Turkish war which presently broke -out. Lacy was now old and worn out, and his tenure of command therein -was not marked by any greater measure of success than in the case of the -other Austrian generals. His active career was at an end, although he -continued his effective interest in the affairs of the state and the -army throughout the reign of Joseph's successor, Leopold I. His last -years were spent in retirement at his castle of Neuwaldegg near Vienna. -He died at Vienna on the 24th of November 1801. - - See memoir by A. v. Arneth in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ - (Leipzig, 1883). - - - - -LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH (1807-1874), English actress, was born in -London, the daughter of a tradesman named Taylor. Her first appearance -on the stage was at Bath in 1827 as Julia in _The Rivals_, and she was -immediately given leading parts there in both comedy and tragedy. Her -first London appearance was in 1830 as Nina, in Dimond's _Carnival of -Naples_. Her Rosalind, Aspatia (to Macready's Melantius) in _The -Bridal_, and Lady Teazle to the Charles Surface of Walter Lacy -(1809-1898)--to whom she was married in 1839--confirmed her position and -popularity. She was the original Helen in _The Hunchback_ (1832), and -also created Nell Gwynne in Jerrold's play of that name, and the heroine -in his _Housekeeper_. She was considered the first Ophelia of her day. -She retired in 1848. - - - - -LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO (1795-1867), Irish musician, son of a merchant, -was born at Bilbao and appeared there in public as a violinist in 1801. -He was sent to study in Paris under Kreutzer, and soon began a -successful career, being known as "_Le Petit Espagnol_." He played in -London for some years after 1805, and then became an actor, but in 1818 -resumed the musical profession, and in 1820 became leader of the ballet -at the King's theatre, London. He composed or adapted from other -composers a number of operas and an oratorio, _The Israelites in Egypt_. -He died in London on the 20th of September 1867. - - - - -LACYDES OF CYRENE, Greek philosopher, was head of the Academy at Athens -in succession to Arcesilaus about 241 B.C. Though some regard him as the -founder of the New Academy, the testimony of antiquity is that he -adhered in general to the theory of Arcesilaus, and, therefore, that he -belonged to the Middle Academy. He lectured in a garden called the -Lacydeum, which was presented to him by Attalus I. of Pergamum, and for -twenty-six years maintained the traditions of the Academy. He is said to -have written treatises, but nothing survives. Before his death he -voluntarily resigned his position to his pupils, Euander and Telecles. -Apart from a number of anecdotes distinguished rather for sarcastic -humour than for probability, Lacydes exists for us as a man of refined -character, a hard worker and an accomplished orator. According to -Athenaeus (x. 438) and Diogenes Laertius (iv. 60) he died from excessive -drinking, but the story is discredited by the eulogy of Eusebius -(_Praep. Ev._ xiv. 7), that he was in all things moderate. - - See Cicero, _Acad._ ii. 6; and Aelian, _V.H._ ii. 41; also articles - ACADEMY, ARCESILAUS, CARNEADES. - - - - -LADAKH AND BALTISTAN, a province of Kashmir, India. The name Ladak, -commonly but less correctly spelt Ladakh, and sometimes Ladag, belongs -primarily to the broad valley of the upper Indus in West Tibet, but -includes several surrounding districts in political connexion with it; -the present limits are between 75 deg. 40' and 80 deg. 30' E., and -between 32 deg. 25' and 36 deg. N. It is bounded N. by the Kuenlun range -and the slopes of the Karakoram, N.W. and W. by the dependency of -Baltistan or Little Tibet, S.W. by Kashmir proper, S. by British -Himalayan territory, and E. by the Tibetan provinces of Ngari and Rudok. -The whole region lies very high, the valleys of Rupshu in the south-east -being 15,000 ft., and the Indus near Leh 11,000 ft., while the average -height of the surrounding ranges is 19,000 ft. The proportion of arable -and even possible pasture land to barren rock and gravel is very small. -Pop., including Baltistan (1901) 165,992, of whom 30,216 in Ladakh -proper are Buddhists, whereas the Baltis have adopted the Shiah form of -Islam. - -The natural features of the country may be best explained by reference -to two native terms, under one or other of which every part is included; -viz. _changtang_, i.e. "northern, or high plain," where the amount of -level ground is considerable, and _rong_, i.e. "deep valley," where the -contrary condition prevails. The former predominates in the east, -diminishing gradually westwards. There, although the vast alluvial -deposits which once filled the valley to a remarkably uniform height of -about 15,000 ft. have left their traces on the mountain sides, they have -undergone immense denudation, and their debris now forms secondary -deposits, flat bottoms or shelving slopes, the only spots available for -cultivation or pasture. These masses of alluvium are often either -metamorphosed to a subcrystalline rock still showing the composition of -the strata, or simply consolidated by lime. - -Grand scenery is exceptional, for the valleys are confined, and from the -higher points the view is generally of a confused mass of brown or -yellow hills, absolutely barren, and of no great apparent height. The -parallelism characteristic of the Himalayan ranges continues here, the -direction being north-west and south-east. A central range divides the -Indus valley, here 4 to 8 m. wide, from that of its north branch the -Shyok, which with its fertile tributary valley of Nubra is again bounded -on the north by the Karakoram. This central ridge is mostly syenitic -gneiss, and north-east from it are found, successively, Silurian slates, -Carboniferous shales and Triassic limestones, the gneiss recurring at -the Turkestan frontier. The Indus lies along the line which separates -the crystalline rocks from the Eocene sandstones and shales of the lower -range of hills on the left bank, the lofty mountains behind them -consisting of parallel bands of rocks from Silurian to Cretaceous. - -Several lakes in the east districts at about 14,000 ft. have been of -much greater extent, and connected with the river systems of the -country, but they are now mostly without outlet, saline, and in process -of desiccation. - -Leh is the capital of Ladakh, and the road to Leh from Srinagar lies up -the lovely Sind valley to the sources of the river at the Zoji La Pass -(11,300 ft.) in the Zaskar range. This is the range which, skirting the -southern edge of the upland plains of Deosai in Baltistan, divides them -from the valley of Kashmir, and then continues to Nanga Parbat (26,620 -ft.) and beyond that mountain stretches to the north of Swat and Bajour. -To the south-east it is an unbroken chain till it merges into the line -of snowy peaks seen from Simla and the plains of India--the range which -reaches past Chini to the famous peaks of Gangotri, Nandadevi and Nampa. -It is the most central and conspicuous range in the Himalaya. The Zoji -La, which curves from the head of the Sind valley on to the bleak -uplands of Dras (where lies the road to the trough of the Indus and -Leh), is, in spite of its altitude, a pass on which little snow lies; -but for local accumulations, it would be open all the year round. It -affords a typical instance of that cutting-back process by which a -river-head may erode a channel through a watershed into the plateau -behind, there being no steep fall towards the Indus on the northern side -of the range. From the Zoji La the road continues by easy gradients, -following the line of the Dras drainage, to the Indus, when it turns up -the valley to Leh. From Leh there are many routes into Tibet, the best -known being that from the Indus valley to the Tibetan plateau, by the -Chang La, to Lake Pangkong and Rudok (14,000 ft.). Rudok occupies a -forward position on the western Tibetan border analogous to that of Leh -in Kashmir. The chief trade route to Lhasa from Leh, however, follows -the line offered by the valleys of the Indus and the Brahmaputra (or -Tsanpo), crossing the divide between these rivers north of Lake -Manasarowar. - -The observatory at Leh is the most elevated observatory in Asia. "The -atmosphere of the Indus valley is remarkably clear and transparent, and -the heat of the sun is very great. There is generally a difference of -more than 60 deg. between the reading of the exposed sun thermometer _in -vacuo_ and the air temperature in the shade, and this difference has -occasionally exceeded 90 deg.... The mean annual temperature at Leh is -40 deg., that of the coldest months (January and February) only 18 deg. -and 19 deg., but it rises rapidly from February to July, in which month -it reaches 62 deg. with a mean diurnal maximum of 80 deg. both in that -month and August, and an average difference of 29 deg. or 30 deg. -between the early morning and afternoon. The mean highest temperature of -the year is 90 deg., varying between 84 deg. and 93 deg. in the twelve -years previous to 1893. On the other hand, in the winter the minimum -thermometer falls occasionally below 0 deg., and in 1878 reached as low -as 17 deg. below zero. The extreme range of recorded temperature is -therefore not less than 110 deg. The air is as dry as Quetta, and rather -more uniformly so.... The amount of rain and snow is insignificant. The -average rain (and snow) fall is only 2.7 in. in the year."[1] The winds -are generally light, and depend on the local direction of the valleys. -At Leh, which stands at the entrance of the valley leading to the -Kardang Pass, the most common directions are between south and west in -the daytime and summer, and from north-east in the night, especially in -the later months of the year. In January and February the air is -generally calm, and April and May are the most windy months of the year. - - Vegetation is confined to valleys and sheltered spots, where a stunted - growth of tamarisk and _Myricaria_, _Hippophae_ and _Elaeagnus_, - furze, and the roots of _burtsi_, a salsolaceous plant, supply the - traveller with much-needed firewood. The trees are the pencil cedar - (_Juniperus excelsa_), the poplar and willow (both extensively - planted, the latter sometimes wild), apple, mulberry, apricot and - walnut. Irrigation is skilfully managed, the principal products being - wheat, a beardless variety of barley called _grim_, millet, buckwheat, - pease, beans and turnips. Lucerne and prangos (an umbelliferous plant) - are used as fodder. - - Among domestic animals are the famous shawl goat, two kinds of sheep, - of which the larger (_huniya_) is used for carrying burdens, and is a - principal source of wealth, the yak and the dso, a valuable hybrid - between the yak and common cow. Among wild animals are the kiang or - wild ass, ibex, several kinds of wild sheep, antelope (_Pantholops_), - marmot, hare and other Tibetan fauna. - - The present value of the trade between British India and Tibet passing - through Ladakh is inconsiderable. Ladakh, however, is improving in its - trade prospects apart from Tibet. It is curious that both Ladakh and - Tibet import a considerable amount of treasure, for on the borders of - western Tibet and within a radius of 100 or 200 m. of Leh there - centres a gold-mining industry which apparently only requires - scientific development to render it enormously productive. Here the - surface soil has been for many centuries washed for gold by bands of - Tibetan miners, who never work deeper than 20 to 50 ft., and whose - methods of washing are of the crudest description. They work in - winter, chiefly because of the binding power of frost on the friable - soil, suffering great hardships and obtaining but a poor return for - their labour. But the remoteness of Ladakh and its extreme altitude - still continue to bar the way to substantial progress, though its - central position naturally entitles it to be a great trade mart. - - The adjoining territory of Baltistan forms the west extremity of - Tibet, whose natural limits here are the Indus from its abrupt - southward bend in 74 deg. 45' E., and the mountains to the north and - west, separating a comparatively peaceful Tibetan population from the - fiercer Aryan tribes beyond. Mahommedan writers about the 16th century - speak of Baltistan as "Little Tibet," and of Ladakh as "Great Tibet," - thus ignoring the really Great Tibet altogether. The Balti call Gilgit - "a Tibet," and Dr Leitner says that the Chilasi call themselves Bot or - Tibetans; but, although these districts may have been overrun by the - Tibetans, or have received rulers of that race, the ethnological - frontier coincides with the geographical one given. Baltistan is a - mass of lofty mountains, the prevailing formation being gneiss. In the - north is the Baltoro glacier, the largest out of the arctic regions, - 35 m. long, contained between two ridges whose highest peaks to the - south are 25,000 and to the north 28,265 ft. The Indus, as in Lower - Ladakh, runs in a narrow gorge, widening for nearly 20 m. after - receiving the Shyok. The capital, Skardu, a scattered collection of - houses, stands here, perched on a rock 7250 ft. above the sea. The - house roofs are flat, occupied only in part by a second story, the - remaining space being devoted to drying apricots, the chief staple of - the main valley, which supports little cultivation. But the rapid - slope westwards is seen generally in the vegetation. Birch, plane, - spruce and _Pinus excelsa_ appear; the fruits are finer, including - pomegranate, pear, peach, vine and melon, and where irrigation is - available, as in the North Shigar, and at the deltas of the tributary - valleys, the crops are more luxuriant and varied. - -_History._--The earliest notice of Ladakh is by the Chinese pilgrim -Fa-hien, A.D. 400, who, travelling in search of a purer faith, found -Buddhism flourishing there, the only novelty to him being the -prayer-cylinder, the efficacy of which he declares is incredible. Ladakh -formed part of the Tibetan empire until its disruption in the 10th -century, and since then has continued ecclesiastically subject, and -sometimes tributary, to Lhasa. Its inaccessibility saved it from any -Mussulman invasion until 1531, when Sultan Said of Kashgar marched an -army across the Karakoram, one division fighting its way into Kashmir -and wintering there. Next year they invaded eastern Tibet, where nearly -all perished from the effects of the climate. - -Early in the 17th century Ladakh was invaded by its Mahommedan -neighbours of Baltistan, who plundered and destroyed the temples and -monasteries; and again, in 1685-1688, by the Sokpa, who were expelled -only by the aid of the lieutenant of Aurangzeb in Kashmir, Ladakh -thereafter becoming tributary. The gyalpo or king then made a nominal -profession of Islam, and allowed a mosque to be founded at Leh, and the -Kashmiris have ever since addressed his successors by a Mahommedan -title. When the Sikhs took Kashmir, Ladakh, dreading their approach, -offered allegiance to Great Britain. It was, however, conquered and -annexed in 1834-1841 by Gulab Singh of Jammu--the unwar-like Ladakhis, -even with nature fighting on their side, and against indifferent -generalship, being no match for the Dogra troops. These next turned -their arms successfully against the Baltis (who in the 18th century were -subject to the Mogul), and were then tempted to revive the claims of -Ladakh to the Chinese provinces of Rudok and Ngari. This, however, -brought down an army from Lhasa, and after a three days' fight the -Indian force was almost annihilated--chiefly indeed by frostbite and -other sufferings, for the battle was fought in mid-winter, 15,000 ft. -above the sea. The Chinese then marched on Leh, but were soon driven out -again, and peace was finally made on the basis of the old frontier. The -widespread prestige of China is illustrated by the fact that tribute, -though disguised as a present, is paid to her, for Ladakh, by the -maharaja of Kashmir. - - The principal works to be consulted are F. Drew, _The Jummoo and - Kashmir Territories_; Cunningham, _Ladak_; Major J. Biddulph, _The - Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_; Ramsay, _Western Tibet_; Godwin-Austen, - "The Mountain Systems of the Himalaya," vol. vi., _Proc. R.G.S._ - (1884); W. Lawrence, _The Valley of Kashmir_ (1895); H. F. Blandford, - _The Climate and Weather of India_ (1889). (T. H. H.*) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] H. F. Blandford, _Climate and Weather of India_ (London, 1889). - - - - -LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL (1842- ), American philosopher, was born in -Painesville, Lake county, Ohio, on the 19th of January 1842. He -graduated at Western Reserve College in 1864 and at Andover Theological -Seminary in 1869; preached in Edinburg, Ohio, in 1869-1871, and in the -Spring Street Congregational Church of Milwaukee in 1871-1879; and was -professor of philosophy at Bowdoin College in 1879-1881, and Clark -professor of metaphysics and moral philosophy at Yale from 1881 till -1901, when he took charge of the graduate department of philosophy and -psychology; he became professor emeritus in 1905. In 1879-1882 he -lectured on theology at Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1883 at -Harvard, where in 1895-1896 he conducted a graduate seminary in ethics. -He lectured in Japan in 1892, 1899 (when he also visited the -universities of India) and 1906-1907. He was much influenced by Lotze, -whose _Outlines of Philosophy_ he translated (6 vols., 1877), and was -one of the first to introduce (1879) the study of experimental -psychology into America, the Yale psychological laboratory being founded -by him. - - PUBLICATIONS.--_The Principles of Church Polity_ (1882); _The Doctrine - of Sacred Scripture_ (1884); _What is the Bible?_ (1888); _Essays on - the Higher Education_ (1899), defending the "old" (Yale) system - against the Harvard or "new" education, as praised by George H. - Palmer; _Elements of Physiological Psychology_ (1889, rewritten as - _Outlines of Physiological Psychology_, in 1890); _Primer of - Psychology_ (1894); _Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory_ (1894); - and _Outlines of Descriptive Psychology_ (1898); in a "system of - philosophy," _Philosophy of the Mind_ (1891); _Philosophy of - Knowledge_ (1897); _A Theory of Reality_ (1899); _Philosophy of - Conduct_ (1902); and _Philosophy of Religion_ (2 vols., 1905); _In - Korea with Marquis Ito_ (1908); and _Knowledge, Life and Reality_ - (1909). - - - - -LADDER, (O. Eng. _hlaeder_; of Teutonic origin, cf. Dutch _leer_, Ger. -_Leiter_; the ultimate origin is in the root seen in "lean," Gr. [Greek: -klimax]), a set of steps or "rungs" between two supports to enable one -to get up and down; usually made of wood and sometimes of metal or rope. -Ladders are generally movable, and differ from a staircase also in -having only treads and no "risers." The term "Jacob's ladder," taken -from the dream of Jacob in the Bible, is applied to a rope ladder with -wooden steps used at sea to go aloft, and to a common garden plant of -the genus _Polemonium_ on account of the ladder-like formation of the -leaves. The flower known in England as Solomon's seal is in some -countries called the "ladder of heaven." - - - - -LADING (from "to lade," O. Eng. _hladan_, to put cargo on board; cf. -"load"), BILL OF, the document given as receipt by the master of a -merchant vessel to the consignor of goods, as a guarantee for their safe -delivery to the consignee. (See AFFREIGHTMENT.) - - - - -LADISLAUS I, Saint (1040-1095), king of Hungary, the son of Bela I., -king of Hungary, and the Polish princess Richeza, was born in Poland, -whither his father had sought refuge, but was recalled by his elder -brother Andrew I. to Hungary (1047) and brought up there. He succeeded -to the throne on the death of his uncle Geza in 1077, as the eldest -member of the royal family, and speedily won for himself a reputation -scarcely inferior to that of Stephen I., by nationalizing Christianity -and laying the foundations of Hungary's political greatness. -Instinctively recognizing that Germany was the natural enemy of the -Magyars, Ladislaus formed a close alliance with the pope and all the -other enemies of the emperor Henry IV., including the anti-emperor -Rudolph of Swabia and his chief supporter Welf, duke of Bavaria, whose -daughter Adelaide he married. She bore him one son and three daughters, -one of whom, Piriska, married the Byzantine emperor John Comnenus. The -collapse of the German emperor in his struggle with the pope left -Ladislaus free to extend his dominions towards the south, and colonize -and Christianize the wildernesses of Transylvania and the lower Danube. -Hungary was still semi-savage, and her native barbarians were being -perpetually recruited from the hordes of Pechenegs, Kumanians and other -races which swept over her during the 11th century. Ladislaus himself -had fought valiantly in his youth against the Pechenegs, and to defend -the land against the Kumanians, who now occupied Moldavia and Wallachia -as far as the Alt, he built the fortresses of Turnu-Severin and Gyula -Fehervar. He also planted in Transylvania the Szeklers, the supposed -remnant of the ancient Magyars from beyond the Dnieper, and founded the -bishoprics of Nagy-Varad, or Gross-Wardein, and of Agram, as fresh foci -of Catholicism in south Hungary and the hitherto uncultivated districts -between the Drave and the Save. He subsequently conquered Croatia, -though here his authority was questioned by the pope, the Venetian -republic and the Greek emperor. Ladislaus died suddenly in 1095 when -about to take part in the first Crusade. No other Hungarian king was so -generally beloved. The whole nation mourned for him for three years, and -regarded him as a saint long before his canonization. A whole cycle of -legends is associated with his name. - - See J. Babik, _Life of St Ladislaus_ (Hung.) (Eger, 1892); Gyorgy - Pray, _Dissertatio de St Ladislao_ (Pressburg, 1774); Antal Ganoczy, - _Diss. hist. crit. de St Ladislao_ (Vienna, 1775). (R. N. B.) - - - - -LADISLAUS IV., The Kumanian (1262-1290), king of Hungary, was the son of -Stephen V., whom he succeeded in 1272. From his tenth year, when he was -kidnapped from his father's court by the rebellious vassals, till his -assassination eighteen years later, his whole life, with one bright -interval of military glory was unrelieved tragedy. His minority, -1272-1277, was an alternation of palace revolutions and civil wars, in -the course of which his brave Kumanian mother Elizabeth barely contrived -to keep the upper hand. In this terrible school Ladislaus matured -precociously. At fifteen he was a man, resolute, spirited, enterprising, -with the germs of many talents and virtues, but rough, reckless and very -imperfectly educated. He was married betimes to Elizabeth of Anjou, who -had been brought up at the Hungarian court. The marriage was a purely -political one, arranged by his father and a section of the Hungarian -magnates to counterpoise hostile German and Czech influences. During -the earlier part of his reign, Ladislaus obsequiously followed the -direction of the Neapolitan court in foreign affairs. In Hungary itself -a large party was in favour of the Germans, but the civil wars which -raged between the two factions from 1276 to 1278 did not prevent -Ladislaus, at the head of 20,000 Magyars and Kumanians, from -co-operating with Rudolph of Habsburg in the great battle of Durnkrut -(August 26th, 1278), which destroyed, once for all, the empire of the -Premyslidae. A month later a papal legate arrived in Hungary to inquire -into the conduct of the king, who was accused by his neighbours, and -many of his own subjects, of adopting the ways of his Kumanian kinsfolk -and thereby undermining Christianity. Ladislaus was not really a pagan, -or he would not have devoted his share of the spoil of Durnkrut to the -building of the Franciscan church at Pressburg, nor would he have -venerated as he did his aunt St Margaret. Political enmity was largely -responsible for the movement against him, yet the result of a very -careful investigation (1279-1281) by Philip, bishop of Fermo, more than -justified many of the accusations brought against Ladislaus. He clearly -preferred the society of the semi-heathen Kumanians to that of the -Christians; wore, and made his court wear, Kumanian dress; surrounded -himself with Kumanian concubines, and neglected and ill-used his -ill-favoured Neapolitan consort. He was finally compelled to take up -arms against his Kumanian friends, whom he routed at Hodmezo (May 1282) -with fearful loss; but, previously to this, he had arrested the legate, -whom he subsequently attempted to starve into submission, and his -conduct generally was regarded as so unsatisfactory that, after repeated -warnings, the Holy See resolved to supersede him by his Angevin -kinsfolk, whom he had also alienated, and on the 8th of August 1288 Pope -Nicholas IV. proclaimed a crusade against him. For the next two years -all Hungary was convulsed by a horrible civil war, during which the -unhappy young king, who fought for his heritage to the last with -desperate valour, was driven from one end of his kingdom to the other -like a hunted beast. On the 25th of December 1289 he issued a manifesto -to the lesser gentry, a large portion of whom sided with him, urging -them to continue the struggle against the magnates and their foreign -supporters; but on the 10th of July 1290 he was murdered in his camp at -Korosszeg by the Kumanians, who never forgave him for deserting them. - - See Karoly Szabo, _Ladislaus the Cumanian_ (Hung.), (Budapest, 1886); - and Acsady, _History of the Hungarian Realm_, i. 2 (Budapest, 1903). - The latter is, however, too favourable to Ladislaus. (R. N. B.) - - - - -LADISLAUS V. (1440-1457), king of Hungary and Bohemia, the only son of -Albert, king of Hungary, and Elizabeth, daughter of the emperor -Sigismund, was born at Komarom on the 22nd of February 1440, four months -after his father's death, and was hence called Ladislaus Posthumus. The -estates of Hungary had already elected Wladislaus III. of Poland their -king, but Ladislaus's mother caused the holy crown to be stolen from its -guardians at Visegrad, and compelled the primate to crown the infant -king at Szekesfejervar on the 15th of May 1440; whereupon, for safety's -sake, she placed the child beneath the guardianship of his uncle the -emperor Frederick III. On the death of Wladislaus III. (Nov. 10th, -1444), Ladislaus V. was elected king by the Hungarian estates, though -not without considerable opposition, and a deputation was sent to Vienna -to induce the emperor to surrender the child and the holy crown; but it -was not till 1452 that Frederick was compelled to relinquish both. The -child was then transferred to the pernicious guardianship of his -maternal grandfather Ulrich Cillei, who corrupted him soul and body and -inspired him with a jealous hatred of the Hunyadis. On the 28th of -October 1453 he was crowned king of Bohemia, and henceforth spent most -of his time at Prague and Vienna. He remained supinely indifferent to -the Turkish peril; at the instigation of Cillei did his best to hinder -the defensive preparations of the great Hunyadi, and fled from the -country on the tidings of the siege of Belgrade. On the death of Hunyadi -he made Cillei governor of Hungary at the diet of Futtak (October 1456), -and when that traitor paid with his life for his murderous attempt on -Laszlo Hunyadi at Belgrade, Ladislaus procured the decapitation of young -Hunyadi (16th of March 1457), after a mock trial which raised such a -storm in Hungary that the king fled to Prague, where he died suddenly -(Nov. 23rd, 1457), while making preparations for his marriage with -Magdalena, daughter of Charles VII. of France. He is supposed to have -been poisoned by his political opponents in Bohemia. - - See F. Palacky, _Zeugenverhor uber den Tod Konig Ladislaus von Ungarn - u. Bohmen_ (Prague, 1856); Ignacz Acsady, _History of the Hungarian - State_ (Hung.), vol. i. (Budapest, 1903). - - - - -LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE (c. 1730-1791), French man of letters, -was born at Lamothe (Haute-Marne). While still young he removed to -Paris, where the rest of his life was spent in literary activity. He -died on the 26th of November 1791. His numerous works include _Contes -philosophiques et moraux_ (1765), _Les Deux Ages du gout et du genie -sous Louis XIV. et sous Louis XV._ (1769), a parallel and contrast, in -which the decision is given in favour of the latter; _L'Espagne -litteraire_ (1774); _Eloge de Voltaire_ (1779) and _Eloge de Montaigne_ -(1781). - - - - -LADO ENCLAVE, a region of the upper Nile formerly administered by the -Congo Free State, but since 1910 a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. -It has an area of about 15,000 sq. m., and a population estimated at -250,000 and consisting of Bari, Madi, Kuku and other Nilotic Negroes. -The enclave is bounded S.E. by the north-west shores of Albert -Nyanza--as far south as the port of Mahagi--E. by the western bank of -the Nile (Bahr-el-Jebel) to the point where the river is intersected by -5 deg. 30' N., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the Nile -westward to 30 deg. E. This meridian forms the west frontier to 4 deg. -N., the frontier thence being the Nile-Congo watershed to the point -nearest to Mahagi and from that point direct to Albert Nyanza. - -The country is a moderately elevated plateau sloping northward from the -higher ground marking the Congo-Nile watershed. The plains are mostly -covered with bush, with stretches of forest in the northern districts. -Traversing the plateau are two parallel mountainous chains having a -general north to south direction. One chain, the Kuku Mountains (average -height 2000 ft.), approaches close to the Nile and presents, as seen -from the river, several apparently isolated peaks. At other places these -mountains form precipices which stretch in a continuous line like a huge -wall. From Dufile in 3 deg. 34' N. to below the Bedden Rapids in 4 deg. -40' N. the bed of the Nile is much obstructed and the river throughout -this reach is unnavigable (see Nile). Below the Bedden Rapids rises the -conical hill of Rejaf, and north of that point the Nile valley becomes -flat. Ranges of hill, however, are visible farther westwards, and a -little north of 5 deg. N. is Jebel Lado, a conspicuous mountain 2500 ft. -high and some 12 m. distant from the Nile. It has given its name to the -district, being the first hill seen from the Nile in the ascent of some -1000 m. from Khartum. On the river at Rejaf, at Lado, and at Kiro, 28 m. -N. of Lado, are government stations and trading establishments. The -western chain of hills has loftier peaks than those of Kuku, Jebel Loka -being about 3000 ft. high. This western chain forms a secondary -watershed separating the basin of the Yei, a large river, some 400 m. in -length, which runs almost due north to join the Nile, from the other -streams of the enclave, which have an easterly or north-easterly -direction and join the Nile after comparatively short courses. - -The northern part of the district was first visited by Europeans in -1841-1842, when the Nile was ascended by an expedition despatched by -Mehemet Ali to the foot of the rapids at Bedden. The neighbouring posts -of Gondokoro, on the east bank of the Nile, and Lado, soon became -stations of the Khartum ivory and slave traders. After the discovery of -Albert Nyanza by Sir Samuel Baker in 1864, the whole country was overrun -by Arabs, Levantines, Turks and others, whose chief occupation was slave -raiding. The region was claimed as part of the Egyptian Sudan, but it -was not until the arrival of Sir Samuel Baker at Gondokoro in 1870 as -governor of the equatorial provinces, that any effective control of the -slave traders was attempted. Baker was succeeded by General C. G. -Gordon, who established a separate administration for the -Bahr-el-Ghazal. In 1878 Emin Pasha became governor of the Equatorial -Province, a term henceforth confined to the region adjoining the main -Nile above the Sobat confluence, and the region south of the -Bahr-el-Ghazal province. (The whole of the Lado Enclave thus formed part -of Emin's old province.) Emin made his headquarters at Lado, whence he -was driven in 1885 by the Mahdists. He then removed to Wadelai, a -station farther south, but in 1889 the pasha, to whose aid H. M. Stanley -had conducted an expedition from the Congo, evacuated the country and -with Stanley made his way to the east coast. While the Mahdists remained -in possession at Rejaf, Great Britain in virtue of her position in -Uganda claimed the upper Nile region as within the British sphere; a -claim admitted by Germany in 1890. In February 1894 the union jack was -hoisted at Wadelai, while in May of the same year Great Britain granted -to Leopold II., as sovereign of the Congo State, a lease of large areas -lying west of the upper Nile inclusive of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and -Fashoda. Pressed however by France, Leopold II. agreed to occupy only -that part of the leased area east of 30 deg. E. and south of 5 deg. 30' -N., and in this manner the actual limits of the Lado Enclave, as it was -thereafter called, were fixed. Congo State forces had penetrated to the -Nile valley as early as 1891, but it was not until 1897, when on the -17th of February Commandant Chaltin inflicted a decisive defeat on the -Mahdists at Rejaf, that their occupation of the Lado Enclave was -assured. After the withdrawal of the French from Fashoda, Leopold II. -revived (1899) his claim to the whole of the area, leased to him in -1894. In this claim he was unsuccessful, and the lease, by a new -agreement made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see AFRICA, S -5). The king however retained the enclave, with the stipulation that six -months after the termination of his reign it should be handed over to -the Anglo-Sudanese government (see _Treaty Series_, No. 4, 1906). - - See _Le Mouvement geographique_ (Brussels) _passim_, and especially - articles in the 1910 issues. - - - - -LADOGA (formerly NEVO), a lake of northern Russia, between 59 deg. 56' -and 61 deg. 46' N., and 29 deg. 53' and 32 deg. 50' E., surrounded by -the governments of St Petersburg and Olonets, and of Viborg in Finland. -It has the form of a quadrilateral, elongated from N.W. to S.E. Its -eastern and southern shores are flat and marshy, the north-western -craggy and fringed by numerous small rocky islands, the largest of which -are Valamo and Konnevitz, together having an area of 14 sq. m. Ladoga is -7000 sq. m. in area, that is, thirty-one times as large as the Lake of -Geneva; but, its depth being less, it contains only nineteen times as -much water as the Swiss lake. The greatest depth, 730 ft., is in a -trough in the north-western part, the average depth not exceeding 250 to -350 ft. The level of Lake Ladoga is 55 ft. above the Gulf of Finland, -but it rises and falls about 7 ft., according to atmospheric conditions, -a phenomenon very similar to the _seiches_ of the Lake of Geneva being -observed in connexion with this. - - The western and eastern shores consist of boulder clay, as well as a - narrow strip on the southern shore, south of which runs a ridge of - crags of Silurian sandstones. The hills of the north-western shore - afford a variety of granites and crystalline slates of the Laurentian - system, whilst Valamo island is made up of a rock which Russian - geologists describe as orthoclastic hypersthenite. The granite and - marble of Serdobol, and the sandstone of Putilovo, are much used for - buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkaranta mine - are exported. - - No fewer than seventy rivers enter Ladoga, pouring into it the waters - of numberless smaller lakes which lie at higher levels round it. The - Volkhov, which conveys the waters of Lake Ilmen, is the largest; Lake - Onega discharges its waters by the Svir; and the Saima system of lakes - of eastern Finland contributes the Vuoxen and Taipale rivers; the Syas - brings the waters from the smaller lakes and marshes of the Valdai - plateau. Ladoga discharges its surplus water by means of the Neva, - which flows from its south-western corner into the Gulf of Finland, - rolling down its broad channel 104,000 cubic ft. of water per second. - - The water of Ladoga is very pure and cold; in May the surface - temperature does not exceed 36 deg. Fahr., and even in August it - reaches only 50 deg. and 53 deg., the average yearly temperature of - the air at Valamo being 36.8 deg. The lake begins to freeze in - October, but it is only about the end of December that it is frozen in - its deeper parts; and it remains ice-bound until the end of March, - though broad icefields continue to float in the middle of the lake - until broken up by gales. Only a small part of the Ladoga ice is - discharged by the Neva; but it is enough to produce in the middle of - June a return of cold in the northern capital. The thickness of the - ice does not exceed 3 or 4 ft.; but during the alternations of cold - and warm weather, with strong gales, in winter, stacks of ice, 70 and - 80 ft. high, are raised on the shores and on the icefields. The water - is in continuous rotatory motion, being carried along the western - shore from north to south, and along the eastern from south to north. - The vegetation on the shores is poor; immense forests, which formerly - covered them, are now mostly destroyed. But the fauna of the lake is - somewhat rich; a species of seal which inhabits its waters, as well as - several species of arctic crustaceans, recall its former connexion - with the Arctic Ocean. The sweet water _Diatomaceae_ which are found - in great variety in the ooze of the deepest parts of the lake also - have an arctic character. - - Fishing is very extensively carried on. Navigation, which is - practicable for only one hundred and eighty days in the year, is - rather difficult owing to fogs and gales, which are often accompanied, - even in April and September, with snow-storms. The prevailing winds - blow from N.W. and S.W.; N.E. winds cause the water to rise in the - south-western part, sometimes 3 to 5 ft. Steamers ply regularly in two - directions from St Petersburg--to the monasteries of Konnevitz and - Valamo, and to the mouth of the Svir, whence they go up that river to - Lake Onega and Petrozavodsk; and small vessels transport timber, - firewood, planks, iron, kaolin, granite, marble, fish, hay and various - small wares from the northern shore to Schlusselburg, and thence to St - Petersburg. Navigation on the lake being too dangerous for small - craft, canals with an aggregate length of 104 m. were dug in - 1718-1731, and others in 1861-1886 having an aggregate length of 101 - m. along its southern shore, uniting with the Neva at Schlusselburg - the mouths of the rivers Volkhov, Syas and Svir, all links in the - elaborate system of canals which connect the upper Volga with the Gulf - of Finland. - - The population (35,000) on the shores of the lake is sparse, and the - towns--Schlusselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga (4144); - Kexholm (1325) and Serdobol--are small. The monasteries of Valamo, - founded in 992, on the island of the same name, and Konnevskiy, on - Konnevitz island, founded in 1393, are visited every year by many - thousands of pilgrims. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) - - - - -LADY (O. Eng. _hlaefdige_, Mid. Eng. _lafdi_, _lavedi_; the first part -of the word is _hlaf_, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding _hlaford_, -lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to -knead, seen also in "dough"; the sense development from bread-kneader, -bread-maker, to the ordinary meaning, though not clearly to be traced -historically, may be illustrated by that of "lord"), a term of which the -main applications are two, (1) as the correlative of "lord" (q.v.) in -certain of the usages of that word, (2) as the correlative of -"gentleman" (q.v.). The primary meaning of mistress of a household is, -if not obsolete, in present usage only a vulgarism. The special use of -the word as a title of the Virgin Mary, usually "Our Lady," represents -the Lat. _Domina Nostra_. In Lady Day and Lady Chapel the word is -properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. _hlaefdigan_. As a title -of nobility the uses of "lady" are mainly paralleled by those of "lord." -It is thus a less formal alternative to the full title giving the -specific rank, of marchioness, countess, viscountess or baroness, -whether as the title of the husband's rank by right or courtesy, or as -the lady's title in her own right. In the case of the younger sons of a -duke or marquess, who by courtesy have lord prefixed to their Christian -and family name, the wife is known by the husband's Christian and family -name with Lady prefixed, e.g. Lady John B.; the daughters of dukes, -marquesses and earls are by courtesy Ladies; here that title is prefixed -to the Christian and family name of the lady, e.g. Lady Mary B., and -this is preserved if the lady marry a commoner, e.g. Mr and Lady Mary C. -"Lady" is also the customary title of the wife of a baronet or knight; -the proper title, now only used in legal documents or on sepulchral -monuments, is "dame" (q.v.); in the latter case the usage is to prefix -Dame to the Christian name of the wife followed by the surname of the -husband, thus Dame Eleanor B., but in the former, Lady with the surname -of the husband only, Sir A. and Lady B. During the 15th and 16th -centuries "princesses" or daughters of the blood royal were usually -known by their Christian names with "the Lady" prefixed, e.g. the Lady -Elizabeth. - -While "lord" has retained its original application as a title of -nobility or rank without extension, an example which has been followed -in Spanish usage by "don," "lady" has been extended in meaning to be the -feminine correlative of "gentleman" throughout its sense developments, -and in this is paralleled by _Dame_ in German, _madame_ in French, -_donna_ in Spanish, &c. It is the general word for any woman of a -certain social position (see GENTLEMAN). - - - - -LADYBANK, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 5(1/2) m. S.W. of Cupar -by the North British railway, 1/2 m. from the left bank of the Eden. -Pop. (1901) 1340. Besides having a station on the main line to Dundee, -it is also connected with Perth and Kinross and is a railway junction of -some importance and possesses a locomotive depot. It is an industrial -centre, linen weaving, coal mining and malting being the principal -industries. KETTLE, a village 1 m. S., has prehistoric barrows and a -fort. At COLLESSIE, 2(1/2) m. N. by W., a standing stone, a mound and -traces of ancient camps exist, while urns and coins have been found. -Between the parishes of Collessie and Monimail the boundary line takes -the form of a crescent known as the Bow of Fife. MONIMAIL contains the -Mount, the residence of Sir David Lindsay the poet (1490-1555). Its -lofty site is now marked by a clump of trees. Here, too, is the Doric -pillar, 100 ft. high, raised to the memory of John Hope, 4th earl of -Hopetoun. Melville House, the seat of the earls of Leven, lies amidst -beautiful woods. - - - - -LADYBRAND, a town of the Orange Free State, 80 m. E. of Bloemfontein by -rail. Another railway connects it with Natal via Harrismith. Pop. (1904) -3862, of whom 2334 were whites. The town is pleasantly situated at the -foot of a flat-topped hill (the Platberg), about 4 m. W. of the Caledon -river, which separates the province from Basutoland. Ladybrand is the -centre of a rich arable district, has a large wheat market and is also a -health resort, the climate, owing to the proximity of the Maluti -Mountains, being bracing even during the summer months (November-March). -Coal and petroleum are found in the neighbourhood. It is named after the -wife of Sir J. H. Brand, president of the Orange Free State. - - - - -LADY-CHAPEL, the chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin and attached to -churches of large size. Generally the chapel was built eastward of the -high altar and formed a projection from the main building, as in -Winchester, Salisbury, Exeter, Wells, St Albans, Chichester, -Peterborough and Norwich cathedrals,--in the two latter cases now -destroyed. The earliest Lady-chapel built was that in the Saxon -cathedral of Canterbury; this was transfered in the rebuilding by -Archbishop Lanfranc to the west end of the nave, and again shifted in -1450 to the chapel on the east side of the north transept. The -Lady-chapel at Ely cathedral is a distinct building attached to the -north transept; at Rochester the Lady-chapel is west of the south -transept. Probably the largest Lady-chapel was that built by Henry III. -in 1220 at Westminster Abbey, which was 30 ft. wide, much in excess of -any foreign example, and extended to the end of the site now occupied by -Henry VII.'s chapel. Among other notable English examples of -Lady-chapels are those at Ottery-St-Mary, Thetford, Bury St Edmund's, -Wimborne, Christ-church, Hampshire; in Compton Church, Surrey, and -Compton Martin, Somersetshire, and Darenth, Kent, it was built over the -chancel. At Croyland Abbey there were two Lady-chapels. Lady-chapels -exist in most of the French cathedrals and churches, where they form -part of the chevet; in Belgium they were not introduced before the 14th -century; in some cases they are of the same size as the other chapels of -the chevet, but in others, probably rebuilt at a later period, they -became much more important features, and in Italy and Spain during the -Renaissance period constitute some of its best examples. - - - - -LADY DAY, originally the name for all the days in the church calendar -marking any event in the Virgin Mary's life, but now restricted to the -feast of the Annunciation, held on the 25th of March in each year. Lady -Day was in medieval and later times the beginning of the legal year in -England. In 1752 this was altered to the 1st of January, but the 25th of -March remains one of the Quarter Days; though in some parts old Lady -Day, on the 6th of April, is still the date for rent paying. See -Annunciation. - - - - -LADYSMITH, a town of Natal, 189 m. N.W. of Durban by rail, on the left -bank of the Klip tributary of the Tugela. Pop. (1904) 5568, of whom 2269 -were whites. It lies 3284 ft. above the sea and is encircled by hills, -while the Drakensberg are some 30 m. distant to the N.W. Ladysmith is -the trading centre of northern Natal, and is the chief railway junction -in the province, the main line from the south dividing here. One line -crosses Van Reenen's pass into the Orange Free State, the other runs -northwards to the Transvaal. There are extensive railway workshops. -Among the public buildings are the Anglican church and the town hall. -The church contains tablets with the names of 3200 men who perished in -the defence and relief of the town in the South African War (see below), -while the clock tower of the town hall, partially destroyed by a Boer -shell, is kept in its damaged condition. - -Ladysmith, founded in 1851, is named after Juana, Lady Smith, wife of -Sir Harry Smith, then governor of Cape Colony. It stands near the site -of the camp of the Dutch farmers who in 1848 assembled for the purpose -of trekking across the Drakensberg. Here they were visited by Sir Harry -Smith, who induced the majority of the farmers to remain in Natal. The -growth of the town, at first slow, increased with the opening of the -railway from Durban in 1886 and the subsequent extension of the line to -Johannesburg. - -In the first and most critical stage of the South African War of -1899-1902 (see TRANSVAAL) Ladysmith was the centre of the struggle. -During the British concentration on the town there were fought the -actions of Talana (or Dundee) on the 20th, Elandslaagte on the 21st and -Rietfontein on the 24th of October 1899. On the 30th of October the -British sustained a serious defeat in the general action of Lombard's -Kop or Farquhar's Farm, and Sir George White decided to hold the town, -which had been fortified, against investment and siege until he was -relieved directly or indirectly by Sir Redvers Buller's advance. The -greater portion of Buller's available troops were despatched to Natal in -November, with a view to the direct relief of Ladysmith, which meantime -the Boers had closely invested. His first attempt was repelled on the -15th of December in the battle of Colenso, his second on the 24th of -January 1900 by the successful Boer counterstroke against Spion Kop, and -his third was abandoned without serious fighting (Vaalkranz, Feb. 5). -But two or three days after Vaalkranz, almost simultaneously with Lord -Roberts's advance on Bloemfontein Sir Redvers Buller resumed the -offensive in the hills to the east of Colenso, which he gradually -cleared of the enemy, and although he was checked after reaching the -Tugela below Colenso (Feb. 24) he was finally successful in carrying the -Boer positions (Pieter's Hill) on the 27th and relieving Ladysmith, -which during these long and anxious months (Nov. 1-Feb. 28) had suffered -very severely from want of food, and on one occasion (Caesar's Camp, -Jan. 6, 1900) had only with heavy losses and great difficulty repelled a -powerful Boer assault. The garrison displayed its unbroken resolution on -the last day of the investment by setting on foot a mobile column, -composed of all men who were not too enfeebled to march out, in order to -harass the Boer retreat. This expedition was however countermanded by -Buller. - - - - -LAELIUS, the name of a Roman plebeian family, probably settled at Tibur -(Tivoli). The chief members were:-- - -GAIUS LAELIUS, general and statesman, was a friend of the elder Scipio, -whom he accompanied on his Spanish campaign (210-206 B.C.). In Scipio's -consulship (205), Laelius went with him to Sicily, whence he conducted -an expedition to Africa. In 203 he defeated the Massaesylian prince -Syphax, who, breaking his alliance with Scipio, had joined the -Carthaginians, and at Zama (202) rendered considerable service in -command of the cavalry. In 197 he was plebeian aedile and in 196 praetor -of Sicily. As consul in 190 he was employed in organizing the recently -conquered territory in Cisalpine Gaul. Placentia and Cremona were -repeopled, and a new colony founded at Bononia. He is last heard of in -170 as ambassador to Transalpine Gaul. Though little is known of his -personal qualities, his intimacy with Scipio is proof that he must have -been a man of some importance. Silius Italicus (_Punica_, xv. 450) -describes him as a man of great endowments, an eloquent orator and a -brave soldier. - - See Index to Livy; Polybius x. 3. 9, 39, xi. 32, xiv. 4. 8, xv. 9. 12, - 14; Appian, _Hisp._ 25-29; Cicero, _Philippica_, xi. 7. - -His son, GAIUS LAELIUS, is known chiefly as the friend of the younger -Scipio, and as one of the speakers in Cicero's _De senectute_, _De -amicitia_ (or _Laelius_) and _De Republica_. He was surnamed _Sapiens_ -("the wise"), either from his scholarly tastes or because, when tribune, -he "prudently" withdrew his proposal (151 B.C.) for the relief of the -farmers by distributions of land, when he saw that it was likely to -bring about disturbances. In the third Punic War (147) he accompanied -Scipio to Africa, and distinguished himself at the capture of the -Cothon, the military harbour of Carthage. In 145 he carried on -operations with moderate success against Viriathus in Spain; in 140 he -was elected consul. During the Gracchan period, as a staunch supporter -of Scipio and the aristocracy, Laelius became obnoxious to the -democrats. He was associated with P. Popillius Laenas in the prosecution -of those who had supported Tiberius Gracchus, and in 131 opposed the -bill brought forward by C. Papirius Carbo to render legal the election -of a tribune to a second year of office. The attempts of his enemies, -however, failed to shake his reputation. He was a highly accomplished -man and belonged to the so-called "Scipionic circle." He studied -philosophy under the Stoics Diogenes Babylonius and Panaetius of Rhodes; -he was a poet, and the plays of Terence, by reason of their elegance of -diction, were sometimes attributed to him. With Scipio he was mainly -instrumental in introducing the study of the Greek language and -literature into Rome. He was a gifted orator, though his refined -eloquence was perhaps less suited to the forum than to the senate. He -delivered speeches _De Collegiis_ (145) against the proposal of the -tribune C. Licinius Crassus to deprive the priestly colleges of their -right of co-optation and to transfer the power of election to the -people; _Pro Publicanis_ (139), on behalf of the farmers of the revenue; -against the proposal of Carbo noticed above; _Pro Se_, a speech in his -own defence, delivered in answer to Carbo and Gracchus; funeral -orations, amongst them two on his friend Scipio. Much information is -given concerning him in Cicero, who compares him to Socrates. - - See Index to Cicero; Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_, 8; Appian, _Punica_, - 126; Horace, _Sat._ ii. 1. 72; Quintilian, _Instit._ xii. 10. 10; - Suetonius, _Vita Terentii_; Terence, _Adelphi_, Prol. 15, with the - commentators. - - - - -LAENAS, the name of a plebeian family in ancient Rome, notorious for -cruelty and arrogance. The two most famous of the name[1] are:-- - -GAIUS POPILLIUS LAENAS, consul in 172 B.C. He was sent to Greece in 174 -to allay the general disaffection, but met with little success. He took -part in the war against Perseus, king of Macedonia (Livy xliii. 17, 22). -When Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, invaded Egypt, Laenas was sent -to arrest his progress. Meeting him near Alexandria, he handed him the -decree of the senate, demanding the evacuation of Egypt. Antiochus -having asked time for consideration, Laenas drew a circle round him with -his staff, and told him he must give an answer before he stepped out of -it. Antiochus thereupon submitted (Livy xlv. 12; Polybius xxix. 11; -Cicero, _Philippica_, viii. 8; Vell. Pat. i. 10). - -PUBLIUS POPILLIUS LAENAS, son of the preceding. When consul in 132 B.C. -he incurred the hatred of the democrats by his harsh measures as head of -a special commission appointed to take measures against the accomplices -of Tiberius Gracchus. In 123 Gaius Gracchus brought in a bill -prohibiting all such commissions, and declared that, in accordance with -the old laws of appeal, a magistrate who pronounced sentence of death -against a citizen, without the people's assent, should be guilty of -high treason. It is not known whether the bill contained a retrospective -clause against Laenas, but he left Rome and sentence of banishment from -Italy was pronounced against him. After the restoration of the -aristocracy the enactments against him were cancelled, and he was -recalled (121). - - See Cicero, _Brutus_, 25. 34, and _De domo sua_, 31; Vell. Pat. ii. 7; - Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 4. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The name is said by Cicero to be derived from _laena_, the - sacerdotal cloak carried by Marcus Popillius (consul 359) when he - went to the forum to quell a popular rising. - - - - -LAER (or LAAR), PIETER VAN (1613-c. 1675), Dutch painter, was born at -Laaren in Holland. The influence of a long stay in Rome begun at an -early age is seen in his landscape and backgrounds, but in his subjects -he remained true to the Dutch tradition, choosing generally lively -scenes from peasant life, as markets, feasts, bowling scenes, farriers' -shops, robbers, hunting scenes and peasants with cattle. From this -taste, or from his personal deformity, he was nicknamed Bamboccio by the -Italians. On his return to Holland about 1639, he lived chiefly at -Amsterdam and Haarlem, in which latter city he died in 1674 or 1675. His -pictures are marked by skilful composition and good drawing; he was -especially careful in perspective. His colouring, according to Crowe, is -"generally of a warm, brownish tone, sometimes very clear, but oftener -heavy, and his execution broad and spirited." Certain etched plates are -also attributed to him. - - - - -LAESTRYGONES, a mythical race of giants and cannibals. According to the -_Odyssey_ (x. 80) they dwelt in the farthest north, where the nights -were so short that the shepherd who was driving out his flock met -another driving it in. This feature of the tale contains some hint of -the long nightless summer in the Arctic regions, which perhaps reached -the Greeks through the merchants who fetched amber from the Baltic -coasts. Odysseus in his wanderings arrived at the coast inhabited by the -Laestrygones, and escaped with only one ship, the rest being sunk by the -giants with masses of rock. Their chief city was Telepylus, founded by a -former king Lamus, their ruler at that time being Antiphates. This is a -purely fanciful name, but Lamus takes us into a religious world where we -can trace the origin of the legend, and observe the god of an older -religion becoming the subject of fairy tales (see LAMIA) in a later -period. - - The later Greeks placed the country of the Laestrygones in Sicily, to - the south of Aetna, near Leontini; but Horace (_Odes_, iii. 16. 34) - and other Latin authors speak of them as living in southern Latium, - near Formiae, which was supposed to have been founded by Lamus. - - - - -LAETUS, JULIUS POMPONIUS [Giulio Pomponio Leto], (1425-1498), Italian -humanist, was born at Salerno. He studied at Rome under Laurentius -Valla, whom he succeeded (1457) as professor of eloquence in the -Gymnasium Romanum. About this time he founded an academy, the members of -which adopted Greek and Latin names, met on the Quirinal to discuss -classical questions and celebrated the birthday of Romulus. Its -constitution resembled that of an ancient priestly college, and Laetus -was styled pontifex maximus. The pope (Paul II.) viewed these -proceedings with suspicion, as savouring of paganism, heresy and -republicanism. In 1468 twenty of the academicians were arrested during -the carnival; Laetus, who had taken refuge in Venice, was sent back to -Rome, imprisoned and put to the torture, but refused to plead guilty to -the charges of infidelity and immorality. For want of evidence, he was -acquitted and allowed to resume his professorial duties; but it was -forbidden to utter the name of the academy even in jest. Sixtus IV. -permitted the resumption of its meetings, which continued to be held -till the sack of Rome (1527) by Constable Bourbon during the papacy of -Clement VII. Laetus continued to teach in Rome until his death on the -9th of June 1498. As a teacher, Laetus, who has been called the first -head of a philological school, was extraordinarily successful; in his -own words, like Socrates and Christ, he expected to live on in the -person of his pupils, amongst whom were many of the most famous scholars -of the period. His works, written in pure and simple Latin, were -published in a collected form (_Opera Pomponii Laeti varia_, 1521). They -contain treatises on the Roman magistrates, priests and lawyers, and a -compendium of Roman history from the death of the younger Gordian to -the time of Justin III. Laetus also wrote commentaries on classical -authors, and promoted the publication of the editio princeps of Virgil -at Rome in 1469. - - See _The Life of Leto_ by Sabellicus (Strassburg, 1510); G. Voigt, - _Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Alterthums_, ii.; F. Gregorovius, - _Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_, vii. (1894), p. 576, for an - account of the academy; Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ - (1908), ii. 92. - - - - -LAEVIUS (? c. 80 B.C.), a Latin poet of whom practically nothing is -known. The earliest reference to him is perhaps in Suetonius (_De -grammaticis_, 3), though it is not certain that the Laevius Milissus -there referred to is the same person. Definite references do not occur -before the 2nd century (Fronto, _Ep. ad M. Caes._ i. 3; Aulus Gellius, -_Noct. Att._ ii. 24, xii. 10, xix. 9; Apuleius, _De magia_, 30; -Porphyrion, _Ad Horat. carm._ iii. 1, 2). Some sixty miscellaneous lines -are preserved (see Bahrens, _Fragm. poet. rom._ pp. 287-293), from which -it is difficult to see how ancient critics could have regarded him as -the master of Ovid or Catullus. Gellius and Ausonius state that he -composed an _Erotopaegnia_, and in other sources he is credited with -_Adonis_, _Alcestis_, _Centauri_, _Helena_, _Ino_, _Protesilaudamia_, -_Sirenocirca_, _Phoenix_, which may, however, be only the parts of the -_Erotopaegnia_. They were not serious poems, but light and often -licentious skits on the heroic myths. - - See O. Ribbeck, _Geschichte der romischen Dichtung_, i.; H. de la - Ville de Mirmont, _Etude biographique et litteraire sur le poete - Laevius_ (Paris, 1900), with critical ed. of the fragments, and - remarks on vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, _Poetarum latinorum - reliquiae_ (Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen - Litteratur_ (2nd ed.), pt. i. p. 163; W. Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman - Literature_ (Eng. tr.), S 150, 4; a convenient summary in F. Plessis, - _La Poesie latine_ (1909), pp. 139-142. - - - - -LAEVULINIC ACID ([beta]-acetopropionic acid), C5H8O3 or -CH3CO.CH2.CH2.CO2H, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose, inulin, -starch, &c., by boiling them with dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric -acids. It may be synthesized by condensing sodium acetoacetate with -monochloracetic ester, the acetosuccinic ester produced being then -hydrolysed with dilute hydrochloric acid (M. Conrad, _Ann._, 1877, 188, -p. 222). - - CH3.CO.CH.Na CH3.CO.CH.CH2.CO2R - | --> | -->CH3COCH2.CH2.CO2OH. - CO2R CO2R - -It may also be prepared by heating the anhydride of -[gamma]-methyloxy-glutaric acid with concentrated sulphuric acid, and by -oxidation of methyl heptenone and of geraniol. It crystallizes in -plates, which melt at 32.5-33 deg. C. and boil at 148-149 deg. (15 mm.) -(A. Michael, _Jour. prak. Chem._, 1891 [2], 44, p. 114). It is readily -soluble in alcohol, ether and water. The acid, when distilled slowly, is -decomposed and yields [alpha]- and [beta]-angelica lactones. When heated -with hydriodic acid and phosphorus, it yields n-valeric acid; and with -iodine and caustic soda solution it gives iodoform, even in the cold. -With hydroxylamine it yields an oxime, which by the action of -concentrated sulphuric acid rearranges itself to N-methylsuccinimide -[CH2.CO]2N.CH3. - - - - -LA FARGE, JOHN (1835-1910), American artist, was born in New York, on -the 31st of March 1835, of French parentage. He received instruction in -drawing from his grandfather, Binsse de St Victor, a painter of -miniatures; studied law and architecture; entered the atelier of Thomas -Couture in Paris, where he remained a short time, giving especial -attention to the study and copying of old masters at the Louvre; and -began by making illustrations to the poets (1859). An intimacy with the -artist William M. Hunt had a strong influence on him, the two working -together at Newport, Rhode Island. La Farge painted landscape, still -life and figure alike in the early sixties. But from 1866 on he was for -some time incapacitated for work, and when he regained strength he did -some decorative work for Trinity church, Boston, in 1876, and turned his -attention to stained glass, becoming president of the Society of Mural -Painters. Some of his important commissions include windows for St -Thomas's church (1877), St Peter's church, the Paulist church, the Brick -church (1882), the churches of the Incarnation (1885) and the Ascension -(1887), New York; Trinity church, Buffalo, and the "Battle Window" in -Memorial Hall at Harvard; ceilings and windows for the house of -Cornelius Vanderbilt, windows for the houses of W. H. Vanderbilt and D. -O. Mills, and panels for the house of Whitelaw Reid, New York; panels -for the Congressional Library, Washington; Bowdoin College, the Capitol -at St Paul, Minn., besides designs for many stained glass windows. He -was also a prolific painter in oil and water colour, the latter seen -notably in some water-colour sketches, the result of a voyage in the -South Seas, shown in 1895. His influence on American art was powerfully -exhibited in such men as Augustus St Gaudens, Wilton Lockwood, Francis -Lathrop and John Humphreys Johnston. He became president of the Society -of American Artists, a member of the National Academy of Design in 1869; -an officer of the Legion of Honour of France; and received many medals -and decorations. He published _Considerations on Painting_ (New York, -1895), _Hokusai: A Talk about Hokusai_ (New York, 1897), and _An -Artist's Letters from Japan_ (New York, 1897). - - See Cecilia Waern, _John La Farge, Artist and Writer_ (London, 1896, - No. 26 of _The Portfolio_). - - - - -LA FARINA, GIUSEPPE (1815-1863), Italian author and politician, was born -at Messina. On account of the part he took in the insurrection of 1837 -he had to leave Sicily, but returning in 1839 he conducted various -newspapers of liberal tendencies, until his efforts were completely -interdicted, when he removed to Florence. In 1840 he had published -_Messina ed i suoi monumenti_, and after his removal to Florence he -brought out _La Germania coi suoi monumenti_ (1842), _L' Italia coi suoi -monumenti_ (1842), _La Svizzera storica ed artistica_ (1842-1843), La -China, 4 vols. (1843-1847), and _Storia d' Italia_, 7 vols. (1846-1854). -In 1847 he established at Florence a democratic journal, _L' Alba_, in -the interests of Italian freedom and unity, but on the outbreak of the -revolution in Sicily in 1848 he returned thither and was elected deputy -and member of the committee of war. In August of that year he was -appointed minister of public instruction and later of war and marine. -After vigorously conducting a campaign against the Bourbon troops, he -was forced into exile, and repaired to France in 1849. In 1850 he -published his _Storia documentata della Rivoluzione Siciliana del -1848-1849_, and in 1851-1852 his _Storia d' Italia dal 1815 al 1848_, in -6 vols. He returned to Italy in 1854 and settled at Turin, and in 1856 -he founded the _Piccolo Corriere d' Italia_, an organ which had great -influence in propagating the political sentiments of the Societa -Nazionale Italiana, of which he ultimately was chosen president. With -Daniele Manin (q.v.), one of the founders of that society, he advocated -the unity of Italy under Victor Emmanuel even before Cavour, with whom -at one time he had daily interviews, and organized the emigration of -volunteers from all parts of Italy into the Piedmontese army. He also -negotiated an interview between Cavour and Garibaldi, with the result -that the latter was appointed commander of the Cacciatori delle Alpi in -the war of 1859. Later he supported Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily, -where he himself went soon after the occupation of Palermo, but he -failed to bring about the immediate annexation of the island to Piedmont -as Cavour wished. In 1860 he was chosen a member of the first Italian -parliament and was subsequently made councillor of state. He died on the -5th of September 1863. - - See A. Franchi, _Epistolario di Giuseppe La Farina_ (2 vols., 1869) - and L. Carpi, _Il Risorgimento Italiano_, vol. i. (Milan, 1884). - - - - -LA FAYETTE, GILBERT MOTIER DE (1380-1462), marshal of France, was -brought up at the court of Louis II., 3rd duke of Bourbon. He served -under Marshal Boucicaut in Italy, and on his return to France after the -evacuation of Genoa in 1409 became seneschal of the Bourbonnais. In the -English wars he was with John I., 4th duke of Bourbon, at the capture of -Soubise in 1413, and of Compiegne in 1415. The duke then made him -lieutenant-general in Languedoc and Guienne. He failed to defend Caen -and Falaise in the interest of the dauphin (afterwards Charles VII.) -against Henry V. in 1417 and 1418, but in the latter year he held Lyons -for some time against Jean sans Peur, duke of Burgundy. A series of -successes over the English and Burgundians on the Loire was rewarded in -1420 with the government of Dauphiny and the office of marshal of -France. La Fayette commanded the Franco-Scottish troops at the battle of -Bauge (1422), though he did not, as has been sometimes stated, slay -Thomas, duke of Clarence, with his own hand. In 1424 he was taken -prisoner by the English at Verneuil, but was released shortly -afterwards, and fought with Joan of Arc at Orleans and Patay in 1429. -The marshal had become a member of the grand council of Charles VII., -and with the exception of a short disgrace about 1430, due to the -ill-will of Georges de la Tremouille, he retained the royal favour all -his life. He took an active part in the army reform initiated by Charles -VII., and the establishment of military posts for the suppression of -brigandage. His last campaign was against the English in Normandy in -1449. He died on the 23rd of February 1462. His line was continued by -Gilbert IV. de La Fayette, son of his second marriage with Jeanne de -Joyeuse. - - - - -LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE (c. 1616-1665), was one of the fourteen children -of John, comte de La Fayette, and Marguerite de Bourbon-Busset. Louise -became maid of honour to Anne of Austria, and Richelieu sought to -attract the attention of Louis XIII. to her in the hope that she might -counterbalance the influence exercised over him by Marie de Hautefort. -The affair did not turn out as the minister wished. The king did indeed -make her the confidante of his affairs and of his resentment against the -cardinal, but she, far from repeating his confidences to the minister, -set herself to encourage the king in his resistance to Richelieu's -dominion. She refused, nevertheless, to become Louis's mistress, and -after taking leave of the king in Anne of Austria's presence retired to -the convent of the Filles de Sainte-Marie in 1637. Here she was -repeatedly visited by Louis, with whom she maintained a correspondence. -Richelieu intercepted the letters, and by omissions and falsifications -succeeded in destroying their mutual confidence. The cessation of their -intercourse was regretted by the queen, who had been reconciled with her -husband through the influence of Louise. At the time of her death in -January 1665 Mlle de La Fayette was superior of a convent of her order -which she had founded at Chaillot. - - See _Memoires de Madame de Motteville_; Victor Cousin, _Madame de - Hautefort_ (Paris, 1868); L'Abbe Sorin, _Louise-Angele de La Fayette_ - (Paris, 1893). - - - - -LA FAYETTE, MARIE JOSEPH PAUL YVES ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER. MARQUIS DE -(1757-1834), was born at the chateau of Chavaniac in Auvergne, France, -on the 6th of September 1757. His father[1] was killed at Minden in -1759, and his mother and his grandfather died in 1770, and thus at the -age of thirteen he was left an orphan with a princely fortune. He -married at sixteen Marie Adrienne Francoise de Noailles (d. 1807), -daughter of the duc d'Ayen and granddaughter of the duc de Noailles, -then one of the most influential families in the kingdom. La Fayette -chose to follow the career of his father, and entered the Guards. - -La Fayette was nineteen and a captain of dragoons when the English -colonies in America proclaimed their independence. "At the first news of -this quarrel," he afterwards wrote in his memoirs, "my heart was -enrolled in it." The count de Broglie, whom he consulted, discouraged -his zeal for the cause of liberty. Finding his purpose unchangeable, -however, he presented the young enthusiast to Johann Kalb, who was also -seeking service in America, and through Silas Deane, American agent in -Paris, an arrangement was concluded, on the 7th of December 1776, by -which La Fayette was to enter the American service as major-general. At -this moment the news arrived of grave disasters to the American arms. La -Fayette's friends again advised him to abandon his purpose. Even the -American envoys, Franklin and Arthur Lee, who had superseded Deane, -withheld further encouragement and the king himself forbade his leaving. -At the instance of the British ambassador at Versailles orders were -issued to seize the ship La Fayette was fitting out at Bordeaux, and La -Fayette himself was arrested. But the ship was sent from Bordeaux to a -neighbouring port in Spain, La Fayette escaped from custody in disguise, -and before a second _lettre de cachet_ could reach him he was afloat -with eleven chosen companions. Though two British cruisers had been sent -in pursuit of him, he landed safely near Georgetown, S.C., after a -tedious voyage of nearly two months, and hastened to Philadelphia, then -the seat of government of the colonies. - -When this lad of nineteen, with the command of only what little English -he had been able to pick up on his voyage, presented himself to Congress -with Deane's authority to demand a commission of the highest rank after -the commander-in-chief, his reception was a little chilly. Deane's -contracts were so numerous, and for officers of such high rank, that it -was impossible for Congress to ratify them without injustice to -Americans who had become entitled by their service to promotion. La -Fayette appreciated the situation as soon as it was explained to him, -and immediately expressed his desire to serve in the American army upon -two conditions--that he should receive no pay, and that he should act as -a volunteer. These terms were so different from those made by other -foreigners, they had been attended with such substantial sacrifices, and -they promised such important indirect advantages, that Congress passed a -resolution, on the 31st of July 1777, "that his services be accepted, -and that, in consideration of his zeal, illustrious family and -connexions, he have the rank and commission of major-general of the -United States." Next day La Fayette met Washington, whose lifelong -friend he became. Congress intended his appointment as purely honorary, -and the question of giving him a command was left entirely to -Washington's discretion. His first battle was Brandywine (q.v.) on the -11th of September 1777, where he showed courage and activity and -received a wound. Shortly afterwards he secured what he most desired, -the command of a division--the immediate result of a communication from -Washington to Congress of November 1, 1777, in which he said:-- - - "The marquis de La Fayette is extremely solicitous of having a command - equal to his rank. I do not know in what light Congress will view the - matter, but it appears to me, from a consideration of his illustrious - and important connexions, the attachment which he has manifested for - our cause, and the consequences which his return in disgust might - produce, that it will be advisable to gratify his wishes, and the more - so as several gentlemen from France who came over under some - assurances have gone back disappointed in their expectations. His - conduct with respect to them stands in a favourable point of - view--having interested himself to remove their uneasiness and urged - the impropriety of their making any unfavourable representations upon - their arrival at home. Besides, he is sensible, discreet in his - manners, has made great proficiency in our language, and from the - disposition he discovered at the battle of Brandywine possesses a - large share of bravery and military ardour." - -Of La Fayette's military career in the United States there is not much -to be said. Though the commander of a division, he never had many troops -in his charge, and whatever military talents he possessed were not of -the kind which appeared to conspicuous advantage on the theatre to which -his wealth and family influence rather than his soldierly gifts had -called him. In the first months of 1778 he commanded troops detailed for -the projected expedition against Canada. His retreat from Barren Hill -(May 28, 1778) was commended as masterly; and he fought at the battle of -Monmouth (June 28,) and received from Congress a formal recognition of -his services in the Rhode Island expedition (August 1778). - -The treaties of commerce and defensive alliance, signed by the -insurgents and France on the 6th of February 1778, were promptly -followed by a declaration of war by England against the latter, and La -Fayette asked leave to revisit France and to consult his king as to the -further direction of his services. This leave was readily granted; it -was not difficult for Washington to replace the major-general, but it -was impossible to find another equally competent, influential and -devoted champion of the American cause near the court of Louis XVI. In -fact, he went on a mission rather than a visit. He embarked on the 11th -of January 1779, was received with enthusiasm, and was made a colonel in -the French cavalry. On the 4th of March following Franklin wrote to the -president of Congress: "The marquis de La Fayette ... is infinitely -esteemed and beloved here, and I am persuaded will do everything in his -power to merit a continuance of the same affection from America." He won -the confidence of Vergennes. - -La Fayette was absent from America about six months, and his return was -the occasion of a complimentary resolution of Congress. From April until -October 1781 he was charged with the defence of Virginia, in which -Washington gave him the credit of doing all that was possible with the -forces at his disposal; and he showed his zeal by borrowing money on his -own account to provide his soldiers with necessaries. The battle of -Yorktown, in which La Fayette bore an honourable if not a distinguished -part, was the last of the war, and terminated his military career in the -United States. He immediately obtained leave to return to France, where -it was supposed he might be useful in negotiations for a general peace. -He was also occupied in the preparations for a combined French and -Spanish expedition against some of the British West India Islands, of -which he had been appointed chief of staff, and a formidable fleet -assembled at Cadiz, but the armistice signed on the 20th of January 1783 -between the belligerents put a stop to the expedition. He had been -promoted (1781) to the rank of _marechal de camp_ (major-general) in the -French army, and he received every token of regard from his sovereign -and his countrymen. He visited the United States again in 1784, and -remained some five months as the guest of the nation. - -La Fayette did not appear again prominently in public life until 1787, -though he did good service to the French Protestants, and became -actively interested in plans to abolish slavery. In 1787 he took his -seat in the Assembly of Notables. He demanded, and he alone signed the -demand, that the king convoke the states-general, thus becoming a leader -in the French Revolution. He showed Liberal tendencies both in that -assembly and after its dispersal, and in 1788 was deprived, in -consequence, of his active command. In 1789 La Fayette was elected to -the states-general, and took a prominent part in its proceedings. He was -chosen vice-president of the National Assembly, and on the 11th of July -1789 presented a declaration of rights, modelled on Jefferson's -Declaration of Independence in 1776. On the 15th of July, the second day -of the new regime, La Fayette was chosen by acclamation colonel-general -of the new National Guard of Paris. He also proposed the combination of -the colours of Paris, red and blue, and the royal white, into the famous -tricolour cockade of modern France (July 17). For the succeeding three -years, until the end of the constitutional monarchy in 1792, his history -is largely the history of France. His life was beset with very great -responsibility and perils, for he was ever the minister of humanity and -order among a frenzied people who had come to regard order and humanity -as phases of treason. He rescued the queen from the hands of the -populace on the 5th and 6th of October 1789, saved many humbler victims -who had been condemned to death, and he risked his life in many -unsuccessful attempts to rescue others. Before this, disgusted with -enormities which he was powerless to prevent, he had resigned his -commission; but so impossible was it to replace him that he was induced -to resume it. In the Constituent Assembly he pleaded for the abolition -of arbitrary imprisonment, for religious tolerance, for popular -representation, for the establishment of trial by jury, for the gradual -emancipation of slaves, for the freedom of the press, for the abolition -of titles of nobility, and the suppression of privileged orders. In -February 1790 he refused the supreme command of the National Guard of -the kingdom. In May he founded the "Society of 1789" which afterwards -became the Feuillants Club. He took a prominent part in the celebration -of July 14, 1790, the first anniversary of the destruction of the -Bastille. After suppressing an _emeute_ in April 1791 he again resigned -his commission, and was again compelled to retain it. He was the friend -of liberty as well as of order, and when Louis XVI. fled to Varennes he -issued orders to stop him. Shortly afterwards he was made -lieutenant-general in the army. He commanded the troops in the -suppression of another _emeute_, on the occasion of the proclamation of -the constitution (September 18, 1791), after which, feeling that his -task was done, he retired into private life. This did not prevent his -friends from proposing him for the mayoralty of Paris in opposition to -Petion. - -When, in December 1791, three armies were formed on the western frontier -to attack Austria, La Fayette was placed in command of one of them. But -events moved faster than La Fayette's moderate and humane republicanism, -and seeing that the lives of the king and queen were each day more and -more in danger, he definitely opposed himself to the further advance of -the Jacobin party, intending eventually to use his army for the -restoration of a limited monarchy. On the 19th of August 1792 the -Assembly declared him a traitor. He was compelled to take refuge in the -neutral territory of Liege, whence as one of the prime movers in the -Revolution he was taken and held as a prisoner of state for five years, -first in Prussian and afterwards in Austrian prisons, in spite of the -intercession of America and the pleadings of his wife. Napoleon, -however, though he had a low opinion of his capacities, stipulated in -the treaty of Campo Formio (1797) for La Fayette's release. He was not -allowed to return to France by the Directory. He returned in 1799; in -1802 voted against the life consulate of Napoleon; and in 1804 he voted -against the imperial title. He lived in retirement during the First -Empire, but returned to public affairs under the First Restoration and -took some part in the political events of the Hundred Days. From 1818 to -1824 he was deputy for the Sarthe, speaking and voting always on the -Liberal side, and even becoming a _carbonaro_. He then revisited America -(July 1824-September 1825) where he was overwhelmed with popular -applause and voted the sum of $200,000 and a township of land. From 1825 -to his death he sat in the Chamber of Deputies for Meaux. During the -revolution of 1830 he again took command of the National Guard and -pursued the same line of conduct, with equal want of success, as in the -first revolution. In 1834 he made his last speech--on behalf of Polish -political refugees. He died at Paris on the 20th of May 1834. In 1876 in -the city of New York a monument was erected to him, and in 1883 another -was erected at Puy. - -Few men have owed more of their success and usefulness to their family -rank than La Fayette, and still fewer have abused it less. He never -achieved distinction in the field, and his political career proved him -to be incapable of ruling a great national movement; but he had strong -convictions which always impelled him to study the interests of -humanity, and a pertinacity in maintaining them, which, in all the -strange vicissitudes of his eventful life, secured him a very unusual -measure of public respect. No citizen of a foreign country has ever had -so many and such warm admirers in America, nor does any statesman in -France appear to have ever possessed uninterruptedly for so many years -so large a measure of popular influence and respect. He had what -Jefferson called a "canine appetite" for popularity and fame, but in him -the appetite only seemed to make him more anxious to merit the fame -which he enjoyed. He was brave to rashness; and he never shrank from -danger or responsibility if he saw the way open to spare life or -suffering, to protect the defenceless, to sustain the law and preserve -order. - -His son, GEORGES WASHINGTON MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1779-1849), entered -the army and was aide-de-camp to General Grouchy through the Austrian, -Prussian and Polish (1805-07) campaigns. Napoleon's distrust of his -father rendering promotion improbable, Georges de La Fayette retired -into private life in 1807 until the Restoration, when he entered the -Chamber of Representatives and voted consistently on the Liberal side. -He was away from Paris during the revolution of July 1830, but he took -an active part in the "campaign of the banquets," which led up to that -of 1848. He died in December of the next year. His son, OSCAR THOMAS -GILBERT MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1815-1881), was educated at the Ecole -Polytechnique, and served as an artillery officer in Algeria. He entered -the Chamber of Representatives in 1846 and voted, like his father, with -the extreme Left. After the revolution of 1848 he received a post in the -provisional government, and as a member of the Constituent Assembly he -became secretary of the war committee. After the dissolution of the -Legislative Assembly in 1851, he retired from public life, but emerged -on the establishment of the third republic, becoming a life senator in -1875. His brother EDMOND MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1818-1890) shared his -political opinions. He was one of the secretaries of the Constituent -Assembly, and a member of the senate from 1876 to 1888. - - See _Memoires historiques et pieces authentiques sur M. de La Fayette - pour servir a l'histoire des revolutions_ (Paris, An II., 1793-1794); - B. Sarrans, _La Fayette et la Revolution de 1830, histoire des choses - et des hommes de Juillet_ (Paris, 1834); _Memoires, correspondances et - manuscrits de La Fayette_, published by his family (6 vols., Paris, - 1837-1838); Regnault Warin, _Memoires pour servir a la vie du general - La Fayette_ (Paris, 1824); A. Bardoux, _La jeunesse de La Fayette_ - (Paris, 1892); _Les Dernieres annees de La Fayette_ (Paris, 1893); E. - Charavaray, _Le General La Fayette_ (Paris, 1895); A. Levasseur, _La - Fayette en Amerique_ 1824 (Paris, 1829); J. Cloquet, _Souvenirs de la - vie privee du general La Fayette_ (Paris, 1836); Max Budinger, _La - Fayette in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1898); and M. M. Crawford, _The Wife - of Lafayette_ (1908); Bayard Tuckerman, _Life of Lafayette_ (New York, - 1889); Charlemagne Tower, _The Marquis de La Fayette in the American - Revolution_ (Philadelphia, 1895). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The family of La Fayette, to the cadet branch of which he - belonged, received its name from an estate in Aix, Auvergne, which - belonged in the 13th century to the Motier family. - - - - -LA FAYETTE, MARIE-MADELEINE PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE, COMTESSE DE -(1634-1692), French novelist, was baptized in Paris, on the 18th of -March 1634. Her father, Marc Pioche de la Vergne, commandant of Havre, -died when she was sixteen, and her mother seems to have been more -occupied with her own than her daughter's interests. Mme de la Vergne -married in 1651 the chevalier de Sevigne, and Marie thus became -connected with Mme de Sevigne, who was destined to be a lifelong friend. -She studied Greek, Latin and Italian, and inspired in one of her tutors, -Gilles de Menage, an enthusiastic admiration which he expressed in verse -in three or four languages. Marie married in 1655 Francois Motier, comte -de La Fayette. They lived on the count's estates in Auvergne, according -to her own account (in a letter to Menage) quite happily; but after the -birth of her two sons her husband disappeared so effectually that it was -long supposed that he died about 1660, though he really lived until -1683. Mme de La Fayette had returned to Paris, and about 1665 contracted -an intimacy with the duc de la Rochefoucauld, then engaged on his -_Maximes_. The constancy and affection that marked this liaison on both -sides justified it in the eyes of society, and when in 1680 La -Rochefoucauld died Mme de La Fayette received the sincerest sympathy. -Her first novel, _La Princesse de Montpensier_, was published -anonymously in 1662; _Zayde_ appeared in 1670 under the name of J. R. de -Segrais; and in 1678 her masterpiece, _La Princesse de Cleves_, also -under the name of Segrais. The history of the modern novel of sentiment -begins with the _Princesse de Cleves_. The interminable pages of Mlle de -Scudery with the _Precieuses_ and their admirers masquerading as -Persians or ancient Romans had already been discredited by the -burlesques of Paul Scarron and Antoine Furetiere. It remained for Mme de -La Fayette to achieve the more difficult task of substituting something -more satisfactory than the disconnected episodes of the _roman comique_. -This she accomplished in a story offering in its shortness and -simplicity a complete contrast to the extravagant and lengthy romances -of the time. The interest of the story depends not on incident but on -the characters of the personages. They act in a perfectly reasonable way -and their motives are analysed with the finest discrimination. No doubt -the semi-autobiographical character of the material partially explains -Mme de La Fayette's refusal to acknowledge the book. Contemporary -critics, even Mme de Sevigne amongst them, found fault with the avowal -made by Mme de Cleves to her husband. In answer to these criticisms, -which her anonymity prevented her from answering directly, Mme de La -Fayette wrote her last novel, the _Comtesse de Tende_. - -The character of her work and her history have combined to give an -impression of melancholy and sweetness that only represents one side of -her character, for a correspondence brought to light comparatively -recently showed her as the acute diplomatic agent of Jeanne de Nemours, -duchess of Savoy, at the court of Louis XIV. She had from her early days -also been intimate with Henrietta of England, duchess of Orleans, under -whose immediate direction she wrote her _Histoire de Madame Henriette -d'Angleterre_, which only appeared in 1720. She wrote memoirs of the -reign of Louis XIV., which, with the exception of two chapters, for the -years 1688 and 1689 (published at Amsterdam, 1731), were lost through -her son's carelessness. Madame de La Fayette died on the 25th of May -1692. - - See Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits de femmes_; the comte d'Haussonville, - _Madame de La Fayette_ (1891), in the series of _Grands ecrivains - francais_; M. de Lescure's notice prefixed to an edition of the - _Princesse de Cleves_ (1881); and a critical edition of the historical - memoirs by Eugene Asse (1890). See also L. Rea, _Marie Madeleine, - comtesse de La Fayette_ (1908). - - - - -LAFAYETTE, a city and the county-seat of Tippecanoe county, Indiana, -U.S.A., situated at the former head of navigation on the Wabash river, -about 64 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1900) 18,116, of whom 2266 were -foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,081. It is served by the Chicago, -Indianapolis & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St -Louis, the Lake Erie & Western, and the Wabash railways, and by the -Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern (electric), and the Fort Wayne & -Wabash Valley (electric) railways. The river is not now navigable at -this point. Lafayette is in the valley of the Wabash river, which is -sunk below the normal level of the plain, the surrounding heights being -the walls of the Wabash basin. The city has an excellent system of -public schools, a good public library, two hospitals, the Wabash Valley -Sanitarium (Seventh Day Adventist), St Anthony's Home for old people and -two orphan asylums. It is the seat of Purdue University, a -co-educational, technical and agricultural institution, opened in 1874 -and named in honour of John Purdue (1802-1876), who gave it $150,000. -This university is under state control, and received the proceeds of the -Federal agricultural college grant of 1862 and of the second Morrill Act -of 1890; in connexion with it there is an agricultural experiment -station. It had in 1908-1909 180 instructors, 1900 students, and a -library of 25,000 volumes and pamphlets. Just outside the city is the -State Soldiers' Home, where provision is also made for the wives and -widows of soldiers; in 1908 it contained 553 men and 700 women. The city -lies in the heart of a rich agricultural region, and is an important -market for grain, produce and horses. Among its manufactures are beer, -foundry and machine shop products (the Chicago, Indianapolis & -Louisville railway has shops here), straw board, telephone apparatus, -paper, wagons, packed meats, canned goods, flour and carpets; the value -of the factory product increased from $3,514,276 in 1900 to $4,631,415 -in 1905, or 31.8%. The municipality owns its water works. - -Lafayette is about 5 m. N.E. of the site of the ancient Wea (Miami) -Indian village known as Ouiatanon, where the French established a post -about 1720. The French garrison gave way to the English about 1760; the -stockade fort was destroyed during the conspiracy of Pontiac, and was -never rebuilt. The headquarters of Tecumseh and his brother, the -"Prophet," were established 7 m. N. of Lafayette near the mouth of the -Tippecanoe river, and the settlement there was known as the "Prophet's -Town." Near this place, and near the site of the present village of -Battle Ground (where the Indiana Methodists now have a summer encampment -and a camp meeting in August), was fought on the 7th of November 1811 -the battle of Tippecanoe, in which the Indians were decisively defeated -by Governor William Henry Harrison, the whites losing 188 in killed and -wounded and the Indians about an equal number. The battle ground is -owned by the state; in 1907 the state legislature and the United States -Congress each appropriated $12,500 for a monument, which took the form -of a granite shaft 90 ft. high. The first American settlers on the site -of Lafayette appeared about 1820, and the town was laid out in 1825, but -for many years its growth was slow. The completion of the Wabash and -Erie canal marked a new era in its development, and in 1854 Lafayette -was incorporated. - - - - -LA FERTE, the name of a number of localities in France, differentiated -by agnomens. La Ferte Imbault (department of Loir-et-Cher) was in the -possession of Jacques d'Etampes (1590-1668), marshal of France and -ambassador in England, who was known as the marquis of La Ferte -Imbault. La Ferte Nabert (the modern La Ferte Saint Aubin, department of -Loiret) was acquired in the 16th century by the house of Saint Nectaire -(corrupted to Senneterre), and erected into a duchy in the peerage of -France (_duche-pairie_) in 1665 for Henri de Saint Nectaire, marshal of -France. It was called La Ferte Lowendal after it had been acquired by -Marshal Lowendal in 1748. - - - - -LA FERTE-BERNARD, a town of western France, in the department of Sarthe, -on the Huisne, 27 m. N.E. of Le Mans, on the railway from Paris to that -town. Pop. (1906) 4358. La Ferte carries on cloth manufacture and -flour-milling and has trade in horses and cattle. Its church of Notre -Dame has a choir (16th century) with graceful apse-chapels of -Renaissance architecture and remarkable windows of the same period; the -remainder of the church is in the Flamboyant Gothic style. The town hall -occupies the superstructure and flanking towers of a fortified gateway -of the 15th century. - -La Ferte-Bernard owes its origin and name to a stronghold (_fermete_) -built about the 11th century and afterwards held by the family of -Bernard. In 1424 it did not succumb to the English troops till after a -four months' siege. It belonged in the 16th century to the family of -Guise and supported the League, but was captured by the royal forces in -1590. - - - - -LA FERTE-MILON, a town of northern France in the department of Aisne on -the Ourcq, 47 m. W. by S. of Reims by rail. Pop. (1906) 1563. The town -has imposing remains comprising one side flanked by four towers of an -unfinished castle built about the beginning of the 15th century by Louis -of Orleans, brother of Charles VI. The churches of St Nicholas and -Notre-Dame, chiefly of the 16th century, both contain fine old stained -glass. Jean Racine, the poet, was born in the town, and a statue by -David d'Augers has been erected to him. - - - - -LAFFITTE, JACQUES (1767-1844), French banker and politician, was born at -Bayonne on the 24th of October 1767, one of the ten children of a -carpenter. He became clerk in the banking house of Perregaux in Paris, -was made a partner in the business in 1800, and in 1804 succeeded -Perregaux as head of the firm. The house of Perregaux, Laffitte et Cie. -became one of the greatest in Europe, and Laffitte became regent (1809), -then governor (1814) of the Bank of France and president of the Chamber -of Commerce (1814). He raised large sums of money for the provisional -government in 1814 and for Louis XVIII. during the Hundred Days, and it -was with him that Napoleon deposited five million francs in gold before -leaving France for the last time. Rather than permit the government to -appropriate the money from the Bank he supplied two million from his own -pocket for the arrears of the imperial troops after Waterloo. He was -returned by the department of the Seine to the Chamber of Deputies in -1816, and took his seat on the Left. He spoke chiefly on financial -questions; his known Liberal views did not prevent Louis XVIII. from -insisting on his inclusion on the commission on the public finances. In -1818 he saved Paris from a financial crisis by buying a large amount of -stock, but next year, in consequence of his heated defence of the -liberty of the press and the electoral law of 1867, the governorship of -the Bank was taken from him. One of the earliest and most determined of -the partisans of a constitutional monarchy under the duke of Orleans, he -was deputy for Bayonne in July 1830, when his house in Paris became the -headquarters of the revolutionary party. When Charles X., after -retracting the hated ordinances, sent the comte d'Argout[1] to Laffitte -to negotiate a change of ministry, the banker replied, "It is too late. -There is no longer a Charles X.," and it was he who secured the -nomination of Louis Philippe as lieutenant-general of the kingdom. On -the 3rd of August he became president of the Chamber of Deputies, and on -the 9th he received in this capacity Louis Philippe's oath to the new -constitution. The clamour of the Paris mob for the death of the -imprisoned ministers of Charles X., which in October culminated in -riots, induced the more moderate members of the government--including -Guizot, the duc de Broglie and Casimir-Perier--to hand over the -administration to a ministry which, possessing the confidence of the -revolutionary Parisians, should be in a better position to save the -ministers from their fury. On the 5th of November, accordingly, Laffitte -became minister-president of a government pledged to progress -(_mouvement_), holding at the same time the portfolio of finance. The -government was torn between the necessity for preserving order and the -no less pressing necessity (for the moment) of conciliating the Parisian -populace; with the result that it succeeded in doing neither one nor the -other. The impeached ministers were, indeed, saved by the courage of the -Chamber of Peers and the attitude of the National Guard; but their -safety was bought at the price of Laffitte's popularity. His policy of a -French intervention in favour of the Italian revolutionists, by which he -might have regained his popularity, was thwarted by the diplomatic -policy of Louis Philippe. The resignation of Lafayette and Dupont de -l'Eure still further undermined the government, which, incapable even of -keeping order in the streets of Paris, ended by being discredited with -all parties. At length Louis Philippe, anxious to free himself from the -hampering control of the agents of his fortune, thought it safe to -parade his want of confidence in the man who had made him king. -Thereupon, in March 1831, Laffitte resigned, begging pardon of God and -man for the part he had played in raising Louis Philippe to the throne. -He left office politically and financially a ruined man. His affairs -were wound up in 1836, and next year he created a credit bank, which -prospered as long as he lived, but failed in 1848. He died in Paris on -the 26th of May 1844. - - See P. Thureau-Dangin, _La Monarchie de Juillet_ (vol. i. 1884). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Apollinaire Antoine Maurice, comte d'Argout (1782-1858), - afterwards reconciled to the July monarchy, and a member of the - Laffitte Casimir-Perier and Thiers cabinets. - - - - -LAFFITTE, PIERRE (1823-1903), French Positivist, was born on the 21st of -February 1823 at Beguey (Gironde). Residing at Paris as a teacher of -mathematics, he became a disciple of Comte, who appointed him his -literary executor. On the schism of the Positivist body which followed -Comte's death, he was recognized as head of the section which accepted -the full Comtian doctrine; the other section adhering to Littre, who -rejected the religion of humanity as inconsistent with the materialism -of Comte's earlier period. From 1853 Laffitte delivered Positivist -lectures in the room formerly occupied by Comte in the rue Monsieur le -Prince. He published _Les Grands Types de l'humanite_ (1875) and _Cours -de philosophie premiere_ (1889). In 1893 he was appointed to the new -chair founded at the College de France for the exposition of the general -history of science, and it was largely due to his inspiration that a -statue to Comte was erected in the Place de la Sorbonne in 1902. He died -on the 4th of January 1903. - - - - -LA FLECHE, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the -department of Sarthe on the Loire, 31 m. S.S.W. of Le Mans by rail. Pop. -(1906) town 7800; commune 10,663. The chief interest of the town lies in -the Prytanee, a famous school for the sons of officers, originally a -college founded for the Jesuits in 1607 by Henry IV. The buildings, -including a fine chapel, were erected from 1620 to 1653 and are -surrounded by a park. A bronze statue of Henry IV. stands in the -marketplace. La Fleche is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of -first instance, and carries on tanning, flour-milling, and the -manufacture of paper, starch, wooden shoes and gloves. It is an -agricultural market. - -The lords of La Fleche became counts of Maine about 1100, but the -lordship became separate from the county and passed in the 16th century -to the family of Bourbon and thus to Henry IV. - - - - -LAFONT, PIERRE CHERI (1797-1873), French actor, was born at Bordeaux on -the 15th of May 1797. Abandoning his profession as assistant ship's -doctor in the navy, he went to Paris to study singing and acting. He had -some experience at a small theatre, and was preparing to appear at the -Opera Comique when the director of the Vaudeville offered him an -engagement. Here he made his _debut_ in 1821 in _La Somnambule_, and his -good looks and excellent voice soon brought him into public favour. -After several years at the Nouveautes and the Vaudeville, on the burning -of the latter in 1838 he went to England, and married, at Gretna Green, -Jenny Colon, from whom he was soon divorced. On his return to Paris he -joined the Varietes, where he acted for fifteen years in such plays as -_Le Chevalier de Saint Georges_, _Le Lion empaille_, _Une derniere -conquete_, &c. Another engagement at the Vaudeville followed, and one at -the Gaiete, and he ended his brilliant career at the Gymnase in the part -of the noble father in such plays as Les _Vieux Garcons_ and _Nos bons -villageois_. He died in Paris on the 19th of April 1873. - - - - -LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE (1621-1695), French poet, was born at Chateau -Thierry in Champagne, probably on the 8th of July 1621. His father was -Charles de La Fontaine, "maitre des eaux et forets"--a kind of -deputy-ranger--of the duchy of Chateau Thierry; his mother was Francoise -Pidoux. On both sides his family was of the highest provincial middle -class, but was not noble; his father was also fairly wealthy. Jean, the -eldest child, was educated at the _college_ (grammar-school) of Reims, -and at the end of his school days he entered the Oratory in May 1641, -and the seminary of Saint-Magloire in October of the same year; but a -very short sojourn proved to him that he had mistaken his vocation. He -then apparently studied law, and is said to have been admitted as -_avocat_, though there does not seem to be actual proof of this. He was, -however, settled in life, or at least might have been so, somewhat -early. In 1647 his father resigned his rangership in his favour, and -arranged a marriage for him with Marie Hericart, a girl of sixteen, who -brought him twenty thousand livres, and expectations. She seems to have -been both handsome and intelligent, but the two did not get on well -together. There appears to be absolutely no ground for the vague scandal -as to her conduct, which was, for the most part long afterwards, raised -by gossips or personal enemies of La Fontaine. All that is positively -said against her is that she was a negligent housewife and an inveterate -novel reader; La Fontaine himself was constantly away from home, was -certainly not strict in point of conjugal fidelity, and was so bad a man -of business that his affairs became involved in hopeless difficulty, and -a _separation de biens_ had to take place in 1658. This was a perfectly -amicable transaction for the benefit of the family; by degrees, however, -the pair, still without any actual quarrel, ceased to live together, and -for the greater part of the last forty years of La Fontaine's life he -lived in Paris while his wife dwelt at Chateau Thierry, which, however, -he frequently visited. One son was born to them in 1653, and was -educated and taken care of wholly by his mother. - -Even in the earlier years of his marriage La Fontaine seems to have been -much at Paris, but it was not till about 1656 that he became a regular -visitor to the capital. The duties of his office, which were only -occasional, were compatible with this non-residence. It was not till he -was past thirty that his literary career began. The reading of Malherbe, -it is said, first awoke poetical fancies in him, but for some time he -attempted nothing but trifles in the fashion of the time--epigrams, -ballades, rondeaux, &c. His first serious work was a translation or -adaptation of the _Eunuchus of Terence_ (1654). At this time the -Maecenas of French letters was the Superintendant Fouquet, to whom La -Fontaine was introduced by Jacques Jannart, a connexion of his wife's. -Few people who paid their court to Fouquet went away empty-handed, and -La Fontaine soon received a pension of 1000 livres (1659), on the easy -terms of a copy of verses for each quarter's receipt. He began too a -medley of prose and poetry, entitled _Le Songe de Vaux_, on Fouquet's -famous country house. It was about this time that his wife's property -had to be separately secured to her, and he seems by degrees to have had -to sell everything of his own; but, as he never lacked powerful and -generous patrons, this was of small importance to him. In the same year -he wrote a ballad, _Les Rieurs du Beau-Richard_, and this was followed -by many small pieces of occasional poetry addressed to various -personages from the king downwards. Fouquet soon incurred the royal -displeasure, but La Fontaine, like most of his literary proteges, was -not unfaithful to him, the well-known elegy _Pleurez, nymphes de Vaux_, -being by no means the only proof of his devotion. Indeed it is thought -not improbable that a journey to Limoges in 1663 in company with -Jannart, and of which we have an account written to his wife, was not -wholly spontaneous, as it certainly was not on Jannart's part. Just at -this time his affairs did not look promising. His father and himself had -assumed the title of esquire, to which they were not strictly entitled, -and, some old edicts on the subject having been put in force, an -informer procured a sentence against the poet fining him 2000 livres. He -found, however, a new protector in the duke and still more in the -duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors at Chateau Thierry, and -nothing more is heard of the fine. Some of La Fontaine's liveliest -verses are addressed to the duchess, Anne Mancini, the youngest of -Mazarin's nieces, and it is even probable that the taste of the duke and -duchess for Ariosto had something to do with the writing of his first -work of real importance, the first book of the _Contes_, which appeared -in 1664. He was then forty-three years old, and his previous printed -productions had been comparatively trivial, though much of his work was -handed about in manuscript long before it was regularly published. It -was about this time that the quartette of the Rue du Vieux Colombier, so -famous in French literary history, was formed. It consisted of La -Fontaine, Racine, Boileau and Moliere, the last of whom was almost of -the same age as La Fontaine, the other two considerably younger. -Chapelle was also a kind of outsider in the coterie. There are many -anecdotes, some pretty obviously apocryphal, about these meetings. The -most characteristic is perhaps that which asserts that a copy of -Chapelain's unlucky _Pucelle_ always lay on the table, a certain number -of lines of which was the appointed punishment for offences against the -company. The coterie furnished under feigned names the personages of La -Fontaine's version of the Cupid and Psyche story, which, however, with -_Adonis_, was not printed till 1669. Meanwhile the poet continued to -find friends. In 1664 he was regularly commissioned and sworn in as -gentleman to the duchess dowager of Orleans, and was installed in the -Luxembourg. He still retained his rangership, and in 1666 we have -something like a reprimand from Colbert suggesting that he should look -into some malpractices at Chateau Thierry. In the same year appeared the -second book of the _Contes_, and in 1668 the first six books of the -_Fables_, with more of both kinds in 1671. In this latter year a curious -instance of the docility with which the poet lent himself to any -influence was afforded by his officiating, at the instance of the -Port-Royalists, as editor of a volume of sacred poetry dedicated to the -prince de Conti. A year afterwards his situation, which had for some -time been decidedly flourishing, showed signs of changing very much for -the worse. The duchess of Orleans died, and he apparently had to give up -his rangership, probably selling it to pay debts. But there was always a -providence for La Fontaine. Madame de la Sabliere, a woman of great -beauty, of considerable intellectual power and of high character, -invited him to make his home in her house, where he lived for some -twenty years. He seems to have had no trouble whatever about his affairs -thenceforward; and could devote himself to his two different lines of -poetry, as well as to that of theatrical composition. - -In 1682 he was, at more than sixty years of age, recognized as one of -the first men of letters of France. Madame de Sevigne, one of the -soundest literary critics of the time, and by no means given to praise -mere novelties, had spoken of his second collection of _Fables_ -published in the winter of 1678 as divine; and it is pretty certain that -this was the general opinion. It was not unreasonable, therefore, that -he should present himself to the Academy, and, though the subjects of -his _Contes_ were scarcely calculated to propitiate that decorous -assembly, while his attachment to Fouquet and to more than one -representative of the old Frondeur party made him suspect to Colbert and -the king, most of the members were his personal friends. He was first -proposed in 1682, but was rejected for Dangeau. The next year Colbert -died and La Fontaine was again nominated. Boileau was also a candidate, -but the first ballot gave the fabulist sixteen votes against seven only -for the critic. The king, whose assent was necessary, not merely for -election but for a second ballot in case of the failure of an absolute -majority, was ill-pleased, and the election was left pending. Another -vacancy occurred, however, some months later, and to this Boileau was -elected. The king hastened to approve the choice effusively, adding, -"Vous pouvez incessamment recevoir La Fontaine, il a promis d'etre -sage." His admission was indirectly the cause of the only serious -literary quarrel of his life. A dispute took place between the Academy -and one of its members, Antoine Furetiere, on the subject of the -latter's French dictionary, which was decided to be a breach of the -Academy's corporate privileges. Furetiere, a man of no small ability, -bitterly assailed those whom he considered to be his enemies, and among -them La Fontaine, whose unlucky _Contes_ made him peculiarly vulnerable, -his second collection of these tales having been the subject of a police -condemnation. The death of the author of the _Roman Bourgeois_, however, -put an end to this quarrel. Shortly afterwards La Fontaine had a share -in a still more famous affair, the celebrated Ancient-and-Modern -squabble in which Boileau and Perrault were the chiefs, and in which La -Fontaine (though he had been specially singled out by Perrault for -favourable comparison with Aesop and Phaedrus) took the Ancient side. -About the same time (1685-1687) he made the acquaintance of the last of -his many hosts and protectors, Monsieur and Madame d'Hervart, and fell -in love with a certain Madame Ulrich, a lady of some position but of -doubtful character. This acquaintance was accompanied by a great -familiarity with Vendome, Chaulieu and the rest of the libertine coterie -of the Temple; but, though Madame de la Sabliere had long given herself -up almost entirely to good works and religious exercises, La Fontaine -continued an inmate of her house until her death in 1693. What followed -is told in one of the best known of the many stories bearing on his -childlike nature. Hervart on hearing of the death, had set out at once -to find La Fontaine. He met him in the street in great sorrow, and -begged him to make his home at his house. "J'y allais" was La Fontaine's -answer. He had already undergone the process of conversion during a -severe illness the year before. An energetic young priest, M. Poucet, -had brought him, not indeed to understand, but to acknowledge the -impropriety of the _Contes_, and it is said that the destruction of a -new play of some merit was demanded and submitted to as a proof of -repentance. A pleasant story is told of the young duke of Burgundy, -Fenelon's pupil, who was then only eleven years old, sending 50 louis to -La Fontaine as a present of his own motion. But, though La Fontaine -recovered for the time, he was broken by age and infirmity, and his new -hosts had to nurse rather than to entertain him, which they did very -carefully and kindly. He did a little more work, completing his _Fables_ -among other things; but he did not survive Madame de la Sabliere much -more than two years, dying on the 13th of April 1695, at the age of -seventy-three. He was buried in the cemetery of the Holy Innocents. His -wife survived him nearly fifteen years. - -The curious personal character of La Fontaine, like that of some other -men of letters, has been enshrined in a kind of legend by literary -tradition. At an early age his absence of mind and indifference to -business gave a subject to Tallemant des Reaux. His later contemporaries -helped to swell the tale, and the 18th century finally accepted it, -including the anecdotes of his meeting his son, being told who he was, -and remarking, "Ah, yes, I thought I had seen him somewhere!" of his -insisting on fighting a duel with a supposed admirer of his wife, and -then imploring him to visit at his house just as before; of his going -into company with his stockings wrong side out, &c., with, for a -contrast, those of his awkwardness and silence, if not positive -rudeness, in company. It ought to be remembered, as a comment on the -unfavourable description by La Bruyere, that La Fontaine was a special -friend and ally of Benserade, La Bruyere's chief literary enemy. But -after all deductions much will remain, especially when it is remembered -that one of the chief authorities for these anecdotes is Louis Racine, a -man who possessed intelligence and moral worth, and who received them -from his father, La Fontaine's attached friend for more than thirty -years. Perhaps the best worth recording of all these stories is one of -the Vieux Colombier quartette, which tells how Moliere, while Racine and -Boileau were exercising their wits upon "le bonhomme" or "le bon" (by -both which titles La Fontaine was familiarly known), remarked to a -bystander, "Nos beaux esprits ont beau faire, ils n'effaceront pas le -bonhomme." They have not. - - The works of La Fontaine, the total bulk of which is considerable, - fall no less naturally than traditionally into three divisions, the - _Fables_, the _Contes_ and the miscellaneous works. Of these the first - may be said to be known universally, the second to be known to all - lovers of French literature, the third to be with a few exceptions - practically forgotten. This distribution of the judgment of posterity - is as usual just in the main, but not wholly. There are excellent - things in the _Oeuvres Diverses_, but their excellence is only - occasional, and it is not at the best equal to that of the _Fables_ or - the _Contes_. It was thought by contemporary judges who were both - competent and friendly that La Fontaine attempted too many styles, and - there is something in the criticism. His dramatic efforts are - especially weak. The best pieces usually published under his - name--_Ragotin_, _Le Florentin_, _La Coupe enchantee_, were originally - fathered not by him but by Champmesle, the husband of the famous - actress who captivated Racine and Charles de Sevigne. His avowed work - was chiefly in the form of opera, a form of no great value at its - best. _Psyche_ has all the advantages of its charming story and of La - Fontaine's style, but it is perhaps principally interesting nowadays - because of the framework of personal conversation already alluded to. - The mingled prose and verse of the _Songe de Vaux_ is not - uninteresting, but its best things, such as the description of night-- - - "Laissant tomber les fleurs et ne les semant pas," - - which has enchanted French critics, are little more than conceits, - though as in this case sometimes very beautiful conceits. The elegies, - the epistles, the epigrams, the ballades, contain many things which - would be very creditable to a minor poet or a writer of vers de - societe, but even if they be taken according to the wise rule of - modern criticism, each in its kind, and judged simply according to - their rank in that kind, they fall far below the merits of the two - great collections of verse narratives which have assured La Fontaine's - immortality. - - Between the actual literary merits of the two there is not much to - choose, but the change of manners and the altered standard of literary - decency have thrown the _Contes_ into the shade. These tales are - identical in general character with those which amused Europe from the - days of the early _fabliau_ writers. Light love, the misfortunes of - husbands, the cunning of wives, the breach of their vows by - ecclesiastics, constitute the staple of their subject. In some - respects La Fontaine is the best of such tale-tellers, while he is - certainly the latest who deserves such excuse as may be claimed by a - writer who does not choose indecent subjects from a deliberate - knowledge that they are considered indecent, and with a deliberate - desire to pander to a vicious taste. No one who followed him in the - style can claim this excuse; he can, and the way in which - contemporaries of stainless virtue such as Madame de Sevigne speak of - his work shows that, though the new public opinion was growing up, it - was not finally accepted. In the _Contes_ La Fontaine for the most - part attempts little originality of theme. He takes his stories - (varying them, it is true, in detail not a little) from Boccaccio, - from Marguerite, from the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_, &c. He applies - to them his marvellous power of easy sparkling narration, and his - hardly less marvellous faculty of saying more or less outrageous - things in the most polite and gentlemanly manner. These _Contes_ have - indeed certain drawbacks. They are not penetrated by the half pagan - ardour for physical beauty and the delights of sense which animates - and excuses the early Italian Renaissance. They have not the subtle - mixture of passion and sensuality, of poetry and appetite, which - distinguishes the work of Marguerite and of the Pleiade. They are - emphatically _contes pour rire_, a genuine expression of the _esprit - gaulois_ of the fabliau writers and of Rabelais, destitute of the - grossness of envelope which had formerly covered that spirit. A - comparison of "La Fiancee du roi de Garbe" with its original in - Boccaccio (especially if the reader takes M. Emile Montegut's - admirable essay as a commentary) will illustrate better than anything - else what they have and what they have not. Some writers have pleaded - hard for the admission of actual passion of the poetical sort in such - pieces as "La Courtisane amoureuse," but as a whole it must be - admitted to be absent. - - The _Fables_, with hardly less animation and narrative art than the - _Contes_, are free from disadvantages (according to modern notions) of - subject, and exhibit the versatility and fecundity of the author's - talent perhaps even more fully. La Fontaine had many predecessors in - the fable and especially in the beast fable. In his first issue, - comprising what are now called the first six books, he adhered to the - path of these predecessors with some closeness; but in the later - collections he allowed himself far more liberty, and it is in these - parts that his genius is most fully manifested. The boldness of the - politics is as much to be considered as the ingenuity of the - moralizing, as the intimate knowledge of human nature displayed in the - substance of the narratives, or as the artistic mastery shown in - their form. It has sometimes been objected that the view of human - character which La Fontaine expresses is unduly dark, and resembles - too much that of La Rochefoucauld, for whom the poet certainly had a - profound admiration. The discussion of this point would lead us too - far here. It may only be said that satire (and La Fontaine is - eminently a satirist) necessarily concerns itself with the darker - rather than with the lighter shades. Indeed the objection has become - pretty nearly obsolete with the obsolescence of what may be called the - sentimental-ethicalschool of criticism. Its last overt expression was - made by Lamartine, excellently answered by Sainte-Beuve. Exception has - also been taken to the _Fables_ on more purely literary, but hardly - less purely arbitrary grounds by Lessing. Perhaps the best criticism - ever passed upon La Fontaine's _Fables_ is that of Silvestre de Sacy, - to the effect that they supply three several delights to three several - ages: the child rejoices in the freshness and vividness of the story, - the eager student of literature in the consummate art with which it is - told, the experienced man of the world in the subtle reflections on - character and life which it conveys. Nor has any one, with the - exception of a few paradoxers like Rousseau and a few sentimentalists - like Lamartine, denied that the moral tone of the whole is as fresh - and healthy as its literary interest is vivid. The book has therefore - naturally become the standard reading book of French both at home and - abroad, a position which it shares in verse with the _Telemaque_ of - Fenelon in prose. It is no small testimony to its merit that not even - this use or misuse has interfered with its popularity. - - The general literary character of La Fontaine is, with allowance made - for the difference of subject, visible equally in the _Fables_ and in - the _Contes_. Perhaps one of the hardest sayings in French literature - for an English student is the dictum of Joubert to the effect that - "_Il y a dans La Fontaine une plenitude de poesie qu'on ne trouve - nulle part dans les autres auteurs francais._" The difficulty arises - from the ambiguity of the terms. For inventiveness of fancy and for - diligent observation of the rules of art La Fontaine deserves, if not - the first, almost the first place among French poets. In his hands the - oldest story becomes novel, the most hackneyed moral piquant, the most - commonplace details fresh and appropriate. As to the second point - there has not been such unanimous agreement. It used to be considered - that La Fontaine's ceaseless diversity of metre, his archaisms, his - licences in rhyme and orthography, were merely ingenious devices for - the sake of easy writing, intended to evade the trammels of the - stately couplet and _rimes difficiles_ enjoined by Boileau. Lamartine - in the attack already mentioned affects contempt of the "vers boiteux, - disloques, inegaux, sans symmetrie ni dans l'oreille ni sur la page." - This opinion may be said to have been finally exploded by the most - accurate metrical critic and one of the most skilful metrical - practitioners that France has ever had, Theodore de Banville; and it - is only surprising that it should ever have been entertained by any - professional maker of verse. La Fontaine's irregularities are strictly - regulated, his cadences carefully arranged, and the whole effect may - be said to be (though, of course, in a light and tripping measure - instead of a stately one) similar to that of the stanzas of the - English pindaric ode in the hands of Dryden or Collins. There is - therefore nothing against La Fontaine on the score of invention and - nothing on the score of art. But something more, at least according to - English standards, is wanted to make up a "plenitude of poesy," and - this something more La Fontaine seldom or never exhibits. In words - used by Joubert himself elsewhere, he never "transports." The faculty - of transporting is possessed and used in very different manners by - different poets. In some it takes the form of passion, in some of half - mystical enthusiasm for nature, in some of commanding eloquence, in - some of moral fervour. La Fontaine has none of these things: he is - always amusing, always sensible, always clever, sometimes even - affecting, but at the same time always more or less prosaic, were it - not for his admirable versification. He is not a great poet, perhaps - not even a great humorist; but he is the most admirable teller of - light tales in verse that has ever existed in any time or country; and - he has established in his verse-tale a model which is never likely to - be surpassed. - - La Fontaine did not during his life issue any complete edition of his - works, nor even of the two greatest and most important divisions of - them. The most remarkable of his separate publications have already - been noticed. Others were the _Poeme de la captivite de St Malc_ - (1673), one of the pieces inspired by the Port-Royalists, the _Poeme - du Quinquina_ (1692), a piece of task work also, though of a very - different kind, and a number of pieces published either in small - pamphlets or with the works of other men. Among the latter may be - singled out the pieces published by the poet with the works of his - friend Maucroix (1685). The year after his death some posthumous works - appeared, and some years after his son's death the scattered poems, - letters, &c., with the addition of some unpublished work bought from - the family in manuscript, were carefully edited and published as - _Oeuvres diverses_ (1729). During the 18th century two of the most - magnificent illustrated editions ever published of any poet reproduced - the two chief works of La Fontaine. The _Fables_ were illustrated by - Oudry (1755-1759), the _Contes_ by Eisen (1762). This latter under the - title of "Edition des Fermiers-Generaux" fetches a high price. During - the first thirty years of the 19th century Walckenaer, a great student - of French 17th-century classics, published for the house of Didot - three successive editions of La Fontaine, the last (1826-1827) being - perhaps entitled to the rank of the standard edition, as his _Histoire - de la vie et des ouvrages de La Fontaine_ is the standard biography - and bibliography. The later editions of M. Marty-Laveaux in the - _Bibliotheque elzevirienne_, A. Pauly in the _Collection des - classiques francaises_ of M. Lemerre and L. Moland in that of M. - Garnier supply in different forms all that can be wished. The second - is the handsomest, the third, which is complete, perhaps the most - generally useful. Editions, selections, translations, &c., of the - _Fables_, especially for school use, are innumerable; but an - illustrated edition published by the _Librairie des Bibliophiles_ - (1874) deserves to be mentioned as not unworthy of its 18th-century - predecessors. The works of M. Grouchy, _Documents inedits sur La - Fontaine_ (1893); of G. Lafenestre, _Jean de La Fontaine_ (1895); and - of Emile Faguet, _Jean de La Fontaine_ (1900), should be mentioned. - (G. Sa.) - - - - -LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE, BART. (1807-1864), Canadian statesman -and judge, third son of Antoine Menard LaFontaine (1772-1813) and -Marie-J-Fontaine Bienvenue, was born at Boucherville in the province of -Quebec on the 4th of October 1807. LaFontaine was educated at the -College de Montreal under the direction of the Sulpicians, and was -called to the bar of the province of Lower Canada on the 18th of August -1829. He married firstly Adele, daughter of A. Berthelot of Quebec; and, -secondly, Jane, daughter of Charles Morrison, of Berthier, by whom he -had two sons. In 1830 he was elected a member of the House of Assembly -for the county of Terrebonne, and became an ardent supporter of Louis -Joseph Papineau in opposing the administration of the governor-in-chief, -which led to the rebellion of 1837. LaFontaine, however, did not approve -the violent methods of his leader, and after the hostilities at Saint -Denis he presented a petition to Lord Gosford requesting him to summon -the assembly and to adopt measures to stem the revolutionary course of -events in Lower Canada. The rebellion broke out afresh in the autumn of -1838; the constitution of 1791 was suspended; LaFontaine was imprisoned -for a brief period; and Papineau, who favoured annexation by the United -States, was in exile. At this crisis in Lower Canada the French -Canadians turned to LaFontaine as their leader, and under his direction -maintained their opposition to the special council, composed of nominees -of the crown. In 1839 Lord Sydenham, the governor-general, offered the -solicitor generalship to LaFontaine, which he refused; and after the -Union of 1841 LaFontaine was defeated in the county of Terrebonne -through the governor's influence. During the next year he obtained a -seat in the assembly of the province of Canada, and on the death of -Sydenham he was called by Sir Charles Bagot to form an administration -with Robert Baldwin. The ministry resigned in November 1843, as a -protest against the actions of Lord Metcalfe, who had succeeded Bagot. -In 1848 LaFontaine formed a new administration with Baldwin, and -remained in office until 1851, when he retired from public life. It was -during the ministry of LaFontaine-Baldwin that the Amnesty Bill was -passed, which occasioned grave riots in Montreal, personal violence to -Lord Elgin and the destruction of the parliament buildings. After the -death of Sir James Stuart in 1853 LaFontaine was appointed chief justice -of Lower Canada and president of the seigneurial court, which settled -the vexed question of land tenure in Canada; and in 1854 he was created -a baronet. He died at Montreal on the 26th of February 1864. - - LaFontaine was well versed in constitutional history and French law; - he reasoned closely and presented his conclusions with directness. He - was upright in his conduct, sincerely attached to the traditions of - his race, and laboured conscientiously to establish responsible - government in Canada. His principal works are: _L'Analyse de - l'ordonnance du conseil special sur les bureaux d'hypotheques_ - (Montreal, 1842); _Observations sur les questions seigneuriales_ - (Montreal, 1854); see _LaFontaine_, by A. DeCelles (Toronto, 1906). - (A. G. D.) - - - - -LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE (1640-1716), French painter, was born in Paris. He -was one of the most noted and least servile pupils of Le Brun, under -whose direction he shared in the chief of the great decorative works -undertaken in the reign of Louis XIV. Leaving France in 1662, he spent -two years in Rome and three in Venice, and the influence of his -prolonged studies of Veronese is evident in his "Finding of Moses" -(Louvre), and in his "Rape of Proserpine" (Louvre), which he presented -to the Royal Academy as his diploma picture in 1673. He was at once -named assistant professor, and in 1674 the full responsibilities of the -office devolved on him, but his engagements did not prevent his -accepting in 1689 the invitation of Lord Montagu to decorate Montagu -House. He visited London twice, remaining on the second -occasion--together with Rousseau and Monnoyer--more than two years. -William III. vainly strove to detain him in England by the proposal that -he should decorate Hampton Court, for Le Brun was dead, and Mansart -pressed Lafosse to return to Paris to take in hand the cupola of the -Invalides. The decorations of Montagu House are destroyed, those of -Versailles are restored, and the dome of the Invalides (engraved, Picart -and Cochin) is now the only work existing which gives a full measure of -his talent. During his latter years Lafosse executed many other -important decorations in public buildings and private houses, notably in -that of Crozat, under whose roof he died on the 13th of December 1716. - - - - -LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE (1827-1891), German biblical scholar and -orientalist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of November 1827. His real -name was Botticher, Lagarde being his mother's name. At Berlin -(1844-1846) and Halle (1846-1847) he studied theology, philosophy and -oriental languages. In 1852 his studies took him to London and Paris. In -1854 he became a teacher at a Berlin public school, but this did not -interrupt his biblical studies. He edited the _Didascalia apostolorum -syriace_ (1854), and other Syriac texts collected in the British Museum -and in Paris. In 1866 he received three years' leave of absence to -collect fresh materials, and in 1869 succeeded Heinrich Ewald as -professor of oriental languages at Gottingen. Like Ewald, Lagarde was an -active worker in a variety of subjects and languages; but his chief aim, -the elucidation of the Bible, was almost always kept in view. He edited -the Aramaic translation (known as the Targum) of the Prophets according -to the Codex Reuchlinianus preserved at Carlsruhe, _Prophetae chaldaice_ -(1872), the _Hagiographa chaldaice_ (1874), an Arabic translation of the -Gospels, _Die vier Evangelien, arabisch aus der Wiener Handschrift -herausgegeben_ (1864), a Syriac translation of the Old Testament -Apocrypha, _Libri V. T. apocryphi syriace_ (1861), a Coptic translation -of the Pentateuch, _Der Pentateuch koptisch_ (1867), and a part of the -Lucianic text of the Septuagint, which he was able to reconstruct from -manuscripts for nearly half the Old Testament. He devoted himself -ardently to oriental scholarship, and published _Zur Urgeschichte der -Armenier_ (1854) and _Armenische Studien_ (1877). He was also a student -of Persian, publishing _Isaias persice_ (1883) and _Persische Studien_ -(1884). He followed up his Coptic studies with _Aegyptiaca_ (1883), and -published many minor contributions to the study of oriental languages in -_Gesammelte Abhandlungen_ (1866), _Symmicta_ (i. 1877, ii. 1880), -_Semitica_ (i. 1878, ii. 1879), _Orientalia_ (1879-1880) and -_Mittheilungen_ (1884). Mention should also be made of the valuable -_Onomastica sacra_ (1870; 2nd ed., 1887). Lagarde also took some part in -politics. He belonged to the Prussian Conservative party, and was a -violent anti-Semite. The bitterness which he felt appeared in his -writings. He died at Gottingen on the 22nd of December 1891. - - See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_; and cf. Anna de - Lagarde, _Paul de Lagarde_ (1894). - - - - -LAGASH, or SIRPURLA, one of the oldest centres of Sumerian civilization -in Babylonia. It is represented by a rather low, long line of ruin -mounds, along the dry bed of an ancient canal, some 3 m. E. of the -Shatt-el-Hai and a little less than 10 m. N. of the modern Turkish town -of Shatra. These ruins were discovered in 1877 by Ernest de Sarzec, at -that time French consul at Basra, who was allowed, by the Montefich -chief, Nasir Pasha, the first Wali-Pasha, or governor-general, of Basra, -to excavate at his pleasure in the territories subject to that official. -At the outset on his own account, and later as a representative of the -French government, under a Turkish firman, de Sarzec continued -excavations at this site, with various intermissions, until his death in -1901, after which the work was continued under the supervision of the -Commandant Cros. The principal excavations were made in two larger -mounds, one of which proved to be the site of the temple, E-Ninnu, the -shrine of the patron god of Lagash, Nin-girsu or Ninib. This temple had -been razed and a fortress built upon its ruins, in the Greek or Seleucid -period, some of the bricks found bearing the inscription in Aramaic and -Greek of a certain Hadad-nadin-akhe, king of a small Babylonian kingdom. -It was beneath this fortress that the numerous statues of Gudea were -found, which constitute the gem of the Babylonian collections at the -Louvre. These had been decapitated and otherwise mutilated, and thrown -into the foundations of the new fortress. From this stratum came also -various fragments of bas reliefs of high artistic excellence. The -excavations in the other larger mound resulted in the discovery of the -remains of buildings containing objects of all sorts in bronze and -stone, dating from the earliest Sumerian period onward, and enabling us -to trace the art history of Babylonia to a date some hundreds of years -before the time of Gudea. Apparently this mound had been occupied -largely by store houses, in which were stored not only grain, figs, &c., -but also vessels, weapons, sculptures and every possible object -connected with the use and administration of palace and temple. In a -small outlying mound de Sarzec discovered the archives of the temple, -about 30,000 inscribed clay tablets, containing the business records, -and revealing with extraordinary minuteness the administration of an -ancient Babylonian temple, the character of its property, the method of -farming its lands, herding its flocks, and its commercial and industrial -dealings and enterprises; for an ancient Babylonian temple was a great -industrial, commercial, agricultural and stock-raising establishment. -Unfortunately, before these archives could be removed, the galleries -containing them were rifled by the Arabs, and large numbers of the -tablets were sold to antiquity dealers, by whom they have been scattered -all over Europe and America. From the inscriptions found at Tello, it -appears that Lagash was a city of great importance in the Sumerian -period, some time probably in the 4th millennium B.C. It was at that -time ruled by independent kings, Ur-Nina and his successors, who were -engaged in contests with the Elamites on the east and the kings of Kengi -and Kish on the north. With the Semitic conquest it lost its -independence, its rulers becoming _patesis_, dependent rulers, under -Sargon and his successors; but it still remained Sumerian and continued -to be a city of much importance, and, above all, a centre of artistic -development. Indeed, it was in this period and under the immediately -succeeding supremacy of the kings of Ur, Ur-Gur and Dungi, that it -reached its highest artistic development. At this period, also, under -its _patesis_, Ur-bau and Gudea, Lagash had extensive commercial -communications with distant realms. According to his own records, Gudea -brought cedars from the Amanus and Lebanon mountains in Syria, diorite -or dolorite from eastern Arabia, copper and gold from central and -southern Arabia and from Sinai, while his armies, presumably under his -overlord, Ur-Gur, were engaged in battles in Elam on the east. His was -especially the era of artistic development. Some of the earlier works of -Ur-Nina, En-anna-tum, Entemena and others, before the Semitic conquest, -are also extremely interesting, especially the famous stele of the -vultures and a great silver vase ornamented with what may be called the -coat of arms of Lagash, a lion-headed eagle with wings outspread, -grasping a lion in each talon. After the time of Gudea, Lagash seems to -have lost its importance; at least we know nothing more about it until -the construction of the Seleucid fortress mentioned, when it seems to -have become part of the Greek kingdom of Characene. The objects found at -Tello are the most valuable art treasures up to this time discovered in -Babylonia. - - See E. de Sarzec, _Decouvertes en Chaldee_ (1887 foll.). - (J. P. Pe.) - - - - -LAGHMAN, a district of Afghanistan, in the province of Jalalabad, -between Jalalabad and Kabul, on the northern side of the Peshawar road, -one of the richest and most fertile tracts in Afghanistan. It is the -valley of the Kabul river between the Tagao and the Kunar and merges on -the north into Kafiristan. The inhabitants, Ghilzais and Tajiks, are -supposed to be the cleverest business people in the country. Sugar, -cotton and rice are exported to Kabul. The Laghman route between Kabul -and India crossing the Kunar river into the Mohmand country is the -route followed by Alexander the Great and Baber; but it has now been -supplanted by the Khyber. - - - - -LAGOON (Fr. _lagune_, Lat. _lacuna_, a pool), a term applied to (1) a -sheet of salt or brackish water near the sea, (2) a sheet of fresh water -of no great depth or extent, (3) the expanse of smooth water enclosed by -an atoll. Sea lagoons are formed only where the shores are low and -protected from wave action. Under these conditions a bar may be raised -above sea-level or a spit may grow until its end touches the land. The -enclosed shallow water is then isolated in a wide stretch, the seaward -banks broaden, and the lagoon becomes a permanent area of still shallow -water with peculiar faunal features. In the old lake plains of Australia -there are occasional wide and shallow depressions where water collects -permanently. Large numbers of aquatic birds, black swans, wild duck, -teal, migrant spoon-bills or pelicans, resort to these fresh-water -lagoons. - - - - -LAGOS, the western province of Southern Nigeria, a British colony and -protectorate in West Africa. The province consists of three divisions: -(1) the coast region, including Lagos Island, being the former colony of -Lagos; (2) small native states adjacent to the colony; and (3) the -Yoruba country, farther inland. The total area is some 27,000 sq. m., or -about the size of Scotland. The province is bounded S. by the Gulf of -Guinea, (from 2 deg. 46' 55" to 4 deg. 30' E.); W. by the French colony -of Dahomey; N. and E. by other provinces of Nigeria. - - _Physical Features._--The coast is low, marshy and malarious, and all - along the shore the great Atlantic billows cause a dangerous surf. - Behind the coast-line stretches a series of lagoons, in which are - small islands, that of Lagos having an area of 3(3/4) sq. m. Beyond the - lagoons and mangrove swamps is a broad zone of dense primeval - forest--"the bush"--which completely separates the arable lands from - the coast lagoons. The water-parting of the streams flowing north to - the Niger, and south to the Gulf of Guinea, is the main physical - feature. The general level of Yorubaland is under 2000 ft. But towards - the east, about the upper course of the river Oshun, the elevation is - higher. Southward from the divide the land, which is intersected by - the nearly parallel courses of the rivers Ogun, Omi, Oshun, Oni and - Oluwa, falls in continuous undulations to the coast, the open - cultivated ground gradually giving place to forest tracts, where the - most characteristic tree is the oil-palm. Flowering trees, certain - kinds of rubber vines, and shrubs are plentiful. In the northern - regions the shea-butter tree is found. The fauna resembles that of the - other regions of the Guinea coast, but large game is becoming scarce. - Leopards, antelopes and monkeys are common, and alligators infest the - rivers. - - The lagoons, lying between the outer surf-beaten beach and the inner - shore line, form a navigable highway of still waters, many miles in - extent. They are almost entirely free from rock, though they are often - shallow, with numerous mud banks. The most extensive are Lekki in the - east, and Ikoradu (Lagos) in the west. At its N.W. extremity the Lagos - lagoon receives the Ogun, the largest river in Yorubaland, whose - current is strong enough to keep the seaward channel open throughout - the year. Hence the importance of the port of Lagos, which lies in - smooth water at the northern end of this channel. The outer entrance - is obstructed by a dangerous sand bar. - - _Climate and Health._--The climate is unhealthy, especially for - Europeans. The rainfall has not been ascertained in the interior. In - the northern districts it is probably considerably less than at Lagos, - where it is about 70 in. a year. The variation is, however, very - great. In 1901 the rainfall was 112 in., in 1902 but 47, these figures - being respectively the highest and lowest recorded in a period of - seventeen years. The mean temperature at Lagos is 82.5 deg. F., the - range being from 68 deg. to 91 deg. At certain seasons sudden heavy - squalls of wind and rain that last for a few hours are common. The - hurricane and typhoon are unknown. The principal diseases are malarial - fever, smallpox, rheumatism, peripheral neuritis, dysentery, chest - diseases and guinea-worm. Fever not unfrequently assumes the dangerous - form known as "black-water fever." The frequency of smallpox is being - much diminished outside the larger towns in the interior, in which - vaccination is neglected. The absence of plague, yellow fever, - cholera, typhoid fever and scarlatina is noteworthy. A mild form of - yaws is endemic. - -_Inhabitants._--The population is estimated at 1,750,000. The Yoruba -people, a Negro race divided into many tribes, form the majority of the -inhabitants. Notwithstanding their political feuds and their proved -capacity as fighting men, the Yoruba are distinguished above all the -surrounding races for their generally peaceful disposition, industry, -friendliness, courtesy and hospitality towards strangers. They are also -intensely patriotic. Physically they resemble closely their Ewe and -Dahomey neighbours, but are of somewhat lighter complexion, taller and -of less pronounced Negro features. They exhibit high administrative -ability, possess a marked capacity for trade, and have made remarkable -progress in the industrial arts. The different tribes are distinguished -by tattoo markings, usually some simple pattern of two or more parallel -lines, disposed horizontally or vertically on the cheeks or other parts -of the face. The feeling for religion is deeply implanted among the -Yoruba. The majority are pagans, or dominated by pagan beliefs, but -Islam has made great progress since the cessation of the Fula wars, -while Protestant and Roman Catholic missions have been at work since -1848 at Abeokuta, Oyo, Ibadan and other large towns. Samuel Crowther, -the first Negro bishop in the Anglican church, who was distinguished as -an explorer, geographer and linguist, was a native of Yorubaland, -rescued (1822) by the English from slavery and educated at Sierra Leone -(see YORUBAS). - -_Towns._--Besides Lagos (q.v.), pop. about 50,000, the chief towns in -the colony proper are Epe, pop. 16,000, on the northern side of the -lagoons, and Badagry (a notorious place during the slave-trade period) -and Lekki, both on the coast. Inland the chief towns are Abeokuta -(q.v.), pop. about 60,000, and Ibadan (q.v.), pop. estimated at 150,000. - -_Agriculture and Trade._--The chief wealth of the country consists in -forest produce, the staple industries being the collection of -palm-kernels and palm oil. Besides the oil-palm forests large areas are -covered with timber trees, the wood chiefly cut for commercial purposes -being a kind of mahogany. The destruction of immature trees and the -fluctuations in price render this a very uncertain trade. The rubber -industry was started in 1894, and in 1896 the rubber exported was valued -at L347,000. In 1899, owing to reckless methods of tapping the vines, -75% of the rubber plants died. Precautions were then taken to preserve -the remainder and allow young plants to grow. The collection of rubber -recommenced in 1904 and the industry again became one of importance. A -considerable area is devoted to cocoa plantations, all owned by native -cultivators. Coffee and tobacco of good quality are cultivated and -shea-butter is largely used as an illuminant. The Yoruba country is the -greatest agricultural centre in West Africa. For home consumption the -Yoruba grow yams, maize and millet, the chief articles of food, cassava, -sweet potatoes, sesame and beans. Model farms have been established for -experimental culture and for the tuition of the natives. A palatable -wine is obtained from the _Raphia vinifera_ and native beers are also -brewed. Imported spirits are largely consumed. There are no manufactures -on a large scale save the making of "country cloths" (from cotton grown, -spun and woven in the country) and mats. Pottery and agricultural -implements are made, and tanning, dyeing and forging practised in the -towns, and along the rivers and lagoons boats and canoes are built. -Fishing is extensively engaged in, the fish being dried and sent up -country. Except iron there are no valuable minerals in the country. - -The cotton plant from which the "country cloths" are made is native to -the country, the soil of which is capable of producing the very finest -grades of cotton. The Egba branch of the Yoruba have always grown the -plant. In 1869 the cotton exported was valued at L76,957, but owing to -low prices the natives ceased to grow cotton for export, so that in 1879 -the value of exported cotton was only L526. In 1902 planting for export -was recommenced by the Egba on scientific lines, and was started in the -Abeokuta district with encouraging results. - -The Yoruba profess to be unable to alienate land in perpetuity, but -native custom does not preclude leasing, and land concessions have been -taken up by Europeans on long leases. Some concessions are only for -cutting and removing timber; others permit of cultivation. The northern -parts of the protectorate are specially suitable for stock raising and -poultry culture. - -The chief exports are palm-kernels, palm-oil, timber, rubber and cocoa. -Palm-kernels alone constitute more than a half in value of the total -exports, and with palm-oil over three-fourths. The trade in these -products is practically confined to Great Britain and Germany, the share -of the first-named being 25% to Germany's 75%. Minor exports are coffee, -"country cloths," maize, shea-butter and ivory. - -Cotton goods are the most important of the imports, spirits coming next, -followed by building material, haberdashery and hardware and tobacco. -Over 90% of the cotton goods are imported from Great Britain, whilst -nearly the same proportion of the spirit imports come from Germany. -Nearly all the liquors consist of "Trade Spirits," chiefly gin, rum and -a concoction called "alcohol," introduced (1901) to meet the growing -taste of the people for stronger liquor. This stuff contained 90% of -pure alcohol and sometimes over 4% of fusel oil. To hinder the sale of -this noxious compound legislation was passed in 1903 prohibiting the -import of liquor containing more than (1/2)% of fusel oil, whilst the -states of Abeokuta and Ibadan prohibited the importation of liquor -stronger than proof. The total trade of the country in 1905 was valued -at L2,224,754, the imports slightly exceeding the exports. There is a -large transit trade with Dahomey. - - _Communications._--Lagos is well supplied with means of communication. - A 3 ft. 6 in. gauge railway starts from Iddo Island, and extends past - Abeokuta, 64 m. from Lagos, Ibadan (123 m.), Oshogbo (175 m.), to - Illorin (247 m.) in Northern Nigeria, whence the line is continued to - Jebba and Zunguru (see NIGERIA). Abeokuta is served by a branch line, - 1(1/2) m. long, from Aro on the main line. Railway bridges connect Iddo - Island both with the mainland and with Lagos Island (see Lagos, town). - This line was begun in 1896 and opened to Ibadan in 1901. In 1905 the - building of the section Ibadan-Illorin was undertaken. The railway was - built by the government and cost about L7000 per mile. The lagoons - offer convenient channels for numerous small craft, which, with the - exception of steam-launches, are almost entirely native-built canoes. - Branch steamers run between the Forcados mouth of the Niger and Lagos, - and also between Lagos and Porto Novo, in French territory, and do a - large transit trade. Various roads through the bush have been made by - the government. There is telegraphic communication with Europe, - Northern Nigeria and South Africa, and steamships ply regularly - between Lagos and Liverpool, and Lagos and Hamburg (see LAGOS, town). - - _Administration, Justice, Education, &c._--The small part of the - province which constitutes "the colony of Southern Nigeria" is - governed as a crown colony. Elsewhere the native governments are - retained, the chiefs and councils of elders receiving the advice and - support of British commissioners. There is also an advisory native - central council which meets at Lagos. The great majority of the civil - servants are natives of the country, some of whom have been educated - in England. The legal status of slavery is not recognized by the law - courts and dealing in slaves is suppressed. As an institution slavery - is dying out, and only exists in a domestic form. - - The cost of administration is met, mainly, by customs, largely derived - from the duties on imported spirits. From the railways, a government - monopoly, a considerable net profit is earned. Expenditure is mainly - under the heads of railway administration, other public works, - military and police, health, and education. The revenue increased in - the ten years 1895-1905 from L142,049 to L410,250. In the same period - the expenditure rose from L144,484 to L354,254. - - The defence of the province is entrusted to the Lagos battalion of the - West African Frontier Force, a body under the control of the Colonial - Office in London and composed of Hausa (four-fifths) and Yoruba. It is - officered from the British army. - - The judicial system in the colony proper is based on that of England. - The colonial supreme court, by agreement with the rulers of Abeokuta, - Ibadan and other states in the protectorate, tries, with the aid of - native assessors, all cases of importance in those countries. Other - cases are tried by mixed courts, or, where Yoruba alone are concerned, - by native courts. - - There is a government board of education which maintains a few schools - and supervises those voluntarily established. These are chiefly those - of various missionary societies, who, besides primary schools, have a - few secondary schools. The Mahommedans have their own schools. Grants - from public funds are made to the voluntary schools. Considerable - attention is paid to manual training, the laws of health and the - teaching of English, which is spoken by about one-fourth of the native - population. - -_History._--Lagos Island was so named by the Portuguese explorers of the -15th century, because of the numerous lagoons or lakes on this part of -the coast. The Portuguese, and after them the French, had settlements -here at various points. In the 18th century Lagos Lagoon became the -chief resort of slavers frequenting the Bight of Benin, this portion of -the Gulf of Guinea becoming known pre-eminently as the Slave Coast. -British traders established themselves at Badagry, 40 m. W. of Lagos, -where in 1851 they were attacked by Kosoko, the Yoruba king of Lagos -Island. As a result a British naval force seized Lagos after a sharp -fight and deposed the king, placing his cousin, Akitoye, on the throne. -A treaty was concluded under which Akitoye bound himself to put down the -slave trade. This treaty was not adhered to, and in 1861 Akitoye's son -and successor, King Docemo, was induced to give up his territorial -jurisdiction and accept a pension of 1200 bags of cowries, afterwards -commuted to L1000 a year, which pension he drew until his death in 1885. -Immediately after the proclamation of the British annexation, a steady -current of immigration from the mainland set in, and a flourishing town -arose on Lagos Island. Iddo Island was acquired at the same time as -Lagos Island, and from 1862 to 1894 various additions by purchase or -cession were made to the colony. In 1879 the small kingdom of Kotonu was -placed under British protection. Kotonu lies south and east of the -Denham Lagoon (see DAHOMEY). In 1889 it was exchanged with the French -for the kingdom of Pokra which is to the north of Badagry. In the early -years of the colony Sir John Glover, R.N., who was twice governor -(1864-1866 and 1871-1872), did much pioneer work and earned the -confidence of the natives to a remarkable degree. Later Sir C. A. -Moloney (governor 1886-1890) opened up relations with the Yoruba and -other tribes in the hinterland. He despatched two commissioners whose -duty it was to conclude commercial treaties and use British influence to -put a stop to inter-tribal fighting and the closing of the trade routes. -In 1892 the Jebu, who acted as middlemen between the colony and the -Yoruba, closed several trade routes. An expedition sent against them -resulted in their subjugation and the annexation of part of their -country. An order in council issued in 1899 extended the protectorate -over Yorubaland. The tribes of the hinterland have largely welcomed the -British protectorate and military expeditions have been few and -unimportant. (For the history of the Yoruba states see YORUBAS.) - -Lagos was made a separate government in 1863; in 1866 it was placed in -political dependence upon Sierra Leone; in 1874 it became (politically) -an integral part of the Gold Coast Colony, whilst in 1886 it was again -made a separate government, administered as a crown colony. In Sir -William Macgregor, M.D., formerly administrator of British New Guinea, -governor 1899-1904, the colony found an enlightened ruler. He -inaugurated the railway system, and drew much closer the friendly ties -between the British and the tribes of the protectorate. Meantime, since -1884, the whole of the Niger delta, lying immediately east of Lagos, as -well as the Hausa states and Bornu, had been acquired by Great Britain. -Unification of the British possessions in Nigeria being desirable, the -delta regions and Lagos were formed in 1906 into one government (see -NIGERIA). - - See C. P. Lucas, _Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, vol. - iii. _West Africa_ (Oxford, 1896); the annual _Reports_ issued by the - Colonial Office, London; A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples_ - (London, 1894); Lady Glover, _The Life of Sir John Hawley Glover_ - (London, 1897). Consult also the works cited under NIGERIA and - DAHOMEY. - - - - -LAGOS, a seaport of West Africa, capital of the British colony and -protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in 6 deg. 26' N., 3 deg. 23' E. on an -island in a lagoon named Lagos also. Between Lagos and the mainland is -Iddo Island. An iron bridge for road and railway traffic 2600 ft. long -connects Lagos and Iddo Islands, and another iron bridge, 917 ft. long, -joins Iddo Island to the mainland. The town lies but a foot or two above -sea-level. The principal buildings are a large government house, the law -courts, the memorial hall erected to commemorate the services of Sir -John Glover, used for public meetings and entertainments, an elaborate -club-house provided from public funds, and the police quarters. There -are many substantial villas that serve as quarters for the officers of -the civil service, as well as numerous solidly-built handsome private -buildings. The streets are well kept; the town is supplied with electric -light, and there is a good water service. The chief stores and depots -for goods are all on the banks of the lagoon. The swamps of which -originally Lagos Island entirely consisted have been reclaimed. In -connexion with this work a canal, 25 ft. wide, has been cut right -through the island and a sea-wall built round its western half. There is -a commodious public hospital, of the cottage type, on a good site. There -is a racecourse, which also serves as a general public recreation -ground. Shifting banks of sand form a bar at the sea entrance of the -lagoon. Extensive works were undertaken in 1908 with a view to making -Lagos an open port. A mole has been built at the eastern entrance to the -harbour and dredgers are at work on the bar, which can be crossed by -vessels drawing 13 ft. Large ocean-going steamers anchor not less than 2 -m. from land, and goods and passengers are there transhipped into -smaller steamers for Lagos. Heavy cargo is carried by the large steamers -to Forcados, 200 m. farther down the coast, transhipped there into -branch boats, and taken via the lagoons to Lagos. The port is 4279 m. -from Liverpool, 1203 from Freetown, Sierra Leone (the nearest safe port -westward), and 315 from Cape Coast. - -The inhabitants, about 50,000, include, besides the native tribes, -Sierra Leonis, Fanti, Krumen and the descendants of some 6000 Brazilian -_emancipados_ who were settled here in the early days of British rule. -The Europeans number about 400. Rather more than half the populace are -Moslems. - - - - -LAGOS, a seaport of southern Portugal, in the district of Faro (formerly -the province of Algarve); on the Atlantic Ocean, and on the estuary of -the small river Lagos, here spanned by a fine stone bridge. Pop. (1900) -8291. The city is defended by fortifications erected in the 17th -century. It is supplied with water by an aqueduct 800 yds. long. The -harbour is deep, capacious, and completely sheltered on the north and -west; it is frequently visited by the British Channel fleet. Vines and -figs are extensively cultivated in the neighbourhood, and Lagos is the -centre of important sardine and tunny fisheries. Its trade is chiefly -carried on by small coasting vessels, as there is no railway. Lagos is -on or near the site of the Roman _Lacobriga_. Since the 15th century it -has held the formal rank and title of city. Cape St Vincent, the ancient -_Promontorium Sacrum_, and the south-western extremity of the kingdom, -is 22 m. W. It is famous for its connexion with Prince Henry (q.v.), the -Navigator, who here founded the town of Sagres in 1421; and for several -British naval victories, the most celebrated of which was won in 1797 by -Admiral Jervis (afterwards Earl St Vincent) over a larger Spanish -squadron. In 1759 Admiral Boscawen defeated a French fleet off Lagos. -The great earthquake of 1755 destroyed a large part of the city. - - - - -LA GRACE, or LES GRACES, a game invented in France during the first -quarter of the 19th century and called there _le jeu des Graces_. It is -played with two light sticks about 16 in. long and a wicker ring, which -is projected into the air by placing it over the sticks crossed and then -separating them rapidly. The ring is caught upon the stick of another -player and thrown back, the object being to prevent it from falling to -the ground. - - - - -LA GRAND' COMBE, a town of southern France, in the department of Gard on -the Gardon, 39 m. N.N.W. of Nimes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 6406; -commune, 11,292. There are extensive coal mines in the vicinity. - - - - -LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS (1736-1813), French mathematician, was born at -Turin, on the 25th of January 1736. He was of French extraction, his -great grandfather, a cavalry captain, having passed from the service of -France to that of Sardinia, and settled in Turin under Emmanuel II. His -father, Joseph Louis Lagrange, married Maria Theresa Gros, only daughter -of a rich physician at Cambiano, and had by her eleven children, of whom -only the eldest (the subject of this notice) and the youngest survived -infancy. His emoluments as treasurer at war, together with his wife's -fortune, provided him with ample means, which he lost by rash -speculations, a circumstance regarded by his son as the prelude to his -own good fortune; for had he been rich, he used to say, he might never -have known mathematics. - -The genius of Lagrange did not at once take its true bent. His earliest -tastes were literary rather than scientific, and he learned the -rudiments of geometry during his first year at the college of Turin, -without difficulty, but without distinction. The perusal of a tract by -Halley (_Phil. Trans._ xviii. 960) roused his enthusiasm for the -analytical method, of which he was destined to develop the utmost -capabilities. He now entered, unaided save by his own unerring tact and -vivid apprehension, upon a course of study which, in two years, placed -him on a level with the greatest of his contemporaries. At the age of -nineteen he communicated to Leonhard Euler his idea of a general method -of dealing with "isoperimetrical" problems, known later as the Calculus -of Variations. It was eagerly welcomed by the Berlin mathematician, who -had the generosity to withhold from publication his own further -researches on the subject, until his youthful correspondent should have -had time to complete and opportunity to claim the invention. This -prosperous opening gave the key-note to Lagrange's career. Appointed, in -1754, professor of geometry in the royal school of artillery, he formed -with some of his pupils--for the most part his seniors--friendships -based on community of scientific ardour. With the aid of the marquis de -Saluces and the anatomist G. F. Cigna, he founded in 1758 a society -which became the Turin Academy of Sciences. The first volume of its -memoirs, published in the following year, contained a paper by Lagrange -entitled _Recherches sur la nature et la propagation du son_, in which -the power of his analysis and his address in its application were -equally conspicuous. He made his first appearance in public as the -critic of Newton, and the arbiter between d'Alembert and Euler. By -considering only the particles of air found in a right line, he reduced -the problem of the propagation of sound to the solution of the same -partial differential equations that include the motions of vibrating -strings, and demonstrated the insufficiency of the methods employed by -both his great contemporaries in dealing with the latter subject. He -further treated in a masterly manner of echoes and the mixture of -sounds, and explained the phenomenon of grave harmonics as due to the -occurrence of beats so rapid as to generate a musical note. This was -followed, in the second volume of the _Miscellanea Taurinensia_ (1762) -by his "Essai d'une nouvelle methode pour determiner les maxima et les -minima des formules integrales indefinies," together with the -application of this important development of analysis to the solution of -several dynamical problems, as well as to the demonstration of the -mechanical principle of "least action." The essential point in his -advance on Euler's mode of investigating curves of maximum or minimum -consisted in his purely analytical conception of the subject. He not -only freed it from all trammels of geometrical construction, but by the -introduction of the symbol [delta] gave it the efficacy of a new -calculus. He is thus justly regarded as the inventor of the "method of -variations"--a name supplied by Euler in 1766. - -By these performances Lagrange found himself, at the age of twenty-six, -on the summit of European fame. Such a height had not been reached -without cost. Intense application during early youth had weakened a -constitution never robust, and led to accesses of feverish exaltation -culminating, in the spring of 1761, in an attack of bilious -hypochondria, which permanently lowered the tone of his nervous system. -Rest and exercise, however, temporarily restored his health, and he gave -proof of the undiminished vigour of his powers by carrying off, in 1764, -the prize offered by the Paris Academy of Sciences for the best essay on -the libration of the moon. His treatise was remarkable, not only as -offering a satisfactory explanation of the coincidence between the lunar -periods of rotation and revolution, but as containing the first -employment of his radical formula of mechanics, obtained by combining -with the principle of d'Alembert that of virtual velocities. His success -encouraged the Academy to propose, in 1766, as a theme for competition, -the hitherto unattempted theory of the Jovian system. The prize was -again awarded to Lagrange; and he earned the same distinction with -essays on the problem of three bodies in 1772, on the secular equation -of the moon in 1774, and in 1778 on the theory of cometary -perturbations. - -He had in the meantime gratified a long felt desire by a visit to Paris, -where he enjoyed the stimulating delight of conversing with such -mathematicians as A. C. Clairault, d'Alembert, Condorcet and the Abbe -Marie. Illness prevented him from visiting London. The post of director -of the mathematical department of the Berlin Academy (of which he had -been a member since 1759) becoming vacant by the removal of Euler to St -Petersburg, the latter and d'Alembert united to recommend Lagrange as -his successor. Euler's eulogium was enhanced by his desire to quit -Berlin, d'Alembert's by his dread of a royal command to repair thither; -and the result was that an invitation, conveying the wish of the -"greatest king in Europe" to have the "greatest mathematician" at his -court, was sent to Turin. On the 6th of November 1766, Lagrange was -installed in his new position, with a salary of 6000 francs, ample -leisure for scientific research, and royal favour sufficient to secure -him respect without exciting envy. The national jealousy of foreigners, -was at first a source of annoyance to him; but such prejudices were -gradually disarmed by the inoffensiveness of his demeanour. We are told -that the universal example of his colleagues, rather than any desire for -female society, impelled him to matrimony; his choice being a lady of -the Conti family, who, by his request, joined him at Berlin. Soon after -marriage his wife was attacked by a lingering illness, to which she -succumbed, Lagrange devoting all his time, and a considerable store of -medical knowledge, to her care. - -The long series of memoirs--some of them complete treatises of great -moment in the history of science--communicated by Lagrange to the Berlin -Academy between the years 1767 and 1787 were not the only fruits of his -exile. His _Mecanique analytique_, in which his genius most fully -displayed itself, was produced during the same period. This great work -was the perfect realization of a design conceived by the author almost -in boyhood, and clearly sketched in his first published essay.[1] Its -scope may be briefly described as the reduction of the theory of -mechanics to certain general formulae, from the simple development of -which should be derived the equations necessary for the solution of each -separate problem.[2] From the fundamental principle of virtual -velocities, which thus acquired a new significance, Lagrange deduced, -with the aid of the calculus of variations, the whole system of -mechanical truths, by processes so elegant, lucid and harmonious as to -constitute, in Sir William Hamilton's words, "a kind of scientific -poem." This unification of method was one of matter also. By his mode of -regarding a liquid as a material system characterized by the unshackled -mobility of its minutest parts, the separation between the mechanics of -matter in different forms of aggregation finally disappeared, and the -fundamental equation of forces was for the first time extended to -hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.[3] Thus a universal science of matter -and motion was derived, by an unbroken sequence of deduction, from one -radical principle; and analytical mechanics assumed the clear and -complete form of logical perfection which it now wears. - -A publisher having with some difficulty been found, the book appeared at -Paris in 1788 under the supervision of A. M. Legendre. But before that -time Lagrange himself was on the spot. After the death of Frederick the -Great, his presence was competed for by the courts of France, Spain and -Naples, and a residence in Berlin having ceased to possess any -attraction for him, he removed to Paris in 1787. Marie Antoinette warmly -patronized him. He was lodged in the Louvre, received the grant of an -income equal to that he had hitherto enjoyed, and, with the title of -"veteran pensioner" in lieu of that of "foreign associate" (conferred in -1772), the right of voting at the deliberations of the Academy. In the -midst of these distinctions, a profound melancholy seized upon him. His -mathematical enthusiasm was for the time completely quenched, and during -two years the printed volume of his _Mecanique_, which he had seen only -in manuscript, lay unopened beside him. He relieved his dejection with -miscellaneous studies, especially with that of chemistry, which, in the -new form given to it by Lavoisier, he found "aisee comme l'algebre." The -Revolution roused him once more to activity and cheerfulness. Curiosity -impelled him to remain and watch the progress of such a novel -phenomenon; but curiosity was changed into dismay as the terrific -character of the phenomenon unfolded itself. He now bitterly regretted -his temerity in braving the danger. "Tu l'as voulu" he would repeat -self-reproachfully. Even from revolutionary tribunals, however, the name -of Lagrange uniformly commanded respect. His pension was continued by -the National Assembly, and he was partially indemnified for the -depreciation of the currency by remunerative appointments. Nominated -president of the Academical commission for the reform of weights and -measures, his services were retained when its "purification" by the -Jacobins removed his most distinguished colleagues. He again sat on the -commission of 1799 for the construction of the metric system, and by his -zealous advocacy of the decimal principle largely contributed to its -adoption. - -Meanwhile, on the 31st of May 1792 he married Mademoiselle Lemonnier, -daughter of the astronomer of that name, a young and beautiful girl, -whose devotion ignored disparity of years, and formed the one tie with -life which Lagrange found it hard to break. He had no children by either -marriage. Although specially exempted from the operation of the decree -of October 1793, imposing banishment on foreign residents, he took alarm -at the fate of J. S. Bailly and A. L. Lavoisier, and prepared to resume -his former situation in Berlin. His design was frustrated by the -establishment of and his official connexion with the Ecole Normale, and -the Ecole Polytechnique. The former institution had an ephemeral -existence; but amongst the benefits derived from the foundation of the -Ecole Polytechnique one of the greatest, it has been observed,[4] was -the restoration of Lagrange to mathematics. The remembrance of his -teachings was long treasured by such of his auditors--amongst whom were -J. B. J. Delambre and S. F. Lacroix--as were capable of appreciating -them. In expounding the principles of the differential calculus, he -started, as it were, from the level of his pupils, and ascended with -them by almost insensible gradations from elementary to abstruse -conceptions. He seemed, not a professor amongst students, but a learner -amongst learners; pauses for thought alternated with luminous -exposition; invention accompanied demonstration; and thus originated his -_Theorie des fonctions analytiques_ (Paris, 1797). The leading idea of -this work was contained in a paper published in the _Berlin Memoirs_ for -1772.[5] Its object was the elimination of the, to some minds, -unsatisfactory conception of the infinite from the metaphysics of the -higher mathematics, and the substitution for the differential and -integral calculus of an analogous method depending wholly on the serial -development of algebraical functions. By means of this "calculus of -derived functions" Lagrange hoped to give to the solution of all -analytical problems the utmost "rigour of the demonstrations of the -ancients";[6] but it cannot be said that the attempt was successful. The -validity of his fundamental position was impaired by the absence of a -well-constituted theory of series; the notation employed was -inconvenient, and was abandoned by its inventor in the second edition of -his _Mecanique_; while his scruples as to the admission into analytical -investigations of the idea of limits or vanishing ratios have long since -been laid aside as idle. Nowhere, however, were the keenness and -clearness of his intellect more conspicuous than in this brilliant -effort, which, if it failed in its immediate object, was highly -effective in secondary results. His purely abstract mode of regarding -functions, apart from any mechanical or geometrical considerations, led -the way to a new and sharply characterized development of the higher -analysis in the hands of A. Cauchy, C. G. Jacobi, and others.[7] The -_Theorie des fonctions_ is divided into three parts, of which the first -explains the general doctrine of functions, the second deals with its -application to geometry, and the third with its bearings on mechanics. - -On the establishment of the Institute, Lagrange was placed at the head -of the section of geometry; he was one of the first members of the -Bureau des Longitudes; and his name appeared in 1791 on the list of -foreign members of the Royal Society. On the annexation of Piedmont to -France in 1796, a touching compliment was paid to him in the person of -his aged father. By direction of Talleyrand, then minister for foreign -affairs, the French commissary repaired in state to the old man's -residence in Turin, to congratulate him on the merits of his son, whom -they declared "to have done honour to mankind by his genius, and whom -Piedmont was proud to have produced, and France to possess." Bonaparte, -who styled him "la haute pyramide des sciences mathematiques," loaded -him with personal favours and official distinctions. He became a -senator, a count of the empire, a grand officer of the legion of honour, -and just before his death received the grand cross of the order of -reunion. - -The preparation of a new edition of his _Mecanique_ exhausted his -already falling powers. Frequent fainting fits gave presage of a speedy -end, and on the 8th of April 1813 he had a final interview with his -friends B. Lacepede, G. Monge and J. A. Chaptal. He spoke with the -utmost calm of his approaching death; "c'est une derniere fonction," he -said, "qui n'est ni penible ni desagreable." He nevertheless looked -forward to a future meeting, when he promised to complete the -autobiographical details which weakness obliged him to interrupt. They -remained untold, for he died two days later on the 10th of April, and -was buried in the Pantheon, the funeral oration being pronounced by -Laplace and Lacepede. - - Amongst the brilliant group of mathematicians whose magnanimous - rivalry contributed to accomplish the task of generalization and - deduction reserved for the 18th century, Lagrange occupies an eminent - place. It is indeed by no means easy to distinguish and apportion the - respective merits of the competitors. This is especially the case - between Lagrange and Euler on the one side, and between Lagrange and - Laplace on the other. The calculus of variations lay undeveloped in - Euler's mode of treating isoperimetrical problems. The fruitful - method, again, of the variation of elements was introduced by Euler, - but adopted and perfected by Lagrange, who first recognized its - supreme importance to the analytical investigation of the planetary - movements. Finally, of the grand series of researches by which the - stability of the solar system was ascertained, the glory must be - almost equally divided between Lagrange and Laplace. In analytical - invention, and mastery over the calculus, the Turin mathematician was - admittedly unrivalled. Laplace owned that he had despaired of - effecting the integration of the differential equations relative to - secular inequalities until Lagrange showed him the way. But Laplace - unquestionably surpassed his rival in practical sagacity and the - intuition of physical truth. Lagrange saw in the problems of nature so - many occasions for analytical triumphs; Laplace regarded analytical - triumphs as the means of solving the problems of nature. One mind - seemed the complement of the other; and both, united in honourable - rivalry, formed an instrument of unexampled perfection for the - investigation of the celestial machinery. What may be called - Lagrange's first period of research into planetary perturbations - extended from 1774 to 1784 (see ASTRONOMY: _History_). The notable - group of treatises communicated, 1781-1784, to the Berlin Academy was - designed, but did not prove to be his final contribution to the theory - of the planets. After an interval of twenty-four years the subject, - re-opened by S. D. Poisson in a paper read on the 20th of June 1808, - was once more attacked by Lagrange with all his pristine vigour and - fertility of invention. Resuming the inquiry into the invariability of - mean motions, Poisson carried the approximation, with Lagrange's - formulae, as far as the squares of the disturbing forces, hitherto - neglected, with the same result as to the stability of the system. He - had not attempted to include in his calculations the orbital - variations of the disturbing bodies; but Lagrange, by the happy - artifice of transferring the origin of coordinates from the centre of - the sun to the centre of gravity of the sun and planets, obtained a - simplification of the formulae, by which the same analysis was - rendered equally applicable to each of the planets severally. It - deserves to be recorded as one of the numerous coincidences of - discovery that Laplace, on being made acquainted by Lagrange with his - new method, produced analogous expressions, to which his independent - researches had led him. The final achievement of Lagrange in this - direction was the extension of the method of the variation of - arbitrary constants, successfully used by him in the investigation of - periodical as well as of secular inequalities, to any system whatever - of mutually interacting bodies.[8] "Not without astonishment," even - to himself, regard being had to the great generality of the - differential equations, he reached a result so wide as to include, as - a particular case, the solution of the planetary problem recently - obtained by him. He proposed to apply the same principles to the - calculation of the disturbances produced in the rotation of the - planets by external action on their equatorial protuberances, but was - anticipated by Poisson, who gave formulae for the variation of the - elements of rotation strictly corresponding with those found by - Lagrange for the variation of the elements of revolution. The revision - of the _Mecanique analytique_ was undertaken mainly for the purpose of - embodying in it these new methods and final results, but was - interrupted, when two-thirds completed, by the death of its author. - - In the advancement of almost every branch of pure mathematics Lagrange - took a conspicuous part. The calculus of variations is indissolubly - associated with his name. In the theory of numbers he furnished - solutions of many of P. Fermat's theorems, and added some of his own. - In algebra he discovered the method of approximating to the real roots - of an equation by means of continued fractions, and imagined a general - process of solving algebraical equations of every degree. The method - indeed fails for equations of an order above the fourth, because it - then involves the solution of an equation of higher dimensions than - they proposed. Yet it possesses the great and characteristic merit of - generalizing the solutions of his predecessors, exhibiting them all as - modifications of one principle. To Lagrange, perhaps more than to any - other, the theory of differential equations is indebted for its - position as a science, rather than a collection of ingenious artifices - for the solution of particular problems. To the calculus of finite - differences he contributed the beautiful formula of interpolation - which bears his name; although substantially the same result seems to - have been previously obtained by Euler. But it was in the application - to mechanical questions of the instrument which he thus helped to form - that his singular merit lay. It was his just boast to have transformed - mechanics (defined by him as a "geometry of four dimensions") into a - branch of analysis, and to have exhibited the so-called mechanical - "principles" as simple results of the calculus. The method of - "generalized coordinates," as it is now called, by which he attained - this result, is the most brilliant achievement of the analytical - method. Instead of following the motion of each individual part of a - material system, he showed that, if we determine its configuration by - a sufficient number of variables, whose number is that of the degrees - of freedom to move (there being as many equations as the system has - degrees of freedom), the kinetic and potential energies of the system - can be expressed in terms of these, and the differential equations of - motion thence deduced by simple differentiation. Besides this most - important contribution to the general fabric of dynamical science, we - owe to Lagrange several minor theorems of great elegance,--among which - may be mentioned his theorem that the kinetic energy imparted by given - impulses to a material system under given constraints is a maximum. To - this entire branch of knowledge, in short, he successfully imparted - that character of generality and completeness towards which his - labours invariably tended. - - His share in the gigantic task of verifying the Newtonian theory would - alone suffice to immortalize his name. His co-operation was indeed - more indispensable than at first sight appears. Much as was done _by_ - him, what was done _through_ him was still more important. Some of his - brilliant rival's most conspicuous discoveries were implicitly - contained in his writings, and wanted but one step for completion. But - that one step, from the abstract to the concrete, was precisely that - which the character of Lagrange's mind indisposed him to make. As - notable instances may be mentioned Laplace's discoveries relating to - the velocity of sound and the secular acceleration of the moon, both - of which were led close up to by Lagrange's analytical demonstrations. - In the _Berlin Memoirs_ for 1778 and 1783 Lagrange gave the first - direct and theoretically perfect method of determining cometary - orbits. It has not indeed proved practically available; but his system - of calculating cometary perturbations by means of "mechanical - quadratures" has formed the starting-point of all subsequent - researches on the subject. His determination[9] of maximum and minimum - values for the slowly varying planetary eccentricities was the - earliest attempt to deal with the problem. Without a more accurate - knowledge of the masses of the planets than was then possessed a - satisfactory solution was impossible; but the upper limits assigned by - him agreed closely with those obtained later by U. J. J. - Leverrier.[10] As a mathematical writer Lagrange has perhaps never - been surpassed. His treatises are not only storehouses of ingenious - methods, but models of symmetrical form. The clearness, elegance and - originality of his mode of presentation give lucidity to what is - obscure, novelty to what is familiar, and simplicity to what is - abstruse. His genius was one of generalization and abstraction; and - the aspirations of the time towards unity and perfection received, by - his serene labours, an embodiment denied to them in the troubled world - of politics. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lagrange's numerous scattered memoirs have been - collected and published in seven 4to volumes, under the title - _Oeuvres de Lagrange, publiees sous les soins de M. J. A. Serret_ - (Paris, 1867-1877). The first, second and third sections of this - publication comprise respectively the papers communicated by him to - the Academies of Sciences of Turin, Berlin and Paris; the fourth - includes his miscellaneous contributions to other scientific - collections, together with his additions to Euler's _Algebra_, and his - _Lecons elementaires_ at the Ecole Normale in 1795. Delambre's notice - of his life, extracted from the _Mem. de l'Institut_, 1812, is - prefixed to the first volume. Besides the separate works already named - are _Resolution des equations numeriques_ (1798, 2nd ed., 1808, 3rd - ed., 1826), and _Lecons sur le calcul des fonctions_ (1805, 2nd ed., - 1806), designed as a commentary and supplement to the first part of - the _Theorie des fonctions_. The first volume of the enlarged edition - of the _Mecanique_ appeared in 1811, the second, of which the revision - was completed by MM Prony and Binet, in 1815. A third edition, in 2 - vols., 4to, was issued in 1853-1855, and a second of the _Theorie des - fonctions_ in 1813. - - See also J. J. Virey and Potel, _Precis historique_ (1813); Th. - Thomson's _Annals of Philosophy_ (1813-1820), vols. ii. and iv.; H. - Suter, _Geschichte der math. Wiss._ (1873); E. Duhring, _Kritische - Gesch. der allgemeinen Principien der Mechanik_ (1877, 2nd ed.); A. - Gautier, _Essai historique sur le probleme des trois corps_ (1817); R. - Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_, &c.; Pietro Cossali, _Eloge_ - (Padua, 1813); L. Martini, _Cenni biografici_ (1840); _Moniteur du 26 - Fevrier_ (1814); W. Whewell, _Hist. of the Inductive Sciences_, ii. - _passim_; J. Clerk Maxwell, _Electricity and Magnetism_, ii. 184; A. - Berry, _Short Hist. of Astr._, p. 313; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. - moderne_, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. - Handworterbuch_. (A. M. C.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Oeuvres_, i. 15. - - [2] _Mec. An._, Advertisement to 1st ed. - - [3] E. Duhring, _Kritische Gesch. der Mechanik_, 220, 367; Lagrange, - _Mec. An._ i. 166-172, 3rd ed. - - [4] Notice by J. Delambre, _Oeuvres de Lagrange_, i. p. xlii. - - [5] _Oeuvres_, iii. 441. - - [6] _Theorie des fonctions_, p. 6. - - [7] H. Suter, _Geschichte der math. Wiss._ ii. 222-223. - - [8] _Oeuvres_, vi. 771. - - [9] _Oeuvres_, v. 211 seq. - - [10] Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_, p. 117. - - - - -LAGRANGE-CHANCEL [CHANCEL], FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1677-1758), French -dramatist and satirist, was born at Perigueux on the 1st of January -1677. He was an extremely precocious boy, and at Bordeaux, where he was -educated, he produced a play when he was nine years old. Five years -later his mother took him to Paris, where he found a patron in the -princesse de Conti, to whom he dedicated his tragedy of _Jugurtha_ or, -as it was called later, _Adherbal_ (1694). Racine had given him advice -and was present at the first performance, although he had long lived in -complete retirement. Other plays followed: _Oreste et Pylade_ (1697), -_Meleagre_ (1699), _Amasis_ (1701), and _Ino et Melicerte_ (1715). -Lagrange hardly realized the high hopes raised by his precocity, -although his only serious rival on the tragic stage was Campistron, but -he obtained high favour at court, becoming _maitre d'hotel_ to the -duchess of Orleans. This prosperity ended with the publication in 1720 -of his _Philippiques_, odes accusing the regent, Philip, duke of -Orleans, of the most odious crimes. He might have escaped the -consequences of this libel but for the bitter enmity of a former patron, -the duc de La Force. Lagrange found sanctuary at Avignon, but was -enticed beyond the boundary of the papal jurisdiction, when he was -arrested and sent as a prisoner to the isles of Sainte Marguerite. He -contrived, however, to escape to Sardinia and thence to Spain and -Holland, where he produced his fourth and fifth _Philippiques_. On the -death of the Regent he was able to return to France. He was part author -of a _Histoire de Perigord_ left unfinished, and made a further -contribution to history, or perhaps, more exactly, to romance, in a -letter to Elie Freron on the identity of the Man with the Iron Mask. -Lagrange's family life was embittered by a long lawsuit against his son. -He died at Perigueux at the end of December 1758. - - He had collected his own works (5 vols., 1758) some months before his - death. His most famous work, the _Philippiques_, was edited by M. de - Lescure in 1858, and a sixth philippic by M. Diancourt in 1886. - - - - -LA GRANJA, or SAN ILDEFONSO, a summer palace of the kings of Spain; on -the south-eastern border of the province of Segovia, and on the western -slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama, 7 m. by road S.E. of the city of -Segovia. The royal estate is 3905 ft. above sea-level. The scenery of -this region, especially in the gorge of the river Lozoya, with its -granite rocks, its dense forest of pines, firs and birches, and its -red-tiled farms, more nearly resembles the highlands of northern Europe -than any other part of Spain. La Granja has an almost alpine climate, -with a clear, cool atmosphere and abundant sunshine. Above the palace -rise the wooded summits of the Guadarrama, culminating in the peak of -Penalara (7891 ft.); in front of it the wide plains of Segovia extend -northwards. The village of San Ildefonso, the oldest part of the estate, -was founded in 1450 by Henry IV., who built a hunting lodge and chapel -here. In 1477 the chapel was presented by Ferdinand and Isabella to the -monks of the Parral, a neighbouring Hieronymite monastery. The original -_granja_ (i.e. grange or farm), established by the monks, was purchased -in 1719 by Philip V., after the destruction of his summer palace at -Valsain, the ancient _Vallis Sapinorum_, 2 m. S. Philip determined to -convert the estate into a second Versailles. The palace was built -between 1721 and 1723. Its facade is fronted by a colonnade in which the -pillars reach to the roof. The state apartments contain some valuable -18th-century furniture, but the famous collection of sculptures was -removed to Madrid in 1836, and is preserved there in the Museo del -Prado. At La Granja it is represented by facsimiles in plaster. The -collegiate church adjoining the palace dates from 1724, and contains the -tombs of Philip V. and his consort Isabella Farnese. An artificial lake -called El Mar, 4095 ft. above sea-level, irrigates the gardens, which -are imitated from those of Versailles, and supplies water for the -fountains. These, despite the antiquated and sometimes tasteless style -of their ornamentation, are probably the finest in the world; it is -noteworthy that, owing to the high level of the lake, no pumps or other -mechanism are needed to supply pressure. There are twenty-six fountains -besides lakes and waterfalls. Among the most remarkable are the group of -"Perseus, Andromeda and the Sea-Monster," which sends up a jet of water -110 ft. high, the "Fame," which reaches 125 ft., and the very elaborate -"Baths of Diana." It is of the last that Philip V. is said to have -remarked, "It has cost me three millions and amused me three minutes." -Most of the fountains were made by order of Queen Isabella in 1727, -during the king's absence. The glass factory of San Ildefonso was -founded by Charles III. - - It was in La Granja that Philip V. resigned the crown to his son in - January 1724, to resume it after his son's death seven months later; - that the treaties of 1777, 1778, 1796 and 1800 were signed (see SPAIN: - _History_); that Ferdinand VII. summoned Don Carlos to the throne in - 1832, but was induced to alter the succession in favour of his own - infant daughter Isabella, thus involving Spain in civil war; and that - in 1836 a military revolt compelled the Queen-regent Christina to - restore the constitution of 1812. - - - - -LAGRENEE, LOUIS JEAN FRANCOIS (1724-1805), French painter, was a pupil -of Carle Vanloo. Born at Paris on the 30th of December 1724, in 1755 he -became a member of the Royal Academy, presenting as his diploma picture -the "Rape of Deianira" (Louvre). He visited St Petersburg at the call of -the empress Elizabeth, and on his return was named in 1781 director of -the French Academy at Rome; he there painted the "Indian Widow," one of -his best-known works. In 1804 Napoleon conferred on him the cross of the -legion of honour, and on the 19th of June 1805 he died in the Louvre, of -which he was honorary keeper. - - - - -LA GUAIRA, or LA GUAYRA (sometimes LAGUAIRA, &c.), a town and port of -Venezuela, in the Federal district, 23 m. by rail and 6(1/2) m. in a -direct line N. of Caracas. Pop. (1904, estimate) 14,000. It is situated -between a precipitous mountain side and a broad, semicircular -indentation of the coast line which forms the roadstead of the port. The -anchorage was long considered one of the most dangerous on the Caribbean -coast, and landing was attended with much danger. The harbour has been -improved by the construction of a concrete breakwater running out from -the eastern shore line 2044 ft., built up from an extreme depth of 46 -ft. or from an average depth of 29(1/2) ft., and rising 19(1/2) ft. -above sea-level. This encloses an area of 76(1/2) acres, having an -average depth of nearly 28 ft. The harbour is further improved by 1870 -ft. of concrete quays and 1397 ft. of retaining sea-wall, with several -piers (three covered) projecting into deep water. These works were -executed by a British company, known as the La Guaira Harbour -Corporation, Ltd., and were completed in 1891 at a cost of about one -million sterling. The concession is for 99 years and the additional -charges which the company is authorized to impose are necessarily heavy. -These improvements and the restrictions placed upon the direct trade -between West Indian ports and the Orinoco have greatly increased the -foreign trade of La Guaira, which in 1903 was 52% of that of the four -_puertos habilitados_ of the republic. The shipping entries of that -year numbered 217, of which 203 entered with general cargo and 14 with -coal exclusively. The exports included 152,625 bags coffee, 114,947 bags -cacao and 152,891 hides. For 1905-1906 the imports at La Guaira were -valued officially at L767,365 and the exports at L663,708. The city -stands on sloping ground stretching along the circular coast line with a -varying width of 130 to 330 ft. and having the appearance of an -amphitheatre. The port improvements added 18 acres of reclaimed land to -La Guaira's area, and the removal of old shore batteries likewise -increased its available breadth. In this narrow space is built the town, -composed in great part of small, roughly-made cabins, and narrow, -badly-paved streets, but with good business houses on its principal -street. From the mountain side, reddish-brown in colour and bare of -vegetation, the solar heat is reflected with tremendous force, the mean -annual temperature being 84 deg. F. The seaside towns of Maiquetia, 2 m. -W. and Macuto, 3 m. E., which have better climatic and sanitary -conditions and are connected by a narrow-gauge railway, are the -residences of many of the wealthier merchants of La Guaira. - -La Guaira was founded in 1588, was sacked by filibusters under Amias -Preston in 1595, and by the French under Grammont in 1680, was destroyed -by the great earthquake of the 26th of March 1812, and suffered severely -in the war for independence. In 1903, pending the settlement of claims -of Great Britain, Germany and Italy against Venezuela, La Guaira was -blockaded by a British-German-Italian fleet. - - - - -LA GUERONNIERE, LOUIS ETIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HELION, VICOMTE DE -(1816-1875), French politician, was the scion of a noble Poitevin -family. Although by birth and education attached to Legitimist -principles, he became closely associated with Lamartine, to whose organ, -_Le Bien Public_, he was a principal contributor. After the stoppage of -this paper he wrote for _La Presse_, and in 1850 edited _Le Pays_. A -character sketch of Louis Napoleon in this journal caused differences -with Lamartine, and La Gueronniere became more and more closely -identified with the policy of the prince president. Under the Empire he -was a member of the council of state (1853), senator (1861), ambassador -at Brussels (1868), and at Constantinople (1870), and grand officer of -the legion of honour (1866). He died in Paris on the 23rd of December -1875. Besides his _Etudes et portraits politiques contemporains_ (1856) -his most important works are those on the foreign policy of the Empire: -_La France, Rome et Italie_ (1851), _L'Abandon de Rome_ (1862), _De la -politique interieure et exterieure de la France_ (1862). - -His elder brother, ALFRED DUBREUIL HELION, Comte de La Gueronniere -(1810-1884), who remained faithful to the Legitimist party, was also a -well-known writer and journalist. He was consistent in his opposition to -the July Monarchy and the Empire, but in a series of books on the crisis -of 1870-1871 showed a more favourable attitude to the Republic. - - - - -LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES (1858- ), French lawyer and politician, was -born in Paris on the 24th of June 1858. Called to the bar in 1879, he -distinguished himself by brilliant pleadings in favour of socialist and -anarchist leaders, defending Prince Kropotkine at Lyons in 1883, Louise -Michel in the same year; and in 1886, with A. Millerand as colleague he -defended Ernest Roche and Duc Quercy, the instigators of the Decazeville -strike. His strictures on the _procureur de la Republique_ on this -occasion being declared libellous he was suspended for six months and in -1890 he again incurred suspension for an attack on the attorney-general, -Quesnay de Beaurepaire. He also pleaded in the greatest criminal cases -of his time, though from 1893 onwards exclusively in the provinces, his -exclusion from the Parisian bar having been secured on the pretext of -his connexion with _La Presse_. He entered the Chamber of Deputies for -Apt in 1883 as a representative of the extreme revisionist programme, -and was one of the leaders of the Boulangist agitation. He had formerly -written for Georges Clemenceau's organ _La Justice_, but when Clemenceau -refused to impose any shibboleth on the radical party he became director -of _La Presse_. He rallied to the republican party in May 1801, some -months before General Boulanger's suicide. He was not re-elected to the -Chamber in 1893. Laguerre was an excellent lecturer on the revolutionary -period of French history, concerning which he had collected many -valuable and rare documents. He interested himself in the fate of the -"Little Dauphin" (Louis XVII.), whose supposed remains, buried at Ste -Marguerite, he proved to be those of a boy of fourteen. - - - - -LAGUNA, or LA LAGUNA, an episcopal city and formerly the capital of the -island of Teneriffe, in the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands. -Pop. (1900) 13,074. Laguna is 4 m. N. by W. of Santa Cruz, in a plain -1800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by mountains. Snow is unknown here, -and the mean annual temperature exceeds 63 deg. F.; but the rainfall is -very heavy, and in winter the plain is sometimes flooded. The humidity -of the atmosphere, combined with the warm climate and rich volcanic -soil, renders the district exceptionally fertile; wheat, wine and -tobacco, oranges and other fruits, are produced in abundance. Laguna is -the favourite summer residence of the wealthier inhabitants of Santa -Cruz. Besides the cathedral, the city contains several picturesque -convents, now secularized, a fine modern town hall, hospitals, a large -public library and some ancient palaces of the Spanish nobility. Even -the modern buildings have often an appearance of antiquity, owing to the -decay caused by damp, and the luxuriant growth of climbing plants. - - - - -LA HARPE, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1739-1803), French critic, was born in Paris -of poor parents on the 20th of November 1739. His father, who signed -himself Delharpe, was a descendant of a noble family originally of Vaud. -Left an orphan at the age of nine, La Harpe was taken care of for six -months by the sisters of charity, and his education was provided for by -a scholarship at the College d'Harcourt. When nineteen he was imprisoned -for some months on the charge of having written a satire against his -protectors at the college. La Harpe always denied his guilt, but this -culminating misfortune of an early life spent entirely in the position -of a dependent had possibly something to do with the bitterness he -evinced in later life. In 1763 his tragedy of _Warwick_ was played -before the court. This, his first play, was perhaps the best he ever -wrote. The many authors whom he afterwards offended were always able to -observe that the critic's own plays did not reach the standard of -excellence he set up. _Timoleon_ (1764), _Pharamond_ (1765) and _Gustave -Wasa_ (1766) were failures. _Melanie_ was a better play, but was never -represented. The success of _Warwick_ led to a correspondence with -Voltaire, who conceived a high opinion of La Harpe, even allowing him to -correct his verses. In 1764 La Harpe married the daughter of a coffee -house keeper. This marriage, which proved very unhappy and was -dissolved, did not improve his position. They were very poor, and for -some time were guests of Voltaire at Ferney. When, after Voltaire's -death, La Harpe in his praise of the philosopher ventured on some -reasonable, but rather ill-timed, criticism of individual works, he was -accused of treachery to one who had been his constant friend. In 1768 he -returned from Ferney to Paris, where he began to write for the -_Mercure_. He was a born fighter and had small mercy on the authors -whose work he handled. But he was himself violently attacked, and -suffered under many epigrams, especially those of Lebrun-Pindare. No -more striking proof of the general hostility can be given than his -reception (1776) at the Academy, which Sainte-Beuve calls his -"execution." Marmontel, who received him, used the occasion to eulogize -La Harpe's predecessor, Charles Pierre Colardeau, especially for his -pacific, modest and indulgent disposition. The speech was punctuated by -the applause of the audience, who chose to regard it as a series of -sarcasms on the new member. Eventually La Harpe was compelled to resign -from the _Mercure_, which he had edited from 1770. On the stage he -produced _Les Barmecides_ (1778), _Philoctete_, _Jeanne de Naples_ -(1781), _Les Brames_ (1783), _Coriolan_ (1784), _Virginie_ (1786). In -1786 he began a course of literature at the newly-established Lycee. In -these lectures, published as the _Cours de litterature ancienne et -moderne_, La Harpe is at his best, for he found a standpoint more or -less independent of contemporary polemics. He is said to be inexact in -dealing with the ancients, and he had only a superficial knowledge of -the middle ages, but he is excellent in his analysis of 17th-century -writers. Sainte-Beuve found in him the best critic of the French school -of tragedy, which reached its perfection in Racine. La Harpe was a -disciple of the "_philosophes_"; he supported the extreme party through -the excesses of 1792 and 1793. In 1793 he edited the _Mercure de France_ -which adhered blindly to the revolutionary leaders. But in April 1794 he -was nevertheless seized as a "suspect." In prison he underwent a -spiritual crisis which he described in convincing language, and he -emerged an ardent Catholic and a reactionist in politics. When he -resumed his chair at the Lycee, he attacked his former friends in -politics and literature. He was imprudent enough to begin the -publication (1801-1807) of his _Correspondance litteraire_ (1774-1791) -with the grand-duke, afterwards the emperor Paul of Russia. In these -letters he surpassed the brutalities of the _Mercure_. He contracted a -second marriage, which was dissolved after a few weeks by his wife. He -died on the 11th of February 1803 in Paris, leaving in his will an -incongruous exhortation to his fellow countrymen to maintain peace and -concord. Among his posthumous works was a _Prophetie de Cazotte_ which -Sainte-Beuve pronounces his best work. It is a sombre description of a -dinner-party of notables long before the Revolution, when Jacques -Cazotte is made to prophesy the frightful fates awaiting the various -individuals of the company. - - Among his works not already mentioned are:--_Commentaire sur Racine_ - (1795-1796), published in 1807; _Commentaire sur le theatre de - Voltaire_ of earlier date (published posthumously in 1814), and an - epic poem _La Religion_ (1814). His _Cours de litterature_ has been - often reprinted. To the edition of 1825-1826 is prefixed a notice by - Pierre Daunou. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. v.; - G. Peignot, _Recherches historiques, bibliographiques et litteraires - ... sur La Harpe_ (1820). - - - - -LAHIRE, LAURENT DE (1606-1656), French painter, was born at Paris on the -27th of February 1606. He became a pupil of Lallemand, studied the works -of Primaticcio at Fontainebleau, but never visited Italy, and belongs -wholly to that transition period which preceded the school of Simon -Vouet. His picture of Nicolas V. opening the crypt in which he discovers -the corpse of St Francis of Assisi standing (Louvre) was executed in -1630 for the Capuchins of the Marais; it shows a gravity and sobriety of -character which marked Lahire's best work, and seems not to have been -without influence on Le Sueur. The Louvre contains eight other works, -and paintings by Lahire are in the museums of Strasburg, Rouen and Le -Mans. His drawings, of which the British Museum possesses a fine -example, "Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple," are treated as -seriously as his paintings, and sometimes show simplicity and dignity of -effect. The example of the Capuchins, for whom he executed several other -works in Paris, Rouen and Fecamp, was followed by the goldsmiths' -company, for whom he produced in 1635 "St Peter healing the Sick" -(Louvre) and the "Conversion of St Paul" in 1637. In 1646, with eleven -other artists, he founded the French Royal Academy of Painting and -Sculpture. Richelieu called Lahire to the Palais Royal; Chancellor -Seguier, Tallemant de Reaux and many others entrusted him with important -works of decoration; for the Gobelins he designed a series of large -compositions. Lahire painted also a great number of portraits, and in -1654 united in one work for the town-hall of Paris those of the -principal dignitaries of the municipality. He died on the 28th of -December 1656. - - - - -LAHN, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Rhine. Its -source is on the Jagdberg, a summit of the Rothaar Mountains, in the -cellar of a house (Lahnhof), at an elevation of 1975 ft. It flows at -first eastward and then southward to Giessen, then turns south-westward -and with a winding course reaches the Rhine between the towns of -Oberlahnstein and Niederlahnstein. Its valley, the lower part of which -divides the Taunus hills from the Westerwald, is often very narrow and -picturesque; among the towns and sites of interest on its banks are -Marburg and Giessen with their universities, Wetzlar with its cathedral, -Runkel with its castle, Limburg with its cathedral, the castles of -Schaumburg, Balduinstein, Laurenburg, Langenau, Burgstein and Nassau, -and the well-known health resort of Ems. The Lahn is about 135 m. long; -it is navigable from its mouth to Giessen, and is partly canalized. A -railway follows the valley practically throughout. In 1796 there were -here several encounters between the French under General Jourdan and the -troops of the archduke Johan, which resulted in the retreat of the -French across the Rhine. - - - - -LAHNDA (properly _Lahnda_ or _Lahinda_, western, or _Lahnde-di boli_, -the language of the West), an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the western -Punjab. In 1901 the number of speakers was 3,337,917. Its eastern -boundary is very indefinite as the language gradually merges into the -Panjabi immediately to the east, but it is conventionally taken as the -river Chenab from the Kashmir frontier to the town of Ramnagar, and -thence as a straight line to the south-west corner of the district of -Montgomery. Lahnda is also spoken in the north of the state of -Bahawalpur and of the province of Sind, in which latter locality it is -known as Siraiki. Its western boundary is, roughly speaking, the river -Indus, across which the language of the Afghan population is Pashto -(Pushtu), while the Hindu settlers still speak Lahnda. In the Derajat, -however, Lahnda is the principal language of all classes in the plains -west of the river. - -Lahnda is also known as Western Panjabi and as Jatki, or the language of -the Jats, who form the bulk of the population whose mother-tongue it is. -In the Derajat it is called Hindko or the language of Hindus. In 1819 -the Serampur missionaries published a Lahnda version of the New -Testament. They called the language Uchchi, from the important town of -Uch near the confluence of the Jhelam and the Chenab. This name is -commonly met with in old writings. It has numerous dialects, which fall -into two main groups, a northern and a southern, the speakers of which -are separated by the Salt Range. The principal varieties of the northern -group are Hindki (the same in meaning as Hindko) and Pothwari. In the -southern group the most important are Khetrani, Multani, and the dialect -of Shahpur. The language possesses no literature. - - Lahnda belongs to the north-western group of the outer band of - Indo-Aryan languages (q.v.), the other members being Kashmiri (q.v.) - and Sindhi, with both of which it is closely connected. See SINDHI; - also HINDOSTANI. (G. A. Gr.) - - - - -LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF, the name now given to a series of encounters which -took place from the 19th to the 23rd (O.S.) of May 1692, between an -allied British and Dutch fleet and a French force, on the northern and -eastern sides of the Cotentin in Normandy. A body of French troops, and -a number of Jacobite exiles, had been collected in the Cotentin. The -government of Louis XIV. prepared a naval armament to cover their -passage across the Channel. This force was to have been composed of the -French ships at Brest commanded by the count of Tourville, and of a -squadron which was to have joined him from Toulon. But the Toulon ships -were scattered by a gale, and the combination was not effected. The -count of Tourville, who had put to sea to meet them, had with him only -45 or 47 ships of the line. Yet when the reinforcement failed to join -him, he steered up Channel to meet the allies, who were known to be in -strength. On the 15th of May the British fleet of 63 sail of the line, -under command of Edward Russell, afterwards earl of Orford, was joined -at St Helens by the Dutch squadron of 36 sail under Admiral van -Allemonde. The apparent rashness of the French admiral in seeking an -encounter with very superior numbers is explained by the existence of a -general belief that many British captains were discontented, and would -pass over from the service of the government established by the -Revolution of 1688 to their exiled king, James II. It is said that -Tourville had orders from Louis XIV. to attack in any case, but the -story is of doubtful authority. The British government, aware of the -Jacobite intrigues in its fleet, and of the prevalence of discontent, -took the bold course of appealing to the loyalty and patriotism of its -officers. At a meeting of the flag-officers on board the "Britannia," -Russell's flag-ship, on the 15th of May, they protested their loyalty, -and the whole allied fleet put to sea on the 18th. On the 19th of May, -when Cape Barfleur, the north-eastern point of the Cotentin, was 21 m. -S.W. of them, they sighted Tourville, who was then 20 m. to the north of -Cape La Hague, the north-western extremity of the peninsula, which must -not be confounded with La Houque, or La Hogue, the place at which the -fighting ended. The allies were formed in a line from S.S.W. to N.N.E. -heading towards the English coast, the Dutch forming the White or van -division, while the Red or centre division under Russell, and the Blue -or rear under Sir John Ashby, were wholly composed of British ships. The -wind was from the S.W. and the weather hazy. Tourville bore down and -attacked about mid-day, directing his main assault on the centre of the -allies, but telling off some ships to watch the van and rear of his -enemy. As this first encounter took place off Cape Barfleur, the battle -was formerly often called by the name. On the centre, where Tourville -was directly opposed to Russell, the fighting was severe. The British -flag-ship the "Britannia" (100), and the French, the "Soleil Royal" -(100), were both completely crippled. After several hours of conflict, -the French admiral, seeing himself outnumbered, and that the allies -could outflank him and pass through the necessarily wide intervals in -his extended line, drew off without the loss of a ship. The wind now -fell and the haze became a fog. Till the 23rd, the two fleets remained -off the north coast of the Cotentin, drifting west with the ebb tide or -east with the flood, save when they anchored. During the night of the -19th/20th some British ships became entangled, in the fog, with the -French, and drifted through them on the tide, with loss. On the 23rd -both fleets were near La Hague. About half the French, under -D'Amfreville, rounded the cape, and fled to St Malo through the -dangerous passage known as the Race of Alderney (le Ras Blanchard). The -others were unable to get round the cape before the flood tide set in, -and were carried to the eastward. Tourville now transferred his own -flag, and left his captains free to save themselves as they best could. -He left the "Soleil Royal," and sent her with two others to Cherbourg, -where they were destroyed by Sir Ralph Delaval. The others now ran round -Cape Barfleur, and sought refuge on the east side of the Cotentin at the -anchorage of La Houque, called by the English La Hogue, where the troops -destined for the invasion were encamped. Here 13 of them were burnt by -Sir George Rooke, in the presence of the French generals and of the -exiled king James II. From the name of the place where the last blow was -struck, the battle has come to be known by the name of La Hogue. - - Sufficient accounts of the battle may be found in Lediard's _Naval - History_ (London, 1735), and for the French side in Tronde's - _Batailles navales de la France_ (Paris, 1867). The escape of - D'Amfreville's squadron is the subject of Browning's poem "Herve - Riel." (D. H.) - - - - -LAHORE, an ancient city of British India, the capital of the Punjab, -which gives its name to a district and division. It lies in 31 deg. 35' -N. and 74 deg. 20' E. near the left bank of the River Ravi, 1706 ft. -above the sea, and 1252 m. by rail from Calcutta. It is thus in about -the same latitude as Cairo, but owing to its inland position is -considerably hotter than that city, being one of the hottest places in -India in the summer time. In the cold season the climate is pleasantly -cool and bright. The native city is walled, about 1(1/4) m. in length W. -to E. and about 3/4 m. in breadth N. to S. Its site has been occupied -from early times, and much of it stands high above the level of the -surrounding country, raised on the remains of a succession of former -habitations. Some old buildings, which have been preserved, stand now -below the present surface of the ground. This is well seen in the mosque -now called Masjid Niwin (or sunken) built in 1560, the mosque of Mullah -Rahmat, 7 ft. below, and the Shivali, a very old Hindu temple, about 12 -ft. below the surrounding ground. Hindu tradition traces the origin of -Lahore to Loh or Lava, son of Rama, the hero of the _Ramayana_. The -absence of mention of Lahore by Alexander's historians, and the fact -that coins of the Graeco-Bactrian kings are not found among the ruins, -lead to the belief that it was not a place of any importance during the -earliest period of Indian history. On the other hand, Hsuan Tsang, the -Chinese Buddhist, notices the city in his _Itinerary_ (A.D. 630); and it -seems probable, therefore, that Lahore first rose into prominence -between the 1st and 7th centuries A.D. Governed originally by a family -of Chauhan Rajputs, a branch of the house of Ajmere, Lahore fell -successively under the dominion of the Ghazni and Ghori sultans, who -made it the capital of their Indian conquests, and adorned it with -numerous buildings, almost all now in ruins. But it was under the Mogul -empire that Lahore reached its greatest size and magnificence. The -reigns of Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb form the -golden period in the annals and architecture of the city. Akbar enlarged -and repaired the fort, and surrounded the town with a wall, portions of -which remain, built into the modern work of Ranjit Singh. Lahore formed -the capital of the Sikh empire of that monarch. At the end of the second -Sikh War, with the rest of the Punjab, it came under the British -dominion. - -The architecture of Lahore cannot compare with that of Delhi. Jahangir -in 1622-1627 erected the Khwabgah or "sleeping-place," a fine palace -much defaced by the Sikhs but to some extent restored in modern times; -the Moti Masjid or "pearl mosque" in the fort, used by Ranjit Singh and -afterwards by the British as a treasure-house; and also the tomb of -Anarkali, used formerly as the station church and now as a library. Shah -Jahan erected a palace and other buildings near the Khwabgah, including -the beautiful pavilion called the Naulakha from its cost of nine lakhs, -which was inlaid with precious stones. The mosque of Wazir Khan (1634) -provides the finest example of _kashi_ or encaustic tile work. -Aurangzeb's Jama Masjid, or "great mosque," is a huge bare building, -stiff in design, and lacking the detailed ornament typical of buildings -at Delhi. The buildings of Ranjit Singh, especially his mausoleum, are -common and meretricious in style. He was, moreover, responsible for much -of the despoiling of the earlier buildings. The streets of the native -city are narrow and tortuous, and are best seen from the back of an -elephant. Two of the chief features of Lahore lie outside its walls at -Shahdara and Shalamar Gardens respectively. Shahdara, which contains the -tomb of the emperor Jahangir, lies across the Ravi some 6 m. N. of the -city. It consists of a splendid marble cenotaph surrounded by a grove of -trees and gardens. The Shalamar Gardens, which were laid out in A.D. -1637 by Shah Jahan, lie 6 m. E. of the city. They are somewhat neglected -except on festive occasions, when the fountains are playing and the -trees are lit up by lamps at night. - -The modern city of Lahore, which contained a population of 202,964 in -1901, may be divided into four parts: the native city, already -described; the civil station or European quarter, known as Donald Town; -the Anarkali bazaar, a suburb S. of the city wall; and the cantonment, -formerly called Mian Mir. The main street of the civil station is a -portion of the grand trunk road from Calcutta to Peshawar, locally known -as the Mall. The chief modern buildings along this road, west to east, -are the Lahore museum, containing a fine collection of Graeco-Buddhist -sculptures, found by General Cunningham in the Yusufzai country, and -arranged by Mr Lockwood Kipling, a former curator of the museum; the -cathedral, begun by Bishop French, in Early English style, and -consecrated in 1887; the Lawrence Gardens and Montgomery Halls, -surrounded by a garden that forms the chief meeting-place of Europeans -in the afternoon; and opposite this government house, the official -residence of the lieutenant-governor of the Punjab; next to this is the -Punjab club for military men and civilians. Three miles beyond is the -Lahore cantonment, where the garrison is stationed, except a company of -British infantry, which occupies the fort. It is the headquarters of the -3rd division of the northern army. Lahore is an important junction on -the North-Western railway system, but has little local trade or -manufacture. The chief industries are silk goods, gold and silver lace, -metal work and carpets which are made in the Lahore gaol. There are also -cotton mills, flour mills, an ice-factory, and several factories for -mineral waters, oils, soap, leather goods, &c. Lahore is an important -educational centre. Here are the Punjab University with five colleges, -medical and law colleges, a central training college, the Aitchison -Chiefs' College for the sons of native noblemen, and a number of other -high schools and technical and special schools. - -The DISTRICT OF LAHORE has an area of 3704 sq. m., and its population in -1901 was 1,162,109, consisting chiefly of Punjabi Mahommedans with a -large admixture of Hindus and Sikhs. In the north-west the district -includes a large part of the barren Rechna Doab, while south of the Ravi -is a desolate alluvial tract, liable to floods. The Manjha plateau, -however, between the Ravi and the Beas, has been rendered fertile by the -Bari Doab canal. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, millets, maize, -oil-seeds and cotton. There are numerous factories for ginning and -pressing cotton. Irrigation is provided by the main line of the Bari -Doab canal and its branches, and by inundation-cuts from the Sutlej. The -district is crossed in several directions by lines of the North-Western -railway. Lahore, Kasur, Chunian and Raiwind are the chief trade centres. - -The DIVISION OF LAHORE extends along the right bank of the Sutlej from -the Himalayas to Multan. It comprises the six districts of Sialkot, -Gujranwala, Montgomery, Lahore, Amritsar and Gurdaspur. Total area, -17,154 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 5,598,463. The commissioner for the division -also exercises political control over the hill slate of Chamba. The -common language of the rural population and of artisans is Punjabi; -while Urdu or Hindustani is spoken by the educated classes. So far from -the seaboard, the range between extremes of winter and summer -temperature in the sub-tropics is great. The mean temperature in the -shade in June is about 92 deg. F., in January about 50 deg. In midsummer -the thermometer sometimes rises to 115 deg. in the shade, and remains on -some occasions as high as 105 deg. throughout the night. In winter the -morning temperature is sometimes as low as 20 deg. The rainfall is -uncertain, ranging from 8 in. to 25, with an average of 15 in. The -country as a whole is parched and arid, and greatly dependent on -irrigation. - - - - -LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE (1630?-1710?), Spanish dramatist, was -born in Madrid. He became a knight of Santiago in 1653, and soon -afterwards succeeded his father as _regidor_ of Burgos. In 1665 he was -nominated to an important post at the Treasury, and in his later years -acted as official censor of the Madrid theatres. On the 13th of August -1709 he signed his play entitled _Josef, salvador de Egipto_, and is -presumed to have died in the following year. Hoz is not remarkable for -originality of conception, but his recasts of plays by earlier writers -are distinguished by an adroitness which accounts for the esteem in -which he was held by his contemporaries. _El Montanes Juan Pascal_ and -_El castigo de la miseria_, reprinted in the _Biblioteca de Autores -Espanoles_, give a just idea of his adaptable talent. - - - - -LAHR, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the Schutter, about 9 m. S. -of Offenburg, and on the railway Dinglingen-Lahr. Pop. (1900) 13,577. -One of the busiest towns in Baden, it carries on manufactures of tobacco -and cigars, woollen goods, chicory, leather, pasteboard, hats and -numerous other articles, has considerable trade in wine, while among its -other industries are printing and lithography. Lahr first appears as a -town in 1278, and after several vicissitudes it passed wholly to Baden -in 1803. - - See Stein, _Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Lahr_ (Lahr, 1827); - and Sutterlin, _Lahr und seine Umgebung_ (Lahr, 1904). - - - - -LAIBACH (Slovenian, _Ljubljana_), capital of the Austrian duchy of -Carniola, 237 m. S.S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 36,547, mostly -Slovene. It is situated on the Laibach, near its influx into the Save, -and consists of the town proper and eight suburbs. Laibach is an -episcopal see, and possesses a cathedral in the Italian style, several -beautiful churches, a town hall in Renaissance style and a castle, built -in the 15th century, on the Schlossberg, an eminence which commands the -town. Laibach is the principal centre of the national Slovenian -movement, and it contains a Slovene theatre and several societies for -the promotion of science and literature in the native tongue. The -Slovenian language is in general official use, and the municipal -administration is purely Slovenian. The industries include manufactures -of pottery, bricks, oil, linen and woollen cloth, fire-hose and paper. - - Laibach is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Emona or Aemona, - founded by the emperor Augustus in 34 B.C. It was besieged by Alaric - in 400, and in 451 it was desolated by the Huns. In 900 Laibach - suffered much from the Magyars, who were, however, defeated there in - 914. In the 12th century the town passed into the hands of the dukes - of Carinthia; in 1270 it was taken by Ottocar of Bohemia; and in 1277 - it came under the Habsburgs. In the early part of the 15th century the - town was several times besieged by the Turks. The bishopric was - founded in 1461. On the 17th of March 1797 and again on the 3rd of - June 1809 Laibach was taken by the French, and from 1809 to 1813 it - became the seat of their general government of the Illyrian provinces. - From 1816 to 1849 Laibach was the capital of the kingdom of Illyria. - The town is also historically known from the congress of Laibach, - which assembled here in 1821 (see below). Laibach suffered severely on - the 14th of April 1895 from an earthquake. - -_Congress or Conference of Laibach._--Before the break-up of the -conference of Troppau (q.v.), it had been decided to adjourn it till the -following January, and to invite the attendance of the king of Naples, -Laibach being chosen as the place of meeting. Castlereagh, in the name -of Great Britain, had cordially approved this invitation, as "implying -negotiation" and therefore as a retreat from the position taken up in -the Troppau Protocol. Before leaving Troppau, however, the three -autocratic powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, had issued, on the 8th -of December 1820, a circular letter, in which they reiterated the -principles of the Protocol, i.e. the right and duty of the powers -responsible for the peace of Europe to intervene to suppress any -revolutionary movement by which they might conceive that peace to be -endangered (Hertslet, No. 105). Against this view Castlereagh once more -protested in a circular despatch of the 19th of January 1821, in which -he clearly differentiated between the objectionable general principles -advanced by the three powers, and the particular case of the unrest in -Italy, the immediate concern not of Europe at large, but of Austria and -of any other Italian powers which might consider themselves endangered -(Hertslet, No. 107). - -The conference opened on the 26th of January 1821, and its constitution -emphasized the divergences revealed in the above circulars. The emperors -of Russia and Austria were present in person, and with them were Counts -Nesselrode and Capo d'Istria, Metternich and Baron Vincent; Prussia and -France were represented by plenipotentiaries. But Great Britain, on the -ground that she had no immediate interest in the Italian question, was -represented only by Lord Stewart, the ambassador at Vienna, who was not -armed with full powers, his mission being to watch the proceedings and -to see that nothing was done beyond or in violation of the treaties. Of -the Italian princes, Ferdinand of Naples and the duke of Modena came in -person; the rest were represented by plenipotentiaries. - -It was soon clear that a more or less open breach between Great Britain -and the other powers was inevitable, Metternich was anxious to secure an -apparent unanimity of the powers to back the Austrian intervention in -Naples, and every device was used to entrap the English representative -into subscribing a formula which would have seemed to commit Great -Britain to the principles of the other allies. When these devices -failed, attempts were made unsuccessfully to exclude Lord Stewart from -the conferences on the ground of defective powers. Finally he was forced -to an open protest, which he caused to be inscribed on the journals, but -the action of Capo d'Istria in reading to the assembled Italian -ministers, who were by no means reconciled to the large claims implied -in the Austrian intervention, a declaration in which as the result of -the "intimate union established by solemn acts between all the European -powers" the Russian emperor offered to the allies "the aid of his arms, -should new revolutions threaten new dangers," an attempt to revive that -idea of a "universal union" based on the Holy Alliance (q.v.) against -which Great Britain had consistently protested. - -The objections of Great Britain were, however, not so much to an -Austrian intervention in Naples as to the far-reaching principles by -which it was sought to justify it. King Ferdinand had been invited to -Laibach, according to the circular of the 8th of December, in order -that he might be free to act as "mediator between his erring peoples and -the states whose tranquillity they threatened." The cynical use he made -of his "freedom" to repudiate obligations solemnly contracted is -described elsewhere (see NAPLES, _History_). The result of this action -was the Neapolitan declaration of war and the occupation of Naples by -Austria, with the sanction of the congress. This was preceded, on the -10th of March, by the revolt of the garrison of Alessandria and the -military revolution in Piedmont, which in its turn was suppressed, as a -result of negotiations at Laibach, by Austrian troops. It was at -Laibach, too, that, on the 19th of March, the emperor Alexander received -the news of Ypsilanti's invasion of the Danubian principalities, which -heralded the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence, and from Laibach -Capo d'Istria addressed to the Greek leader the tsar's repudiation of -his action. - -The conference closed on the 12th of May, on which date Russia, Austria -and Prussia issued a declaration (Hertslet, No. 108) "to proclaim to the -world the principles which guided them" in coming "to the assistance of -subdued peoples," a declaration which once more affirmed the principles -of the Troppau Protocol. In this lay the European significance of the -Laibach conference, of which the activities had been mainly confined to -Italy. The issue of the declaration without the signatures of the -representatives of Great Britain and France proclaimed the disunion of -the alliance, within which--to use Lord Stewart's words--there existed -"a triple understanding which bound the parties to carry forward their -own views in spite of any difference of opinion between them and the two -great constitutional governments." - - No separate history of the congress exists, but innumerable references - are to be found in general histories and in memoirs, correspondence, - &c., of the time. See Sir E. Hertslet, _Map of Europe_ (London, 1875); - Castlereagh, _Correspondence_; Metternich, _Memoirs_; N. Bianchi, - _Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia_ (8 vols., - Turin, 1865-1872); Gentz's correspondence (see GENTZ, F. VON). - Valuable unpublished correspondence is preserved at the Record Office - in the volumes marked F. O., Austria, Lord Stewart, January to - February 1821, and March to September 1821. (W. A. P.) - - - - -LAIDLAW, WILLIAM (1780-1845), friend and amanuensis of Sir Walter Scott, -was born at Blackhouse, Selkirkshire, on the 19th of November 1780, the -son of a sheep farmer. After an elementary education in Peebles he -returned to work upon his father's farm. James Hogg, the shepherd poet, -who was employed at Blackhouse for some years, became Laidlaw's friend -and appreciative critic. Together they assisted Scott by supplying -material for his _Border Minstrelsy_, and Laidlaw, after two failures as -a farmer in Midlothian and Peebleshire, became Scott's steward at -Abbotsford. He also acted as Scott's amanuensis at different times, -taking down a large part of _The Bride of Lammermoor_, _The Legend of -Montrose_ and _Ivanhoe_ from the author's dictation. He died at Contin -near Dingwall, Ross-shire, on the 18th of May 1845. Of his poetry, -little is known except _Lucy's Flittin'_ in Hogg's _Forest Minstrel_. - - - - -LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON (1793-1826), Scottish explorer, the first -European to reach Timbuktu, was born at Edinburgh on the 27th of -December 1793. He was educated by his father, William Laing, a private -teacher of classics, and at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he went to -Barbados as clerk to his maternal uncle Colonel (afterwards General) -Gabriel Gordon. Through General Sir George Beckwith, governor of -Barbados, he obtained an ensigncy in the York Light Infantry. He was -employed in the West Indies, and in 1822 was promoted to a company in -the Royal African Corps. In that year, while with his regiment at Sierra -Leone, he was sent by the governor, Sir Charles MacCarthy, to the -Mandingo country, with the double object of opening up commerce and -endeavouring to abolish the slave trade in that region. Later in the -same year Laing visited Falaba, the capital of the Sulima country, and -ascertained the source of the Rokell. He endeavoured to reach the source -of the Niger, but was stopped by the natives. He was, however, enabled -to fix it with approximate accuracy. He took an active part in the -Ashanti War of 1823-24, and was sent home with the despatches -containing the news of the death in action of Sir Charles MacCarthy. -Henry, 3rd Earl Bathurst, then secretary for the colonies, instructed -Captain Laing to undertake a journey, via Tripoli and Timbuktu, to -further elucidate the hydrography of the Niger basin. Laing left England -in February 1825, and at Tripoli on the 14th of July following he -married Emma Warrington, daughter of the British consul. Two days later, -leaving his bride behind, he started to cross the Sahara, being -accompanied by a sheikh who was subsequently accused of planning his -murder. Ghadames was reached, by an indirect route, in October 1825, and -in December Laing was in the Tuat territory, where he was well received -by the Tuareg. On the 10th of January 1826 he left Tuat, and made for -Timbuktu across the desert of Tanezroft. Letters from him written in May -and July following told of sufferings from fever and the plundering of -his caravan by Tuareg, Laing being wounded in twenty-four places in the -fighting. Another letter dated from Timbuktu on the 21st of September -announced his arrival in that city on the preceding 18th of August, and -the insecurity of his position owing to the hostility of the Fula -chieftain Bello, then ruling the city. He added that he intended leaving -Timbuktu in three days' time. No further news was received from the -traveller. From native information it was ascertained that he left -Timbuktu on the day he had planned and was murdered on the night of the -26th of September 1826. His papers were never recovered, though it is -believed that they were secretly brought to Tripoli in 1828. In 1903 the -French government placed a tablet bearing the name of the explorer and -the date of his visit on the house occupied by him during his -thirty-eight days' stay in Timbuktu. - - While in England in 1824 Laing prepared a narrative of his earlier - journeys, which was published in 1825 and entitled _Travels in the - Timannee, Kooranko and Soolima Countries, in Western Africa_. - - - - -LAING, DAVID (1793-1878), Scottish antiquary, the son of William Laing, -a bookseller in Edinburgh, was born in that city on the 20th of April -1793. Educated at the Canongate Grammar School, when fourteen he was -apprenticed to his father. Shortly after the death of the latter in -1837, Laing was elected to the librarianship of the Signet Library, -which post he retained till his death. Apart from an extraordinary -general bibliographical knowledge, Laing was best known as a lifelong -student of the literary and artistic history of Scotland. He published -no original volumes, but contented himself with editing the works of -others. Of these, the chief are--_Dunbar's Works_ (2 vols., 1834), with -a supplement added in 1865; _Robert Baillie's Letters and Journals_ (3 -vols., 1841-1842); _John Knox's Works_ (6 vols., 1846-1864); _Poems and -Fables of Robert Henryson_ (1865); _Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale -Cronykil of Scotland_ (3 vols., 1872-1879); _Sir David Lyndsay's -Poetical Works_ (3 vols., 1879). Laing was for more than fifty years a -member of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and he contributed -upwards of a hundred separate papers to their _Proceedings_. He was also -for more than forty years secretary to the Bannatyne Club, many of the -publications of which were edited by him. He was struck with paralysis -in 1878 while in the Signet Library, and it is related that, on -recovering consciousness, he looked about and asked if a proof of -Wyntoun had been sent from the printers. He died a few days afterwards, -on the 18th of October, in his eighty-sixth year. His library was sold -by auction, and realized L16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he -bequeathed his collection of MSS. - - See the Biographical Memoir prefixed to _Select Remains of Ancient, - Popular and Romance Poetry of Scotland_, edited by John Small - (Edinburgh, 1885); also T. G. Stevenson, _Notices of David Laing with - List of his Publications, &c._ (privately printed 1878). - - - - -LAING, MALCOLM (1762-1818), Scottish historian, son of Robert Laing, and -elder brother of Samuel Laing the elder, was born on his paternal estate -on the Mainland of Orkney. Having studied at the grammar school of -Kirkwall and at Edinburgh University, he was called to the Scotch bar in -1785, but devoted his time mainly to historical studies. In 1793 he -completed the sixth and last volume of Robert Henry's _History of Great -Britain_, the portion which he wrote being in its strongly liberal tone -at variance with the preceding part of the work; and in 1802 he -published his _History of Scotland from the Union of the Crowns to the -Union of the Kingdoms_, a work showing considerable research. Attached -to the _History_ was a dissertation on the Gowrie conspiracy, and -another on the supposed authenticity of Ossian's poems. In another -dissertation, prefixed to a second and corrected edition of the -_History_ published in 1804, Laing endeavoured to prove that Mary, queen -of Scots, wrote the Casket Letters, and was partly responsible for the -murder of Lord Darnley. In the same year he edited the _Life and -Historie of King James VI._, and in 1805 brought out in two volumes an -edition of Ossian's poems. Laing, who was a friend of Charles James Fox, -was member of parliament for Orkney and Shetland from 1807 to 1812. He -died on the 6th of November 1818. - - - - -LAING, SAMUEL (1810-1897), British author and railway administrator, was -born at Edinburgh on the 12th of December 1810. He was the nephew of -Malcolm Laing, the historian of Scotland; and his father, Samuel Laing -(1780-1868), was also a well-known author, whose books on Norway and -Sweden attracted much attention. Samuel Laing the younger entered St -John's College, Cambridge, in 1827, and after graduating as second -wrangler and Smith's prizeman, was elected a fellow, and remained at -Cambridge temporarily as a coach. He was called to the bar in 1837, and -became private secretary to Mr Labouchere (afterwards Lord Taunton), the -president of the Board of Trade. In 1842 he was made secretary to the -railway department, and retained this post till 1847. He had by then -become an authority on railway working, and had been a member of the -Dalhousie Railway Commission; it was at his suggestion that the -"parliamentary" rate of a penny a mile was instituted. In 1848 he was -appointed chairman and managing director of the London, Brighton & South -Coast Railway, and his business faculty showed itself in the largely -increased prosperity of the line. He also became chairman (1852) of the -Crystal Palace Company, but retired from both posts in 1855. In 1852 he -entered parliament as a Liberal for Wick, and after losing his seat in -1857, was re-elected in 1859, in which year he was appointed financial -secretary to the Treasury; in 1860 he was made finance minister in -India. On returning from India, he was re-elected to parliament for Wick -in 1865. He was defeated in 1868, but in 1873 he was returned for Orkney -and Shetland, and retained his seat till 1885. Meanwhile he had been -reappointed chairman of the Brighton line in 1867, and continued in that -post till 1894, being generally recognized as an admirable -administrator. He was also chairman of the Railway Debenture Trust and -the Railway Share Trust. In later life he became well known as an -author, his _Modern Science and Modern Thought_ (1885), _Problems of the -Future_ (1889) and _Human Origins_ (1892) being widely read, not only by -reason of the writer's influential position, experience of affairs and -clear style, but also through their popular and at the same time -well-informed treatment of the scientific problems of the day. Laing -died at Sydenham on the 6th of August 1897. - - - - -LAING'S [or LANG'S] NEK, a pass through the Drakensberg, South Africa, -immediately north of Majuba (q.v.), at an elevation of 5400 to 6000 ft. -It is the lowest part of a ridge which slopes from Majuba to the Buffalo -river, and before the opening of the railway in 1891 the road over the -nek was the main artery of communication between Durban and Pretoria. -The railway pierces the nek by a tunnel 2213 ft. long. When the Boers -rose in revolt in December 1880 they occupied Laing's Nek to oppose the -entry of British reinforcements into the Transvaal. On the 28th of -January 1881 a small British force endeavoured to drive the Boers from -the pass, but was forced to retire. - - - - -LAIRD, MACGREGOR (1808-1861), Scottish merchant, pioneer of British -trade on the Niger, was born at Greenock in 1808, the younger son of -William Laird, founder of the Birkenhead firm of shipbuilders of that -name. In 1831 Laird and certain Liverpool merchants formed a company for -the commercial development of the Niger regions, the lower course of the -Niger having been made known that year by Richard and John Lander. In -1832 the company despatched two small ships to the Niger, one, the -"Alburkah," a paddle-wheel steamer of 55 tons designed by Laird, being -the first iron vessel to make an ocean voyage. Macgregor Laird went with -the expedition, which was led by Richard Lander and numbered forty-eight -Europeans, of whom all but nine died from fever or, in the case of -Lander, from wounds. Laird went up the Niger to the confluence of the -Benue (then called the Shary or Tchadda), which he was the first white -man to ascend. He did not go far up the river but formed an accurate -idea as to its source and course. The expedition returned to Liverpool -in 1834, Laird and Surgeon R. A. K. Oldfield being the only surviving -officers besides Captain (then Lieut.) William Allen, R.N., who -accompanied the expedition by order of the Admiralty to survey the -river. Laird and Oldfield published in 1837 in two volumes the -_Narrative of an Expedition into the Interior of Africa by the River -Niger ... in 1832, 1833, 1834_. Commercially the expedition had been -unsuccessful, but Laird had gained experience invaluable to his -successors. He never returned to Africa but henceforth devoted himself -largely to the development of trade with West Africa and especially to -the opening up of the countries now forming the British protectorates of -Nigeria. One of his principal reasons for so doing was his belief that -this method was the best means of stopping the slave trade and raising -the social condition of the Africans. In 1854 he sent out at his own -charges, but with the support of the British government, a small -steamer, the "Pleiad," which under W. B. Baikie made so successful a -voyage that Laird induced the government to sign contracts for annual -trading trips by steamers specially built for navigation of the Niger -and Benue. Various stations were founded on the Niger, and though -government support was withdrawn after the death of Laird and Baikie, -British traders continued to frequent the river, which Laird had opened -up with little or no personal advantage. Laird's interests were not, -however, wholly African. In 1837 he was one of the promoters of a -company formed to run steamships between England and New York, and in -1838 the "Sirius," sent out by this company, was the first ship to cross -the Atlantic from Europe entirely under steam. Laird died in London on -the 9th of January 1861. - -His elder brother, JOHN LAIRD (1805-1874), was one of the first to use -iron in the construction of ships; in 1829 he made an iron lighter of 60 -tons which was used on canals and lakes in Ireland; in 1834 he built the -paddle steamer "John Randolph" for Savannah, U.S.A., stated to be the -first iron ship seen in America. For the East India Company he built in -1839 the first iron vessel carrying guns and he was also the designer of -the famous "Birkenhead." A Conservative in politics, he represented -Birkenhead in the House of Commons from 1861 to his death. - - - - -LAIS, the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distinguished as -follows. (1) The elder, a native of Corinth, born _c._ 480 B.C., was -famous for her greed and hardheartedness, which gained her the nickname -of _Axine_ (the axe). Among her lovers were the philosophers Aristippus -and Diogenes, and Eubatas (or Aristoteles) of Cyrene, a famous runner. -In her old age she became a drunkard. Her grave was shown in the -Craneion near Corinth, surmounted by a lioness tearing a ram. (2) The -younger, daughter of Timandra the mistress of Alcibiades, born at -Hyccara in Sicily _c._ 420 B.C., taken to Corinth during the Sicilian -expedition. The painter Apelles, who saw her drawing water from the -fountain of Peirene, was struck by her beauty, and took her as a model. -Having followed a handsome Thessalian to his native land, she was slain -in the temple of Aphrodite by women who were jealous of her beauty. Many -anecdotes are told of a Lais by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she -forms the subject of many epigrams in the Greek Anthology; but, owing to -the similarity of names, there is considerable uncertainty to whom they -refer. The name itself, like Phryne, was used as a general term for a -courtesan. - - See F. Jacobs, _Vermischte Schriften_, iv. (1830). - - - - -LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE (1841- ), French politician, was born at Nantes -on the 1st of November 1841, and was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique -as a military engineer. He defended the fort of Issy at the siege of -Paris, and served in Corsica and in Algeria in 1873. In 1876 he resigned -his commission to enter the Chamber as deputy for Nantes in the -republican interest, and in 1879 he became director of the _Petit -Parisien_. For alleged libel on General Courtot de Cissey in this paper -he was heavily fined. In the Chamber he spoke chiefly on army questions; -and was chairman of a commission appointed to consider army legislation, -resigning in 1887 on the refusal of the Chamber to sanction the -abolition of exemptions of any kind. He then became an adherent of the -revisionist policy of General Boulanger and a member of the League of -Patriots. He was elected Boulangist deputy for the 18th Parisian -arrondissement in 1889. He did not seek re-election in 1893, but devoted -himself thenceforward to mathematics, helping to make known in France -the theories of Giusto Bellavitis. He was attached to the staff of the -Ecole Polytechnique, and in 1903-1904 was president of the French -Association for the Advancement of Science. - - In addition to his political pamphlets _Pourquoi et comment je suis - Boulangiste_ (1887) and _L'Anarchie bourgeoise_ (1887), he published - mathematical works, among them _Introduction a l'etude des - quarternions_ (1881) and _Theorie et applications des equipollences_ - (1887). - - - - -LAI-YANG, a city in the Chinese province of Shan-tung, in 37 deg. N., -120 deg. 55' E., about the middle of the eastern peninsula, on the -highway running south from Chi-fu to Kin-Kia or Ting-tsu harbour. It is -surrounded by well-kept walls of great antiquity, and its main streets -are spanned by large _pailous_ or monumental arches, some dating from -the time of the emperor Tai-ting-ti of the Yuan dynasty (1324). There -are extensive suburbs both to the north and south, and the total -population is estimated at 50,000. The so-called Ailanthus silk produced -by _Saturnia cynthia_ is woven at Lai-yang into a strong fabric; and the -manufacture of the peculiar kind of wax obtained from the la-shu or -wax-tree insect is largely carried on in the vicinity. - - - - -LAKANAL, JOSEPH (1762-1845), French politician, was born at Serres -(Ariege) on the 14th of July 1762. His name, originally Lacanal, was -altered to distinguish him from his Royalist brothers. He joined one of -the teaching congregations, and for fourteen years taught in their -schools. When elected by his native department to the Convention in 1792 -he was acting as vicar to his uncle Bernard Font (1723-1800), the -constitutional bishop of Pamiers. In the Convention he held apart from -the various party sections, although he voted for the death of Louis -XVI. He rendered great service to the Revolution by his practical -knowledge of education. He became a member of the Committee of Public -Instruction early in 1793, and after carrying many useful decrees on the -preservation of national monuments, on the military schools, on the -reorganization of the Museum of Natural History and other matters, he -brought forward on the 26th of June his _Projet d'education nationale_ -(printed at the Imprimerie Nationale), which proposed to lay the burden -or primary education on the public funds, but to leave secondary -education to private enterprise. Provision was also made for public -festivals, and a central commission was to be entrusted with educational -questions. The scheme, in the main the work of Sieyes, was refused by -the Convention, who submitted the whole question to a special commission -of six, which under the influence of Robespierre adopted a report by -Michel le Peletier de Saint Fargeau shortly before his tragic death. -Lakanal, who was a member of the commission, now began to work for the -organization of higher education, and abandoning the principle of his -_Projet_ advocated the establishment of state-aided schools for primary, -secondary and university education. In October 1793 he was sent by the -Convention to the south-western departments and did not return to Paris -until after the revolution of Thermidor. He now became president of the -Education Committee and promptly abolished the system which had had -Robespierre's support. He drew up schemes for departmental normal -schools, for primary schools (reviving in substance the _Projet_) and -central schools. He presently acquiesced in the supersession of his own -system, but continued his educational reports after his election to the -Council of the Five Hundred. In 1799 he was sent by the Directory to -organize the defence of the four departments on the left bank of the -Rhine threatened by invasion. Under the Consulate he resumed his -professional work, and after Waterloo retired to America, where he -became president of the university of Louisiana. He returned to France -in 1834, and shortly afterwards, in spite of his advanced age, married a -second time. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1845; his widow -survived till 1881. Lakanal was an original member of the Institute of -France. He published in 1838 an _Expose sommaire des travaux de Joseph -Lakanal_. - - His _eloge_ at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which he - was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Remusat (February 16, - 1845), and a _Notice historique_ by F. A. M. Mignet was read on the - 2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Emile Darnaud (Paris, 1874), - "Marcus" (Paris, 1879), P. Legendre in _Hommes de la revolution_ - (Paris, 1882), E. Guillon, _Lakanal et l'instruction publique_ (Paris, - 1881). For details of the reports submitted by him to the government - see M. Tourneux, "Histoire de l'instruction publique, actes et - deliberations de la convention, &c." in _Bibliog. de l'hist. de Paris_ - (vol. iii., 1900); also A. Robert and G. Cougny, _Dictionnaire des - parlementaires_ (vol. ii., 1890). - - - - -LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808), British general, was born -on the 27th of July 1744. He entered the foot guards in 1758, becoming -lieutenant (captain in the army) 1762, captain (lieut.-colonel) in 1776, -major 1784, and lieut.-colonel in 1792, by which time he was a general -officer in the army. He served with his regiment in Germany in 1760-1762 -and with a composite battalion in the Yorktown campaign of 1781. After -this he was equerry to the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. In -1790 he became a major-general, and in 1793 was appointed to command the -Guards Brigade in the duke of York's army in Flanders. He was in command -at the brilliant affair of Lincelles, on the 18th of August 1793, and -served on the continent (except for a short time when seriously ill) -until April 1794. He had now sold his lieut.-colonelcy in the guards, -and had become colonel of the 53rd foot and governor of Limerick. In -1797 he was promoted lieut.-general. In the following year the Irish -rebellion broke out. Lake, who was then serving in Ireland, succeeded -Sir Ralph Abercromby in command of the troops in April 1798, issued a -proclamation ordering the surrender of all arms by the civil population -of Ulster, and on the 21st of June routed the rebels at Vinegar Hill -(near Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford). He exercised great, but perhaps not -unjustified, severity towards all rebels found in arms. Lord Cornwallis -now assumed the chief command in Ireland, and in August sent Lake to -oppose the French expedition which landed at Killala Bay. On the 29th of -the same month Lake arrived at Castlebar, but only in time to witness -the disgraceful rout of the troops under General Hely-Hutchinson -(afterwards 2nd earl of Donoughmore); but he retrieved this disaster by -compelling the surrender of the French at Ballinamuck, near Cloone, on -the 8th of September. In 1799 Lake returned to England, and soon -afterwards obtained the command in chief in India. He took over his -duties at Calcutta in July 1801, and applied himself to the improvement -of the Indian army, especially in the direction of making all arms, -infantry, cavalry and artillery, more mobile and more manageable. In -1802 he was made a full general. - -On the outbreak of war with the Mahratta confederacy in 1803 General -Lake took the field against Sindhia, and within two months defeated the -Mahrattas at Coel, stormed Aligahr, took Delhi and Agra, and won the -great victory of Laswari (November 1st, 1803), where the power of -Sindhia was completely broken, with the loss of thirty-one disciplined -battalions, trained and officered by Frenchmen, and 426 pieces of -ordnance. This defeat, followed a few days later by Major-General Arthur -Wellesley's victory at Argaum, compelled Sindhia to come to terms, and a -treaty with him was signed in December 1803. Operations were, however, -continued against his confederate, Holkar, who, on the 17th of November -1804, was defeated by Lake at Farrukhabad. But the fortress of Bhurtpore -held out against four assaults early in 1805, and Cornwallis, who -succeeded Wellesley as governor-general in July of that -year--superseding Lake at the same time as -commander-in-chief--determined to put an end to the war. But after the -death of Cornwallis in October of the same year, Lake pursued Holkar -into the Punjab and compelled him to surrender at Amritsar in December -1805. Wellesley in a despatch attributed much of the success of the war -to Lake's "matchless energy, ability and valour." For his services Lake -received the thanks of parliament, and was rewarded by a peerage in -September 1804. At the conclusion of the war he returned to England, and -in 1807 he was created a viscount. He represented Aylesbury in the House -of Commons from 1790 to 1802, and he also was brought into the Irish -parliament by the government as member for Armagh in 1799 to vote for -the Union. He died in London on the 20th of February 1808. - - See H. Pearse, _Memoir of the Life and Services of Viscount Lake_ - (London, 1908); G. B. Malleson, _Decisive Battles of India_ (1883); J. - Grant Duff, _History of the Mahrattas_ (1873); short memoir in _From - Cromwell to Wellington_, ed. Spenser Wilkinson. - - - - -LAKE. Professor Forel of Switzerland, the founder of the science of -limnology (Gr. [Greek: limne], a lake), defines a lake (Lat. _lacus_) as -a mass of still water situated in a depression of the ground, without -direct communication with the sea. The term is sometimes applied to -widened parts of rivers, and sometimes to bodies of water which lie -along sea-coasts, even at sea-level and in direct communication with the -sea. The terms _pond_, _tarn_, _loch_ and _mere_ are applied to smaller -lakes according to size and position. Some lakes are so large that an -observer cannot see low objects situated on the opposite shore, owing to -the lake-surface assuming the general curvature of the earth's surface. -Lakes are nearly universally distributed, but are more abundant in high -than in low latitudes. They are abundant in mountainous regions, -especially in those which have been recently glaciated. They are -frequent along rivers which have low gradients and wide flats, where -they are clearly connected with the changing channel of the river. Low -lands in proximity to the sea, especially in wet climates, have numerous -lakes, as, for instance, Florida. Lakes may be either fresh or salt, -according to the nature of the climate, some being much more salt than -the sea itself. They occur in all altitudes; Lake Titicaca in South -America is 12,500 ft. above sea-level, and Yellowstone Lake in the -United States is 7741 ft. above the sea; on the other hand, the surface -of the Caspian Sea is 86 ft., the Sea of Tiberias 682 ft. and the Dead -Sea 1292 ft. below the level of the ocean. - -The primary source of lake water is atmospheric precipitation, which may -reach the lakes through rain, melting ice and snow, springs, rivers and -immediate run-off from the land-surfaces. The surface of the earth, with -which we are directly in touch, is composed of lithosphere, hydrosphere -and atmosphere, and these interpenetrate. Lakes, rivers, the -water-vapour of the atmosphere and the water of hydration of the -lithosphere, must all be regarded as outlying portions of the -hydrosphere, which is chiefly made up of the great oceans. Lakes may be -compared to oceanic islands. Just as an oceanic island presents many -peculiarities in its rocks, soil, fauna and flora, due to its isolation -from the larger terrestrial masses, so does a lake present peculiarities -and an individuality in its physical, chemical and biological features, -owing to its position and separation from the waters of the great -oceans. - - _Origin of Lakes._--From the geological point of view, lakes may be - arranged into three groups: (A) Rock-Basins, (B) Barrier-Basins and - (C) Organic Basins. - - A. ROCK-BASINS have been formed in several ways:-- - - 1. _By slow movements of the earth's crust_, during the formation of - mountains; the Lake of Geneva in Switzerland and the Lake of Annecy in - France are due to the subsidence or warping of part of the Alps; on - the other hand, Lakes Stefanie, Rudolf, Albert Nyanza, Tanganyika and - Nyasa in Africa, and the Dead Sea in Asia Minor, are all believed to - lie in a great rift or sunken valley. - - 2. _By Volcanic Agencies._--Crater-lakes formed on the sites of - dormant volcanoes may be from a few yards to several miles in width, - have generally a circular form, and are often without visible outlet. - Excellent examples of such lakes are to be seen in the province of - Rome (Italy) and in the central plateau of France, where M. Delebecque - found the Lake of Issarles 329 ft. in depth. The most splendid - crater-lake is found on the summit of the Cascade range of Southern - Oregon (U.S.A.). This lake is 2000 ft. in depth. - - 3. _By Subsidence due to Subterranean Channels and Caves in Limestone - Rocks._--When the roofs of great limestone caves or underground lakes - fall in, they produce at the surface what are called _limestone - sinks_. Lakes similar to these are also found in regions abounding in - rock-salt deposits; the Jura range offers many such lakes. - - 4. _By Glacier Erosion._--A. C. Ramsay has shown that innumerable - lakes of the northern hemisphere do not lie in fissures produced by - underground disturbances, nor in areas of subsidence, nor in synclinal - folds of strata, but are the results of glacial erosion. Many flat - alluvial plains above gorges in Switzerland, as well as in the - Highlands of Scotland, were, without doubt, what Sir Archibald Geikie - calls glen-lakes, or true rock-basins, which have been filled up by - sand and mud brought into them by their tributary streams. - - B. BARRIER-BASINS.--These may be due to the following causes:-- - - 1. _A landslip_ often occurs in mountainous regions, where strata, - dipping towards the valley, rest on soft layers; the hard rocks slip - into the valley after heavy rains, damming back the drainage, which - then forms a barrier-basin. Many small lakes high up in the Alps and - Pyrenees are formed by a river being dammed back in this way. - - 2. _By a Glacier._--In Alaska, in Scandinavia and in the Alps a - glacier often bars the mouth of a tributary valley, the stream flowing - therein is dammed back, and a lake is thus formed. The best-known lake - of this kind is the Marjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great Aletsch - Glacier. Lake Castain in Alaska is barred by the Malaspina Glacier; it - is 2 or 3 m. long and 1 m. in width when at its highest level; it - discharges through a tunnel 9 m. in length beneath the ice-sheet. The - famous parallel roads of Glen Roy in Scotland are successive terraces - formed along the shores of a glacial lake during the waning glacial - epoch. Lake Agassiz, which during the glacial period occupied the - valley of the Red River, and of which the present Lake Winnipeg is a - remnant, was formed by an ice-dam along the margin of two great - ice-sheets. It is estimated to have been 700 m. in length, and to have - covered an area of 110,000 sq. m., thus exceeding the total area of - the five great North American lakes: Superior (31,200), Michigan - (22,450), Huron with Georgian Bay (23,800), Erie (9960) and Ontario - (7240). - - 3. _By the Lateral Moraine of an Actual Glacier._--These lakes - sometimes occur in the Alps of Central Europe and in the Pyrenees - Mountains. - - 4. _By the Frontal Moraine of an Ancient Glacier._--The barrier in - this case consists of the last moraine left by the retreating glacier. - Such lakes are abundant in the northern hemisphere, especially in - Scotland and the Alps. - - 5. _By Irregular Deposition of Glacial Drift._--After the retreat of - continental glaciers great masses of glacial drift are left on the - land-surfaces, but, on account of the manner in which these masses - were deposited, they abound in depressions that become filled with - water. Often these lakes are without visible outlets, the water - frequently percolating through the glacial drift. These lakes are so - numerous in the north-eastern part of North America that one can trace - the southern boundary of the great ice-sheet by following the southern - limit of the lake-strewn region, where lakes may be counted by tens of - thousands, varying from the size of a tarn to that of the great - Laurentian lakes above mentioned. - - 6. _By Sand drifted into Dunes._--It is a well-known fact that sand - may travel across a country for several miles in the direction of the - prevailing winds. When these sand-dunes obstruct a valley a lake may - be formed. A good example of such a lake is found in Moses Lake in the - state of Washington; but the sand-dunes may also fill up or submerge - river-valleys and lakes, for instance, in the Sahara, where the Shotts - are like vast lakes in the early morning, and in the afternoon, when - much evaporation has taken place, like vast plains of white salt. - - 7. _By Alluvial Matter deposited by Lateral Streams._--If the current - of a main river be not powerful enough to sweep away detrital matter - brought down by a lateral stream, a dam is formed causing a lake. - These lakes are frequently met with in the narrow valleys of the - Highlands of Scotland. - - 8. _By Flows of Lava._--Lakes of this kind are met with in volcanic - regions. - - C. ORGANIC BASINS.--In the vast tundras that skirt the Arctic Ocean in - both the old and the new world, a great number of frozen ponds and - lakes are met with, surrounded by banks of vegetation. Snow-banks are - generally accumulated every season at the same spots. During summer - the growth of the tundra vegetation is very rapid, and the snow-drifts - that last longest are surrounded by luxuriant vegetation. When such - accumulations of snow finally melt, the vegetation on the place they - occupied is much less than along their borders. Year after year such - places become more and more depressed, comparatively to the general - surface, where vegetable growth is more abundant, and thus give origin - to lakes. - - It is well known that in coral-reef regions small bays are cut off - from the ocean by the growth of corals, and thus ultimately - fresh-water basins are formed. - -_Life History of Lakes._--From the time of its formation a lake is -destined to disappear. The historical period has not been long enough to -enable man to have watched the birth, life and death of any single lake -of considerable size, still by studying the various stages of -development a fairly good idea of the course they run can be obtained. - -In humid regions two processes tend to the extinction of a lake, viz. -the deposition of detrital matter in the lake, and the lowering of the -lake by the cutting action of the outlet stream on the barrier. These -outgoing streams, however, being very pure and clear, all detrital -matter having been deposited in the lake, have less eroding power than -inflowing streams. One of the best examples of the action of the -filling-up process is presented by Lochs Doine, Voil and Lubnaig in the -Callander district of Scotland. In post-glacial times these three lochs -formed, without doubt, one continuous sheet of water, which subsequently -became divided into three different basins by the deposition of -sediment. Loch Doine has been separated from Loch Voil by alluvial cones -laid down by two opposite streams. At the head of Loch Doine there is an -alluvial flat that stretches for 1(1/2) m., formed by the Lochlarig -river and its tributaries. The long stretch of alluvium that separates -Loch Voil from Loch Lubnaig has been laid down by Calair Burn in Glen -Buckie, by the Kirkton Burn at Balquhidder, and by various streams on -both sides of Strathyre. Loch Lubnaig once extended to a point 3/4 m. -beyond its present outlet, the level of the loch being lowered about 20 -ft. by the denuding action of the river Leny on its rocky barrier. - -In arid regions, where the rainfall is often less than 10 ins. in the -year, the action of winds in the transport of sand and dust is more in -evidence than that of rivers, and the effects of evaporation greater -than of precipitation. Salt and bitter lakes prevail in these regions. -Many salt lakes, such as the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake, are -descended from fresh-water ancestors, while others, like the Caspian and -Aral Seas, are isolated portions of the ocean. Lakes of the first group -have usually become salt through a decrease in the rainfall of the -region in which they occur. The water begins to get salt when the -evaporation from the lake exceeds the inflow. The inflowing waters bring -in a small amount of saline and alkaline matter, which becomes more and -more concentrated as the evaporation increases. In lakes of the second -group the waters were salt at the outset. If inflow exceeds evaporation -they become fresher, and may ultimately become quite fresh. If the -evaporation exceeds the inflow they diminish in size, and their waters -become more and more salt and bitter. The first lake which occupied the -basin of the Great Salt Lake of Utah appears to have been fresh, then -with a change of climate to have become a salt lake. Another change of -climate taking place, the level of the lake rose until it overflowed, -the outlet being by the Snake river; the lake then became fresh. This -expanded lake has been called Lake Bonneville, which covered an area of -about 17,000 sq. m. Another change of climate in the direction of -aridity reduced the level of the lake below the level of the outlet, the -waters became gradually salt, and the former great fresh-water lake has -been reduced gradually to the relatively small Great Salt Lake of the -present day. The sites of extinct salt lakes yield salt in commercial -quantities. - - _The Water of Lakes._--(a) _Composition._--It is interesting to - compare the quantity of solid matter in, and the chemical composition - of, the water of fresh and salt lakes:-- - - Total Solids by Evaporation - expressed in Grams per Litre. - Great Salt Lake (Russell) 238.12 - Lake of Geneva (Delebecque) 0.1775 - - The following analysis of a sample of the water of the Great Salt Lake - (Utah, U.S.A.) is given by I. C. Russell:-- - - Grams per Litre. Probable Combination. - - Na 75.825 NaCl 192.860 - K 3.925 K2SO4 8.756 - Li 0.021 Li2SO4 0.166 - Mg 4.844 MgCl2 15.044 - Ca 2.424 MgSO4 5.216 - Cl 128.278 CaSO4 8.240 - SO3 12.522 Fe2O3 + Al2O3 0.004 - O in sulphate 2.494 SiO2 0.018 - Fe2O3 + Al2O3 0.004 Surplus SO_3 0.051 - SiO2 0.018 - Bo2O3 trace - Br3 faint trace - - The following analyses of the waters of other salt lakes are given by - Mr J. Y. Buchanan (Art. "Lake," _Ency. Brit._, 9th Ed.), an analysis - of sea-water from the Suez Canal being added for comparison:-- - - +-----------------------+---------+--------+-------------------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+ - | | | | Caspian Sea. | | | |Suez Canal,| - | |Koko-nor.|Aral Sea+--------+----------+Urmia Sea.|Dead Sea.|Lake Van.| Ismailia. | - | | | | Open. |Karabugas.| | | | | - +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+ - | Specific Gravity | 1.00907 | .. | 1.01106| 1.26217 | 1.17500 | .. | 1.01800| 1.03898 | - | Percentage of Salt | 1.11 | 1.09 | 1.30 | 28.5 |22.28 | 22.13 | 1.73 | 5.1 | - +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+ - | Name of Salt. | Grams of Salt per 1000 Grams of Water. | - +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+ - | Bicarbonate of Lime | 0.6804 | 0.2185 | 0.1123 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.0072 | - | " Iron | 0.0053 | .. | 0.0014 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.0069 | - | " Magnesia | 0.6598 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.4031 | .. | - | Carbonate of Soda | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 5.3976 | .. | - | Phosphate of Lime | 0.0028 | .. | 0.0021 | .. | .. | .. | 5.3976 | 0.0029 | - | Sulphate of Lime | .. | 1.3499 | 0.9004 | .. | 0.7570 | 0.8600 | .. | 1.8593 | - | " Magnesia | 0.9324 | 2.9799 | 3.0855 | 61.9350 | 13.5460 | .. | 0.2592 | 3.2231 | - | " Soda | 1.7241 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 2.5673 | .. | - | " Potash | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.5363 | .. | - | Chloride of Sodium | 6.9008 | 6.2356 | 8.1163 | 83.2840 |192.4100 | 76.5000 | 8.0500 | 40.4336 | - | " Potassium | 0.2209 | 0.1145 | 0.1339 | 9.9560 | .. | 23.3000 | .. | 0.6231 | - | " Rubidium | 0.0055 | .. | 0.0034 | 0.2510 | .. | .. | .. | 0.0265 | - | " Magnesium | .. | 0.0003 | 0.6115 |129.3770 | 15.4610 | 95.6000 | .. | 4.7632 | - | " Calcium | .. | .. | .. | .. | 0.5990 | 22.4500 | .. | .. | - | Bromide of Magnesium | 0.0045 | .. | 0.0081 | 0.1930 | .. | 2.3100 | .. | 0.0779 | - | Silica | 0.0098 | .. | 0.0024 | .. | .. | 0.2400 | 0.0761 | 0.0027 | - +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+ - | Total Solid Matter |11.1463 |10.8987 |12.9773 |284.9960 |222.2600 |221.2600 | 17.2899 | 51.0264 | - +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+ - - This table embraces examples of several types of salt lakes. In the - Koko-nor, Aral and open Caspian Seas we have examples of the - moderately salt, non-saturated waters. In the Karabugas, a branch gulf - of the Caspian, Urmia and the Dead Seas we have examples of saturated - waters containing principally chlorides. Lake Van is an example of the - alkaline seas which also occur in Egypt, Hungary and other countries. - Their peculiarity consists in the quantity of carbonate of soda - dissolved in their waters, which is collected by the inhabitants for - domestic and commercial purposes. - - The following analyses by Dr Bourcart give an idea of the chemical - composition of the water of fresh-water lakes in grams per litre:-- - - +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ - | | Tanay. | Bleu. |Marjelen.|St Gothard.| - +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ - | SiO2 | 0.003 | 0.0042 | 0.0014 | 0.0008 | - | Fe2O3 + Al2O3 | 0.0012 | 0.0006 | 0.0008 | trace | - | NaCl | 0.0017 | .. | .. | .. | - | Na2SO4 | 0.0011 | 0.0038 | 0.0031 | 0.00085 | - | Na2CO3 | .. | .. | .. | 0.00128 | - | K2SO4 | 0.0021 | 0.0028 | 0.0044 | .. | - | K2CO3 | .. | .. | 0.0003 | 0.00130 | - | MgSO4 | 0.006 | 0.0305 | .. | .. | - | MgCO3 | 0.0046 | 0.0158 | 0.0008 | 0.00015 | - | CaSO4 | .. | .. | .. | .. | - | CaCO3 | 0.107 | 0.1189 | 0.0061 | 0.00178 | - | MnO | 0.001 | .. | .. | .. | - +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+ - - (b) _Movements and Temperature of Lake-Waters._--(1) In addition to - the rise and fall of the surface-level of lakes due to rainfall and - evaporation, there is a transference of water due to the action of - wind which results in raising the level at the end to which the wind - is blowing. In addition to the well-known progressive waves there are - also stationary waves or "seiches" which are less apparent. A seiche - is a standing oscillation of a lake, usually in the direction of the - longest diameter, but occasionally transverse. In a motion of this - kind every particle of the water of the lake oscillates synchronously - with every other, the periods and phases being the same for all, and - the orbits similar but of different dimensions and not similarly - situated. Seiches were first discovered in 1730 by Fatio de Duillier, - a well-known Swiss engineer, and were first systematically studied by - Professor Forel in the Lake of Geneva. Large numbers of observations - have been made by various observers in lakes in many parts of the - world. Henry observed a fifteen-hour seiche in Lake Erie, which is 396 - kilometres in length, and Endros recorded a seiche of fourteen seconds - in a small pond only 111 metres in length. Although these waves cause - periodical rising and falling of the water-level, they are generally - inconspicuous, and can only be recorded by a registering apparatus, a - limnograph. Standard work has been done in the study of seiches by the - Lake Survey of Scotland under the immediate direction of Professor - Chrystal, who has given much attention to the hydrodynamical theories - of the phenomenon. Seiches are probably due to several factors acting - together or separately, such as sudden variations of atmospheric - pressure, changes in the strength or direction of the wind. - Explanations such as lunar attraction and earthquakes have been shown - to be untenable as a general cause of seiches. - - 2. _The water temperature of lakes_ may change with the season from - place to place and from layer to layer; these changes are brought - about by insolation, by terrestrial radiation, by contract with the - atmosphere, by rain, by the inflow of rivers and other factors, but - the most important of all these are insolation and terrestrial - radiation. Fresh water has its greatest density at a temperature of - 39.2 deg. F., so that water both above and below this temperature - floats to the surface, and this physical fact largely determines the - water stratification in a lake. In salt lakes the maximum density - point is much lower, and does not come into play. In the tropical type - of fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39 deg. F., - and the temperature decreases as the depth increases. In the polar - type the temperature is always lower than 39 deg. F., and the - temperature increases from the surface downwards. In the temperate - type the distribution of temperature in winter resembles the polar - type, and in summer the tropical type. In Loch Ness and other deep - Scottish lochs the temperature in March and April is 41 deg. to 42 - deg. F., and is then nearly uniform from top to bottom. As the sun - comes north, and the mean air temperature begins to be higher than the - surface temperature, the surface waters gain heat, and this heating - goes on till the month of August. About this time the mean air - temperature falls below the surface temperature, and the loch begins - to part with its heat by radiation and conduction. The temperature of - the deeper layers beyond 300 ft. is only slightly affected throughout - the whole year. In the autumn the waters of the loch are divided into - two compartments, the upper having a temperature from 49 deg. to 55 - deg. F., the deeper a temperature from 41 deg. to 45 deg. Between - these lies the discontinuity-layer (_Sprungschicht_ of the Germans), - where there is a rapid fall of temperature within a very short - distance. In August this discontinuity-layer is well marked, and lies - at a depth of about 150 ft.; as the season advances this layer - gradually sinks deeper, and the layer of uniform temperature above it - increases in depth, and slowly loses heat, until finally the whole - loch assumes a nearly uniform temperature. Many years ago Sir John - Murray showed by means of temperature observations the manner in which - large bodies of water were transferred from the windward to the - leeward end of a loch, and subsequent observations seem to show that, - before the discontinuity-layer makes its appearance, the currents - produced by winds are distributed through the whole mass of the loch. - When, however, this layer appears, the loch is divided into two - current-systems, as shown in the following diagram:-- - - [Illustration: Current systems in a loch induced by wind at the - surface. (After Wedderburn.) - - AB, Discontinuity layer. - C, Surface current. - D, Primary return current. - E, Secondary surface current. - F, Secondary return current.] - - Another effect of the separation of the loch into two compartments by - the surface of discontinuity is to render possible the - temperature-seiche. The surface-current produced by the wind transfers - a large quantity of warm water to the lee end of the loch, with the - result that the surface of discontinuity is deeper at the lee than at - the windward end. When the wind ceases, a temperature-seiche is - started, just as an ordinary seiche is started in a basin of water - which has been tilted. This temperature-seiche has been studied - experimentally and rendered visible by superimposing a layer of - paraffin on a layer of water. - - Wedderburn estimates the quantity of heat that enters Loch Ness and is - given out again during the year to be approximately sufficient to - raise about 30,000 million gallons of water from freezing-point to - boiling-point. Lakes thus modify the climate of the region in which - they occur, both by increasing its humidity and by decreasing its - range of temperature. They cool and moisten the atmosphere by - evaporation during summer, and when they freeze in winter a vast - amount of latent heat is liberated, and moderates the fall of - temperature. - - Lakes act as reservoirs for water, and so tend to restrain floods, and - to promote regularity of flow. They become sources of mechanical - power, and as their waters are purified by allowing the sediment which - enters them to settle, they become valuable sources of water-supply - for towns and cities. In temperate regions small and shallow lakes are - likely to freeze all over in winter, but deep lakes in similar regions - do not generally freeze, owing to the fact that the low temperature of - the air does not continue long enough to cool down the entire body of - water to the maximum density point. Deep lakes are thus the best - sources of water-supply for cities, for in summer they supply - relatively cool water and in winter relatively warm water. Besides, - the number of organisms in deep lakes is less than in small shallow - lakes, in which there is a much higher temperature in summer, and - consequently much greater organic growth. The deposits, which are - formed along the shores and on the floors of lakes, depend on the - geological structure and nature of the adjacent shores. - -_Biology._--Compared with the waters of the ocean those of lakes may -safely be said to contain relatively few animals and plants. Whole -groups of organisms--the Echinoderms, for instance--are unrepresented. -In the oceans there is a much greater uniformity in the physical and -chemical conditions than obtains in lakes. In lakes the temperature -varies widely. To underground lakes light does not penetrate, and in -these some of the organisms may be blind, for example, the blind -crayfish (_Cambarus pellucidus_) and the blind fish (_Amblyopsis -spelaeus_) of the Kentucky caves. The majority of lakes are fresh, while -some are so salt that no organisms have been found in them. The peaty -matter in other lakes is so abundant that light does not penetrate to -any great depth, and the humic acids in solution prevent the development -of some species. Indeed, every lake has an individuality of its own, -depending upon climate, size, nature of the bottom, chemical composition -and connexion with other lakes. While the ocean contains many families -and genera not represented in lakes, almost every genus in lakes is -represented in the ocean. - - The vertebrates, insects and flowering plants inhabiting lakes vary - much according to latitude, and are comparatively well known to - zoologists and botanists. The micro-fauna and flora have only recently - been studied in detail, and we cannot yet be said to know much about - tropical lakes in this respect. Mr James Murray, who has studied the - Scottish lakes, records in over 400 Scottish lochs 724 species (the - fauna including 447 species, all invertebrates, and the flora - comprising 277 species) belonging to the following groups; the list - must not be regarded as in any way complete:-- - - _Fauna._ _Flora._ - - Mollusca 7 species Phanerogamia 65 species - Hydrachnida 17 " Equisetaceae 1 " - Tardigrada 30 " Selaginellaceae 1 " - Insecta 7 " Characeae 6 " - Crustacea 78 " Musci 18 " - Bryozoa 7 " Hepaticae 2 " - Worms 25 " Florideae 2 " - Rotifera 181 " Chlorophyceae 142 " - Gastrotricha 2 " Bacillariaceae 26 " - Coelenterata 1 " Myxophyceae 10 " - Porifera 1 " Peridiniaceae 4 " - Protozoa 91 " - ----------- ----------- - 447 " 277 " - - These organisms are found along the shores, in the deep waters, and in - the surface waters of the lakes. - - The _littoral region_ is the most populous part of lakes; the - existence of a rooted vegetation is only possible there, and this in - turn supports a rich littoral fauna. The greater heat of the water - along the margins also favours growth. The great majority of the - species in Scottish lochs are met with in this region. Insect larvae - of many kinds are found under stones or among weeds. Most of the - Cladocera, and the Copepoda of the genus _Cyclops_, and the - Harpacticidae are only found in this region. Water-mites, nearly all - the Rotifers, Gastrotricha, Tardigrada and Molluscs are found here, - and Rhizopods are abundant. A large number of the littoral species in - Loch Ness extends down to a depth of about 300 ft. - - _The abyssal region_, in Scottish lochs, lies, as a rule, deeper than - 300 ft., and in this deep region a well-marked association of animals - appears in the muds on the bottom, but none of them are peculiar to - it: they all extend into the littoral zone, from which they were - originally derived. In Loch Ness the following sparse population was - recorded:-- - - 1 Mollusc: _Pisidium pusillum_ (Gmel). - 3 Crustacea: _Cyclops viridis_, Jurine. - _Candona candida_ (Mull). - _Cypria ophthalmica_, Jurine. - 3 Worms: _Stylodrilus gabreteae_, Vejd. - Oligochaete, not determined. - _Automolos morgiensis_ (Du Plessis). - 1 Insect: _Chironomus_ (larva). - Infusoria: Several, ectoparasites on _Pisidium_ and _Cyclops_, - not determined. - - In addition, the following were found casually at great depths in Loch - Ness: _Hydra_, _Limnaea peregra_, _Proales daphnicola_ and _Lynceus - affinis_. - - The _pelagic region_ of the Scottish lakes is occupied by numerous - microscopic organisms, belonging to the Zooplankton and Phytoplankton. - Of the former group 30 species belonging to the Crustacea, Rotifera - and Protozoa were recorded in Loch Ness. Belonging to the second group - 150 species were recorded, of which 120 were Desmids. Some of these - species of plankton organisms are almost universal in the Scottish - lochs, while others are quite local. Some of the species occur all the - year through, while others have only been recorded in summer or in - winter. The great development of Algae in the surface waters, called - "flowering of the water" (_Wasserbluthe_), was observed in August in - Loch Lomond; a distinct "flowering," due to Chlorophyceae, has been - observed in shallow lochs as early as July. It is most common in - August and September, but has also been observed in winter. - - The plankton animals which are dominant or common, both over Scotland - and the rest of Europe, are:-- - - _Diaptomus gracilis._ - _Daphnia kyalina._ - _Diaphanosoma brachyurum._ - _Leptodora kindtii._ - _Conochilus unicornis._ - _Asplanchna priodonta._ - _Polyarthra platyptera._ - _Anuraea cochlearis._ - _Notholca longispina._ - _Ceratium hirundinella._ - _Asterionella._ - - All of these, according to Dr Lund, belong to the general plankton - association of the European plain, or are even cosmopolitan. - - The Scottish plankton on the whole differs from the plankton of the - central European plateau, and from the cosmopolitan fresh-water - plankton, in the extraordinary richness of the Phytoplankton in - species of Desmids, in the conspicuous arctic element among the - Crustacea, in the absence or comparative rarity of the species - commonest in the general European plankton. Another peculiarity is the - local distribution of some of the Crustacea and many of the Desmids. - - The derivation of the whole lacustrine population of the Scottish - lochs does not seem to present any difficulty. The abyssal forms have - been traced to the littoral zone without any perceptible - modifications. The plankton organisms are a mingling of European and - arctic species. The cosmopolitan species may enter the lochs by - ordinary migration. It is probable that if the whole plankton could be - annihilated, it would be replaced by ordinary migration within a few - years. The eggs and spores of many species can be dried up without - injury, and may be carried through the air as dust from one lake to - another; others, which would not bear desiccation, might be carried in - mud adhering to the feet of aquatic birds and in various other ways. - The arctic species may be survivors from a period when arctic - conditions prevailed over a great part of Europe. What are known as - "relicts" of a marine fauna have not been found in the Scottish - fresh-water lochs. - - It is somewhat remarkable that none of the organisms living in - fresh-water lochs has been observed to exhibit the phenomenon of - phosphorescence, although similar organisms in the salt-water lochs a - few miles distant exhibit brilliant phosphorescence. At similar depths - in the sea-lochs there is usually a great abundance of life when - compared with that found in fresh-water lochs. - -_Length, Depth, Area and Volume of Lakes._--In the following table will -be found the length, depth, area and volume of some of the principal -lakes of the world.[1] Sir John Murray estimates The volume of water in -the 560 Scottish lochs recently surveyed at 7 cub. m., and the -approximate volume of water in all the lakes of the world at about 2000 -cub. m., so that this last number is but a small fraction of the volume -of the ocean, which he previously estimated at 324 million cub. m. It -may be recalled that the total rainfall on the land of the globe is -estimated at 29,350 cub. m., and the total discharge from the rivers of -the globe at 6524 cub. m. - - BRITISH LAKES - - +--------------------+-------+---------------+--------+-----------+ - | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in | - | | in | in | in | million | - | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. | - +--------------------+-------+------+--------+--------+-----------+ - |I. _England_-- | | Max. | Mean. | | | - | Windermere | 10.50 | 219 | 78.5 | 5.69 | 12,250 | - | Ullswater | 7.35 | 205 | 83 | 3.44 | 7,870 | - | Wastwater | 3.00 | 258 | 134.5 | 1.12 | 4,128 | - | Coniston Water | 5.41 | 184 | 79 | 1.89 | 4,000 | - | Crummock Water | 2.50 | 144 | 87.5 | 0.97 | 2,343 | - | Ennerdale Water | 2.40 | 148 | 62 | 1.12 | 1,978 | - | Bassenthwaite | | | | | | - | Water | 3.83 | 70 | 18 | 2.06 | 1,023 | - | Derwentwater | 2.87 | 72 | 18 | 2.06 | 1,010 | - | Haweswater | 2.33 | 103 | 39.5 | 0.54 | 589 | - | Buttermere | 1.26 | 94 | 54.5 | 0.36 | 537 | - |II. _Wales_-- | | | | | | - | Llyn Cawlyd | 1.62 | 222 | 109.1 | 0.18 | 941 | - | Llyn Cwellyn | 1.20 | 122 | 74.1 | 0.35 | 713 | - | Llyn Padarn | 2.00 | 94 | 52.4 | 0.43 | 632 | - | Llyn Llydaw | 1.11 | 190 | 77.4 | 0.19 | 409 | - | Llyn Peris | 1.10 | 114 | 63.9 | 0.19 | 344 | - | Llyn Dulyn | 0.31 | 189 | 104.2 | 0.05 | 156 | - |III. _Scotland_-- | | | | | | - | Ness | 24.23 | 754 | 433.02 | 21.78 | 263,162 | - | Lomond | 22.64 | 623 | 121.29 | 27.45 | 92,805 | - | Morar | 11.68 | 1017 | 284.00 | 10.30 | 81,482 | - | Tay | 14.55 | 508 | 199.08 | 10.19 | 56,550 | - | Awe | 25.47 | 307 | 104.95 | 14.85 | 43,451 | - | Maree | 13.46 | 367 | 125.30 | 11.03 | 38,539 | - | Lochy | 9.78 | 531 | 228.95 | 5.91 | 37,726 | - | Rannoch | 9.70 | 440 | 167.46 | 7.37 | 34,387 | - | Shiel | 17.40 | 420 | 132.73 | 7.56 | 27,986 | - | Arkaig | 12.00 | 359 | 152.71 | 6.24 | 26,573 | - | Earn | 6.46 | 287 | 137.83 | 3.91 | 14,421 | - | Treig | 5.10 | 436 | 207.37 | 2.41 | 13,907 | - | Shin | 17.22 | 162 | 51.04 | 8.70 | 12,380 | - | Fannich | 6.92 | 282 | 108.76 | 3.60 | 10,920 | - | Assynt | 6.36 | 282 | 101.10 | 3.10 | 8,731 | - | Quoich | 6.95 | 281 | 104.60 | 2.86 | 8,345 | - | Glass | 4.03 | 365 | 159.07 | 1.86 | 8,265 | - | Fionn (Carnmore) | 5.76 | 144 | 57.79 | 3.52 | 5,667 | - | Laggan | 7.04 | 174 | 67.68 | 2.97 | 5,601 | - | Loyal | 4.46 | 217 | 65.21 | 2.55 | 4,628 | - |IV. _Ireland_-- | | | | | | - | Neagh | 17 | 102 | 40 |153 | 161,000 | - | Erne (Lower) | 24 | 226 | 43 | 43 | 62,000 | - | Erne (Upper) | 13 | 89 | 10 | 15 | 5,000 | - | Corrib | 27 | 152 | 30 | 68 | 59,000 | - | Mask | 10 | 191 | 52 | 35 | 55,000 | - | Derg | 24 | 119 | 30 | 49 | 47,000 | - +--------------------+-------+---------------+--------+-----------+ - - EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL LAKES - - +------------+-------+--------------+--------+------------+ - | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in | - | | in | in | in | million | - | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. | - +------------+-------+------+-------+--------+------------+ - | | | Max. | Mean. | | | - | Ladoga | 125 | 732 | 300 | 7000 | 43,200,000 | - | Onega | 145 | 740 | 200 | 3800 | 21,000,000 | - | Vener | 93 | 292 | 108 | 2149 | 6,357,000 | - | Geneva | 45 | 1015 | 506 | 225 | 3,175,000 | - | Vetter | 68 | 413 | 128 | 733 | 2,543,000 | - | Mjosen | 57 | 1483 | .. | 139 | 2,882,000 | - | Garda | 38 | 1124 | 446 | 143 | 1,766,000 | - | Constance | 42 | 827 | 295 | 208 | 1,711,000 | - | Ochrida | 19 | 942 | 479 | 105 | 1,391,000 | - | Maggiore | 42 | 1220 | 574 | 82 | 1,310,000 | - | Como | 30 | 1345 | 513 | 56 | 794,000 | - | Hornafvan | 7 | 1391 | 253 | 93 | 777,000 | - +------------+-------+--------------+--------+------------+ - - AFRICAN LAKES - - +----------------+------+-------------+--------+-------------+ - | |Length| Depth | Area | Volume in | - | | in | in | in | million | - | |Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. | - +----------------+------+------+------+--------+-------------+ - | | | Max. | Mean.| | | - | Victoria Nyanza| 200 | 240 | .. | 26,200 | 5,800,000 | - | Nyasa | 350 | 2580 | .. | 14,200 | 396,000,000 | - | Tanganyika | 420 | 2100 | .. | 12,700 | 283,000,000 | - +----------------+------+------+------+--------+-------------+ - - ASIATIC LAKES - - +----------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+ - | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in | - | | in | in | in | million | - | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. | - +----------+-------+------+------+--------+------------+ - | | | Max. | Mean.| | | - | Aral | 265 | 222 | 52 | 24,400 | 43,600,000 | - | Baikal | 330 | 5413 | .. | 11,580 |274,000,000 | - | Balkash | 323 | 33 | .. | 7,000 | 4,880,000 | - | Urmia | 80 | 50 | 15 | 1,750 | 732,000 | - +----------+-------+------+------+--------+------------+ - - AMERICAN LAKES - - +------------+-------+-------------+--------+-------------+ - | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in | - | | in | in | in | million | - | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. | - +------------+-------+------+------+--------+-------------+ - | | | Max. | Mean.| | | - | Superior | 412 | 1008 | 475 | 31,200 | 413,000,000 | - | Huron | 263 | 730 | 250 | 23,800 | 166,000,000 | - | Michigan | 335 | 870 | 325 | 22,450 | 203,000,000 | - | Erie | 240 | 210 | 70 | 9,960 | 19,500,000 | - | Ontario | 190 | 738 | 300 | 7,240 | 61,000,000 | - | Titicaca | 120 | 924 | 347 | 3,200 | 30,900,000 | - +------------+-------+------+------+--------+-------------+ - - NEW ZEALAND LAKES - - +--------------+-------+-------------+--------+-----------+ - | |Length | Depth | Area | Volume in | - | | in | in | in | million | - | | Miles.| Feet. | sq. m. | cub. ft. | - +--------------+-------+------+------+--------+-----------+ - | | | Max. | Mean.| | | - | Taupo | 25 | 534 | 367 | 238.0 | 2,435,000 | - | Wakatipu | 49 | 1242 | 707 | 112.3 | 2,205,000 | - | Manapouri | 19 | 1458 | 328 | 56.0 | 512,000 | - | Rotorua | 7.5 | 120 | 39 | 31.6 | 34,000 | - | Waikarimoana | 7.25 | 846 | 397 | 14.7 | 166,000 | - | Wairaumoana | 5.25 | 375 | 175 | 6.1 | 30,000 | - | Rotoiti | 10.7 | 230 | 69 | 14.2 | 27,000 | - +--------------+-------+------+------+--------+-----------+ - - AUTHORITIES.--F. A. Forel, "Handbuch der Seenkunde: allgemeine - Limnologie," _Bibliothek geogr. Handbucher_ (Stuttgart, 1901), _Le - Leman, monographie limnologique_ (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1901); A. - Delebecque, _Les Lacs francais_, text and plates (Paris, 1898); H. R. - Mill, "Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes," _Geogr. Journ._ - vol. vi. pp. 46 and 135 (1895); Jehu, "Bathymetrical and Geological - Study of the Lakes of Snowdonia," _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. xl. p. - 419 (1902); Sir John Murray and Laurence Pullar, "Bathymetrical Survey - of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland," _Geogr. Journ._ (1900 to 1908, - re-issued in six volumes, Edinburgh, 1910); W. Halbfass, "Die - Morphometrie der europaischen Seen," _Zeitschr. Gesell. Erdkunde - Berlin_ (Jahrg. 1903, p. 592; 1904, p. 204); I. C. Russell, _Lakes of - North America_ (Boston and London, 1895); O. Zacharias, - "Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station zu Plon" (Stuttgart); - F. E. Bourcart, _Les Lacs alpins suisses: etude chimique et physique_ - (Geneva, 1906); G. P. Magrini, _Limnologia_ (Milan, 1907). (J. Mu.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Divergence between certain of these figures and those quoted - elsewhere in this work may be accounted for by the slightly different - results arrived at by various authorities. - - - - -LAKE CHARLES, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Calcasieu Parish, -30 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and about 218 m. (by rail) W. of New -Orleans. Pop. (1889) 838, (1890) 3442, (1900) 6680 (2407 negroes); -(1910) 11,449. It is served by the Louisiana & Texas (Southern Pacific -System), the St Louis, Watkins & Gulf, the Louisiana & Pacific and the -Kansas City Southern railways. The city is charmingly situated on the -shore of Lake Charles, and on the Calcasieu river, which with some -dredging can be made navigable for large vessels for 132 m. from the -Gulf. It is a winter resort. Among the principal buildings are a -Carnegie library, the city hall, the Government building, the court -house, St Patrick's sanatorium, the masonic temple and the Elks' club. -Lake Charles is in the prairie region of southern Louisiana, to the N. -of which, covering a large part of the state, are magnificent forests of -long-leaf pine, and lesser lowland growths of oak, ash, magnolia, -cypress and other valuable timber. The Watkins railway extending to the -N.E. and the Kansas City Southern extending to the N.W. have opened up -the very best of the forest. The country to the S. and W. is largely -given over to rice culture. Lake Charles is the chief centre of lumber -manufacture in the state, and has rice mills, car shops and an important -trade in wool. Ten miles W. are sulphur mines (product in 1907 about -362,000 tons), which with those of Sicily produce a large part of the -total product of the world. Jennings, about 34 m. to the E., is the -centre of oil fields, once very productive but now of diminishing -importance. Welsh, 23 m. E., is the centre of a newer field; and others -lie to the N. Lake Charles was settled about 1852, largely by people -from Iowa and neighbouring states, was incorporated as a town in 1857 -under the name of Charleston and again in 1867 under its present name, -and was chartered as a city in 1886. The city suffered severely by fire -in April 1910. - - - - -LAKE CITY, a town and the county-seat of Columbia county, Florida, -U.S.A., 59 m. by rail W. by S. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1900) 4013, of -whom 2159 were negroes; (1905) 6509; (1910) 5032. Lake City is served by -the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and the Georgia Southern -& Florida railways. There are ten small lakes in the neighbourhood, and -the town is a winter and health resort. It is the seat of Columbia -College (Baptist, 1907); the Florida Agricultural College was opened -here in 1883, became the university of Florida in 1903, and in 1905 was -abolished by the Buckman Law. Vegetables and fruits grown for the -northern markets, sea-island cotton and tobacco are important products -of the surrounding country, and Lake City has some trade in cotton, -lumber, phosphates and turpentine. The town was first settled about 1826 -as Alligator; it was incorporated in 1854; adopted the present name in -1859; and in 1901, with an enlarged area, was re-incorporated. - - - - -LAKE DISTRICT, in England, a district containing all the principal -English lakes, and variously termed the Lake Country, Lakeland and "the -Lakes." It falls within the north-western counties of Cumberland, -Westmorland and Lancashire (Furness district), about one-half being -within the first of these. Although celebrated far outside the confines -of Great Britain as a district of remarkable and strongly individual -physical beauty, its area is only some 700 sq. m., a circle with radius -of 15 m. from the central point covering practically the whole. Within -this circle, besides the largest lake, Windermere, is the highest point -in England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but 10(1/2) m. in length, and -covers an area of 5.69 sq. m., while Scafell Pike is only 3210 ft. in -height. But the lakes show a wonderful variety of character, from open -expanse and steep rock-bound shores to picturesque island-groups and -soft wooded banks; while the mountains have always a remarkable dignity, -less from the profile of their summits than from the bold sweeping lines -of their flanks, unbroken by vegetation, and often culminating in sheer -cliffs or crags. At their feet, the flat green valley floors of the -higher elevations give place in the lower parts to lovely woods. The -streams are swift and clear, and numerous small waterfalls are -characteristic of the district. To the north, west and south, a flat -coastal belt, bordering the Irish Sea, with its inlets Morecambe Bay and -Solway Firth, and broadest in the north, marks off the Lake District, -while to the east the valleys of the Eden and the Lune divide it from -the Pennine mountain system. Geologically, too, it is individual. Its -centre is of volcanic rocks, complex in character, while the -Coal-measures and New Red Sandstone appear round the edges. The district -as a whole is grooved by a main depression, running from north to south -along the valleys of St John, Thirlmere, Grasmere and Windermere, -surmounting a pass (Dunmail Raise) of only 783 ft.; while a secondary -depression, in the same direction, runs along Derwentwater, Borrowdale, -Wasdale and Wastwater, but here Sty Head Pass, between Borrowdale and -Wasdale, rises to 1600 ft. The centre of the 15-m. radius lies on the -lesser heights between Langstrath and Dunmail Raise, which may, however, -be the crown of an ancient dome of rocks, "the dissected skeleton of -which, worn by the warfare of air and rain and ice, now alone remains" -(Dr H. R. Mill, "Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes," -_Geographical Journal_, vi. 48). The principal features of the district -may be indicated by following this circle round from north, by west, -south and east. - - The river Derwent (q.v.), rising in the tarns and "gills" or "ghylls" - (small streams running in deeply-grooved clefts) north of Sty Head - Pass and the Scafell mass flows north through the wooded Borrowdale - and forms Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite. These two lakes are in a - class apart from all the rest, being broader for their length, and - quite shallow (about 18 ft. average and 70 ft. maximum), as distinct - from the long, narrow and deep troughs occupied by the other chief - lakes, which average from 40 to 135 ft. deep. Derwentwater (q.v.), - studded with many islands, is perhaps the most beautiful of all. - Borrowdale is joined on the east by the bare wild dale of Langstrath, - and the Greta joins the Derwent immediately below Derwentwater; the - town of Keswick lying near the junction. Derwentwater and - Bassenthwaite occupy a single depression, a flat alluvial plain - separating them. From Seatoller in Borrowdale a road traverses - Honister Pass (1100 ft.), whence it descends westward, beneath the - majestic Honister Crags, where green slate is quarried, into the - valley containing Buttermere (94 ft. max. depth) and Crummock Water - (144 ft.), drained by the Cocker. Between this and the Derwent valley - the principal height is Grasmoor (2791 ft.); southward a steep narrow - ridge (High Style, 2643) divides it from Ennerdale, containing - Ennerdale Water (148 ft. max. depth), which is fed by the Liza and - drained by the Ehen. A splendid range separates this dale from Wasdale - and its tributary Mosedale, including Great Gable (2949 ft.), Pillar - (2927), with the precipitous Pillar Rock on the Ennerdale flank and - Steeple (2746). Wasdale Head, between Gable and the Scafell range, is - peculiarly grand, with dark grey screes and black crags frowning above - its narrow bottom. On this side of Gable is the fine detached rock, - Napes Needle. Wastwater, 3 m. in length, is the deepest lake of all - (258 ft.), its floor, like those of Windermere and Ullswater, sinking - below sea-level. Its east shore consists of a great range of screes. - East of Wasdale lies the range of Scafell (q.v.), its chief points - being Scafell (3162 ft.), Scafell Pike (3210), Lingmell (2649) and - Great End (2984), while the line is continued over Esk Hause Pass - (2490) along a fine line of heights (Bow Fell, 2960; Crinkle Crags, - 2816), to embrace the head of Eskdale. The line then descends to - Wrynose Pass (1270 ft.), from which the Duddon runs south through a - vale of peculiar richness in its lower parts; while the range - continues south to culminate in the Old Man of Coniston (2633) with - the splendid Dow Crags above Goats Water. The pleasant vale of Yewdale - drains south to Coniston Lake (5(1/2) m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), - east of which a lower, well-wooded tract, containing two beautiful - lesser lakes, Tarn Hows and Esthwaite Water, extends to Windermere - (q.v.). This lake collects waters by the Brathay from Langdale, the - head of which, between Bow Fell and Langdale Pikes (2401 ft.), is very - fine; and by the Rothay from Dunmail Raise and the small lakes of - Grasmere and Rydal Water, embowered in woods. East of the Rothay - valley and Thirlmere lies the mountain mass including Helvellyn (3118 - ft.), Fairfield (2863) and other points, with magnificent crags at - several places on the eastern side towards Grisedale and Patterdale. - These dales drain to Ullswater (205 ft. max., second to Windermere in - area), and so north-east to the Eden. To the east and south-east lies - the ridge named High Street (2663 ft.), from the Roman road still - traceable from south to north along its summit, and sloping east again - to the sequestered Hawes Water (103 ft. max.), a curiously shaped lake - nearly divided by the delta of the Measand Beck. There remains the - Thirlmere valley. Thirlmere itself was raised in level, and adapted by - means of a dam at the north end, as a reservoir for the water-supply - of Manchester in 1890-1894. It drains north by St John's Vale into the - Greta, north of which again rises a mountain-group of which the chief - summits are Saddleback or Blencathra (2847 ft.) and the graceful peak - of Skiddaw (3054). The most noteworthy waterfalls are--Scale Force - (Dano-Norwegian _fors_, _foss_), beside Crummock, Lodore near - Derwentwater, Dungeon Gill Force, beside Langdale, Dalegarth Force in - Eskdale, Aira near Ullswater, sung by Wordsworth, Stock Gill Force and - Rydal Falls near Ambleside. - - The principal centres in the Lake District are Keswick (Derwentwater), - Ambleside, Bowness, Windermere and Lakeside (Windermere), Coniston and - Boot (Eskdale), all of which, except Ambleside and Bowness (which - nearly joins Windermere) are accessible by rail. The considerable - village of Grasmere lies beautifully at the head of the lake of that - name; and above Esthwaite is the small town of Hawkshead, with an - ancient church, and picturesque houses curiously built on the - hill-slope and sometimes spanning the streets. There are regular - steamer services on Windermere and Ullswater. Coaches and cars - traverse the main roads during the summer, but many of the finest - dales and passes are accessible only on foot or by ponies. All the - mountains offer easy routes to pedestrians, but some of them, as - Scafell, Pillar, Gable (Napes Needle), Pavey Ark above Langdale and - Dow Crags near Coniston, also afford ascents for experienced climbers. - - This mountainous district, having the sea to the west, records an - unusually heavy rainfall. Near Seathwaite, below Styhead Pass, the - largest annual rainfall in the British Isles is recorded, the average - (1870-1899) being 133.53 in., while 173.7 was measured in 1903 and - 243.98 in. in 1872. At Keswick the annual mean is 60.02, at Grasmere - about 80 ins. The months of maximum rainfall at Seathwaite are - November, December and January and September. - - Fish taken in the lakes include perch, pike, char and trout in - Windermere, Ennerdale, Bassenthwaite, Derwentwater, &c., and the - gwyniad or fresh-water herring in Ullswater. The industries of the - Lake District include slate quarrying and some lead and zinc mining, - and weaving, bobbin-making and pencil-making. - - Setting aside London and Edinburgh, no locality in the British Isles - is so intimately associated with the history of English literature as - the Lake District. In point of time the poet whose name is first - connected with the region is Gray, who wrote a journal of his tour in - 1769. But it was Wordsworth, a native of Cumberland, born on the - outskirts of the Lake District itself, who really made it a Mecca for - lovers of English poetry. Out of his long life of eighty years, sixty - were spent amid its lakes and mountains, first as a schoolboy at - Hawkshead, and afterwards as a resident at Grasmere (1799-1813) and - Rydal Mount (1813-1850). In the churchyard of Grasmere the poet and - his wife lie buried; and very near to them are the remains of Hartley - Coleridge (son of the poet), who himself lived many years at Keswick, - Ambleside and Grasmere. Southey, the friend of Wordsworth, was a - resident of Keswick for forty years (1803-1843), and was buried in - Crosthwaite churchyard. Samuel Taylor Coleridge lived some time at - Keswick, and also with the Wordsworths at Grasmere. From 1807 to 1815 - Christopher North (John Wilson) was settled at Windermere. De Quincey - spent the greater part of the years 1809 to 1828 at Grasmere, in the - first cottage which Wordsworth had inhabited. Ambleside, or its - environs, was also the place of residence of Dr Arnold (of Rugby), who - spent there the vacations of the last ten years of his life; and of - Harriet Martineau, who built herself a house there in 1845. At Keswick - Mrs Lynn Linton was born in 1822. Brantwood, a house beside Coniston - Lake, was the home of Ruskin during the last years of his life. In - addition to these residents or natives of the locality, Shelley, - Scott, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Clough, Crabb Robinson, Carlyle, Keats, - Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, Mrs Hemans, Gerald Massey and others of less - reputation made longer or shorter visits, or were bound by ties of - friendship with the poets already mentioned. The Vale of St John, near - Keswick, recalls Scott's _Bridal of Triermain_. But there is a deeper - connexion than this between the Lake District and English letters. - German literature tells of several literary schools, or groups of - writers animated by the same ideas, and working in the spirit of the - same principles and by the same poetic methods. The most notable - instance--indeed it is almost the only instance--of the kind in - English literature is the Lake School of Poets. Of this school the - acknowledged head and founder was Wordsworth, and the tenets it - professed are those laid down by the poet himself in the famous - preface to the edition of _The Lyrical Ballads_ which he published in - 1800. Wordsworth's theories of poetry--the objects best suited for - poetic treatment, the characteristics of such treatment and the choice - of diction suitable for the purpose--may be said to have grown out of - the soil and substance of the lakes and mountains, and out of the - homely lives of the people, of Cumberland and Westmoreland. - - See CUMBERLAND, LANCASHIRE, WESTMORLAND. The following is a selection - from the literature of the subject: Harriet Martineau, _The English - Lakes_ (Windermere, 1858); Mrs Lynn Linton, _The Lake Country_ - (London, 1864); E. Waugh, _Rambles in the Lake Country_ (1861) and _In - the Lake Country_ (1880); W. Knight, _Through the Wordsworth Country_ - (London, 1890); H. D. Rawnsley, _Literary Associations of the English - Lakes_ (2 vols., Glasgow, 1894) and _Life and Nature of the English - Lakes_ (Glasgow, 1899); Stopford Brooke, _Dove Cottage, Wordsworth's - Home from 1800 to 1808_; A. G. Bradley, _The Lake District, its - Highways and Byeways_ (London, 1901); Sir John Harwood, _History of - the Thirlmere Water Scheme_ (1895); for mountain-climbing, Col. J. - Brown, _Mountain Ascents in Westmorland and Cumberland_ (London, - 1888); Haskett-Smith, _Climbing in the British Isles_, part, i.; Owen - G. Jones, _Rock-climbing in the English Lake District_, 2nd ed. by W. - M. Crook (Keswick, 1900). - - - - -LAKE DWELLINGS, the term employed in archaeology for habitations -constructed, not on the dry land, but within the margins of lakes or -creeks at some distance from the shore. - -The villages of the Guajiros in the Gulf of Maracaibo are described by -Goering as composed of houses with low sloping roofs perched on lofty -piles and connected with each other by bridges of planks. Each house -consisted of two apartments; the floor was formed of split stems of -trees set close together and covered with mats; they were reached from -the shore by dug-out canoes poled over the shallow waters, and a notched -tree trunk served as a ladder. The custom is also common in the -estuaries of the Orinoco and Amazon. A similar system prevails in New -Guinea. Dumont d'Urville describes four such villages in the Bay of -Dorei, containing from eight to fifteen blocks or clusters of houses, -each block separately built on piles, and consisting of a row of -distinct dwellings. C. D. Cameron describes three villages thus built on -piles in Lake Mohrya, or Moria, in Central Africa, the motive here being -to prevent surprise by bands of slave-catchers. Similar constructions -have been described by travellers, among the Dyaks of Borneo, in -Celebes, in the Caroline Islands, on the Gold Coast of Africa, and in -other places. - -Hippocrates, writing in the 5th century B.C., says of the people of the -Phasis that their country is hot and marshy and subject to frequent -inundations, and that they live in houses of timber and reeds -constructed in the midst of the waters, and use boats of a single tree -trunk. Herodotus, writing also in the 5th century B.C., describes the -people of Lake Prasias as living in houses constructed on platforms -supported on piles in the middle of the lake, which are approached from -the land by a single narrow bridge. Abulfeda the geographer, writing in -the 13th century, notices the fact that part of the Apamaean Lake was -inhabited by Christian fishermen who lived on the lake in wooden huts -built on piles, and Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) mentions that the -Rumelian fishermen on Lake Prasias "still inhabit wooden cottages built -over the water, as in the time of Herodotus." - -The records of the wars in Ireland in the 16th century show that the -petty chieftains of that time had their defensive strongholds -constructed in the "freshwater lochs" of the country, and there is -record evidence of a similar system in the western parts of Scotland. -The archaeological researches of the past fifty years have shown that -such artificial constructions in lakes were used as defensive dwellings -by the Celtic people from an early period to medieval times (see -CRANNOG). Similar researches have also established the fact that in -prehistoric times nearly all the lakes of Switzerland, and many in the -adjoining countries--in Savoy and the north of Italy, in Austria and -Hungary and in Mecklenburg and Pomerania--were peopled, so to speak, by -lake-dwelling communities, living in villages constructed on platforms -supported by piles at varying distances from the shores. The principal -groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget, Geneva, Neuchatel, Bienne, -Zurich and Constance lying to the north of the Alps, and in the Lakes -Maggiore, Varese, Iseo and Garda lying to the south of that mountain -range. Many smaller lakes, however, contain them, and they are also -found in peat moors on the sites of ancient lakes now drained or silted -up, as at Laibach in Carniola. In some of the larger lakes the number of -settlements has been very great. Fifty are enumerated in the Lake of -Neuchatel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four in the Lake -of Geneva, and twenty in the Lake of Bienne. The site of the lake -dwelling of Wangen, in the Untersee, Lake of Constance, forms a -parallelogram more than 700 paces in length by about 120 paces in -breadth. The settlement at Morges, one of the largest in the Lake of -Geneva, is 1200 ft. long by 150 ft. in breadth. The settlement of Sutz, -one of the largest in the Lake of Bienne, extends over six acres, and -was connected with the shore by a gangway nearly 100 yds. long and about -40 ft. wide. - -The substructure which supported the platforms on which the dwellings -were placed was most frequently of piles driven into the bottom of the -lake. Less frequently it consisted of a stack of brushwood or fascines -built up from the bottom and strengthened by stakes penetrating the mass -so as to keep it from spreading. When piles were used they were the -rough stems of trees of a length proportioned to the depth of the water, -sharpened sometimes by fire and at other times chopped to a point by -hatchets. On their level tops the beams supporting the platforms were -laid and fastened by wooden pins, or inserted in mortices cut in the -heads of the piles. In some cases the whole construction was further -steadied and strengthened by cross beams, notched into the piles below -the supports of the platform. The platform itself was usually composed -of rough layers of unbarked stems, but occasionally it was formed of -boards split from larger stems. When the mud was too soft to afford -foothold for the piles they were mortised into a framework of tree -trunks placed horizontally on the bottom of the lake. On the other hand, -when the bottom was rocky so that the piles could not be driven, they -were steadied at their bases by being enveloped in a mound of loose -stones, in the manner in which the foundations of piers and breakwaters -are now constructed. In cases where piles have not been used, as at -Niederwil and Wauwyl, the substructure is a mass of fascines or faggots -laid parallel and crosswise upon one another with intervening layers of -brushwood or of clay and gravel, a few piles here and there being fixed -throughout the mass to serve as guides or stays. At Niederwil the -platform was formed of split boards, many of which were 2 ft. broad and -2 or 3 in. in thickness. - -On these substructures were the huts composing the settlement; for the -peculiarity of these lake dwellings is that they were pile villages, or -clusters of huts occupying a common platform. The huts themselves were -quadrilateral in form. The size of each dwelling is in some cases marked -by boards resting edgeways on the platform, like the skirting boards -over the flooring of the rooms in a modern house. The walls, which were -supported by posts, or by piles of greater length, were formed of -wattle-work, coated with clay. The floors were of clay, and in each -floor there was a hearth constructed of flat slabs of stone. The roofs -were thatched with bark, straw, reeds or rushes. As the superstructures -are mostly gone, there is no evidence as to the position and form of the -doorways, or the size, number and position of the windows, if there were -any. In one case, at Schussenried, the house, which was of an oblong -quadrangular form, about 33 by 23 ft., was divided into two rooms by a -partition. The outer room, which was the smaller of the two, was entered -by a doorway 3 ft. in width facing the south. The access to the inner -room was by a similar door through the partition. The walls were formed -of split tree-trunks set upright and plastered with clay; and the -flooring of similar timbers bedded in clay. In other cases the remains -of the gangways or bridges connecting the settlements with the shore -have been discovered, but often the village appears to have been -accessible only by canoes. Several of these single-tree canoes have been -found, one of which is 43 ft. in length and 4 ft. 4 in. in its greatest -width. It is impossible to estimate with any degree of certainty the -number of separate dwellings of which any of these villages may have -consisted, but at Niederwil they stood almost contiguously on the -platform, the space between them not exceeding 3 ft. in width. The size -of the huts also varied considerably. At Niederwil they were 20 ft. long -and 12 ft. wide, while at Robenhausen they were about 27 ft. long by -about 22 ft. wide. - -The character of the relics shows that in some cases the settlements -have been the dwellings of a people using no materials but stone, bone -and wood for their implements, ornaments and weapons; in others, of a -people using bronze as well as stone and bone; and in others again the -occasional use of iron is disclosed. But, though the character of the -relics is thus changed, there is no corresponding change in the -construction and arrangements of the dwellings. The settlement in the -Lake of Moosseedorf, near Bern, affords the most perfect example of a -lake dwelling of the Stone age. It was a parallelogram 70 ft. long by 50 -ft. wide, supported on piles, and having a gangway built on faggots -connecting it with the land. The superstructure had been destroyed by -fire. The implements found in the relic bed under it were axe-heads of -stone, with their haftings of stag's horn and wood; a flint saw, set in -a handle of fir wood and fastened with asphalt; flint flakes and -arrow-heads; harpoons of stag's horn with barbs; awls, needles, chisels, -fish-hooks and other implements of bone; a comb of yew wood 5 in. long; -and a skate made out of the leg bone of a horse. The pottery consisted -chiefly of roughly-made vessels, some of which were of large size, -others had holes under the rims for suspension, and many were covered -with soot, the result of their use as culinary vessels. Burnt wheat, -barley and linseed, with many varieties of seeds and fruits, were -plentifully mingled with the bones of the stag, the ox, the swine, the -sheep and the goat, representing the ordinary food of the inhabitants, -while remains of the beaver, the fox, the hare, the dog, the bear, the -horse, the elk and the bison were also found. - -The settlement of Robenhausen, in the moor which was formerly the bed of -the ancient Lake of Pfaffikon, seems to have continued in occupation -after the introduction of bronze. The site covers nearly 3 acres, and is -estimated to have contained 100,000 piles. In some parts three distinct -successions of inhabited platforms have been traced. The first had been -destroyed by fire. It is represented at the bottom of the lake by a -layer of charcoal mixed with implements of stone and bone and other -relics highly carbonized. The second is represented above the bottom by -a series of piles with burnt heads, and in the bottom by a layer of -charcoal mixed with corn, apples, cloth, bones, pottery and implements -of stone and bone, separated from the first layer of charcoal by 3 ft. -of peaty sediment intermixed with relics of the occupation of the -platform. The piles of the third settlement do not reach down to the -shell marl, but are fixed in the layers representing the first and -second settlements. They are formed of split oak trunks, while those of -the two first settlements are round stems chiefly of soft wood. The huts -of this last settlement appear to have had cattle stalls between them, -the droppings and litter forming heaps at the lake bottom. The bones of -the animals consumed as food at this station were found in such numbers -that 5 tons were collected in the construction of a watercourse which -crossed the site. Among the wooden objects recovered from the relic beds -were tubs, plates, ladles and spoons, a flail for threshing corn, a last -for stretching shoes of hide, celt handles, clubs, long-bows of yew, -floats and implements of fishing and a dug-out canoe 12 ft. long. No -spindle-whorls were found, but there were many varieties of cloth, -platted and woven, bundles of yarn and balls of string. Among the tools -of bone and stag's horn were awls, needles, harpoons, scraping tools and -haftings for stone axe-heads. The implements of stone were chiefly -axe-heads and arrow-heads. Of clay and earthenware there were many -varieties of domestic dishes, cups and pipkins, and crucibles or melting -pots made of clay and horse dung and still retaining the drossy coating -of the melted bronze. - -The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchatel is one of the -richest and most considerable stations of the Bronze age. It has yielded -four bronze swords, ten socketed spear-heads, forty celts or axe-heads -and sickles, fifty knives, twenty socketed chisels, four hammers and an -anvil, sixty rings for the arms and legs, several highly ornate torques -or twisted neck rings, and upwards of two hundred hair pins of various -sizes up to 16 in. in length, some having spherical heads in which -plates of gold were set. Moulds for sickles, lance-heads and bracelets -were found cut in stone or made in baked clay. From four to five hundred -vessels of pottery finely made and elegantly shaped are indicated by the -fragments recovered from the relic bed. The Lac de Bourget, in Savoy, -has eight settlements, all of the Bronze age. These have yielded upwards -of 4000 implements, weapons and ornaments of bronze, among which were a -large proportion of moulds and founders' materials. A few stone -implements suggest the transition from stone to bronze; and the -occasional occurrence of iron weapons and pottery of Gallo-Roman origin -indicates the survival of some of the settlements to Roman times. - -The relative antiquity of the earlier settlements of the Stone and -Bronze ages is not capable of being deduced from existing evidence. "We -may venture to place them," says Dr F. Keller, "in an age when iron and -bronze had been long known, but had not come into our districts in such -plenty as to be used for the common purposes of household life, at a -time when amber had already taken its place as an ornament and had -become an object of traffic." It is now considered that the people who -erected the lake dwellings of Central Europe were also the people who -were spread over the mainland. The forms and the ornamentation of the -implements and weapons of stone and bronze found in the lake dwellings -are the same as those of the implements and weapons in these materials -found in the soil of the adjacent regions, and both groups must -therefore be ascribed to the industry of one and the same people. -Whether dwelling on the land or dwelling in the lake, they have -exhibited so many indications of capacity, intelligence, industry and -social organization that they cannot be considered as presenting, even -in their Stone age, a very low condition of culture or civilization. -Their axes were made of tough stones, sawn from the block and ground to -the fitting shape. They were fixed by the butt in a socket of stag's -horn, mortised into a handle of wood. Their knives and saws of flint -were mounted in wooden handles and fixed with asphalt. They made and -used an endless variety of bone tools. Their pottery, though roughly -finished, is well made, the vessels often of large size and capable of -standing the fire as cooking utensils. For domestic dishes they also -made wooden tubs, plates, spoons, ladles and the like. The industries of -spinning and weaving were largely practised. They made nets and fishing -lines, and used canoes. They practised agriculture, cultivating several -varieties of wheat and barley, besides millet and flax. They kept -horses, cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Their clothing was partly of -linen and partly of woollen fabrics and the skins of their beasts. Their -food was nutritious and varied, their dwellings neither unhealthy nor -incommodious. They lived in the security and comfort obtained by social -organization, and were apparently intelligent, industrious and -progressive communities. - -There is no indication of an abrupt change from the use of stone to the -use of metal such as might have occurred had the knowledge of copper and -bronze, and the methods of working them, been introduced through the -conquest of the original inhabitants by an alien race of superior -culture and civilization. The improved cultural conditions become -apparent in the multiplication of the varieties of tools, weapons and -ornaments made possible by the more adaptable qualities of the new -material; and that the development of the Bronze age culture in the lake -dwellings followed the same course as in the surrounding regions where -the people dwelt on the dry land is evident from the correspondence of -the types of implements, weapons, ornaments and utensils common to both -these conditions of life. - -Other classes of prehistoric pile-structures akin to the lake dwellings -are the Terremare of Italy and the Terpen of Holland. Both of these are -settlements of wooden huts erected on piles, not over the water, but on -flat land subject to inundations. The terremare (so named from the marly -soil of which they are composed) appear as mounds, sometimes of very -considerable extent, which when dug into disclose the remains and relic -beds of the ancient settlements. They are most abundant in the plains of -northern Italy traversed by the Po and its tributaries, though similar -constructions have been found in Hungary in the valley of the Theiss. -These pile-villages were often surrounded by an earthen rampart within -which the huts were erected in more or less regular order. Many of them -present evidence of having been more than once destroyed by fire and -reconstructed, while others show one or more reconstructions at higher -levels on the same site. The contents of the relic beds indicate that -they belong for the most part to the age of bronze, although in some -cases they may be referred to the latter part of the Stone age. Their -inhabitants practised agriculture and kept the common domestic animals, -while their tools, weapons and ornaments were mainly of similar -character to those of the contemporary lake dwellers of the adjoining -regions. Some of the Italian terremare show quadrangular constructions -made like the modern log houses, of undressed tree trunks superposed -longitudinally and overlapping at the ends, as at Castione in the -province of Parma. A similar mode of construction is found in the -pile-village on the banks of the Save, near Donja Dolina in Bosnia, -described in 1904 by Dr Truhelka. Here the larger houses had platforms -in front of them forming terraces at different levels descending towards -the river. There was a cemetery adjacent to the village in which both -unburnt and cremated interments occurred, the former predominating. From -the general character of the relics this settlement appeared to belong -to the early Iron age. The Terpen of Holland appear as mounds somewhat -similar to those of the terremare, and were also pile structures, on low -or marshy lands subject to inundations from the sea. Unlike the -terremare and the lake dwellings they do not seem to belong to the -prehistoric ages, but yield indications of occupation in post-Roman and -medieval times. - - AUTHORITIES.--The materials for the investigation of this singular - phase of prehistoric life were first collected and systematized by Dr - Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zurich, and printed in _Mittheilungen - der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zurich_, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to - (1855-1886). The substance of these reports has been issued as a - separate work in England, _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other - parts of Europe_, by Dr Ferdinand Keller, translated and arranged by - John Edward Lee, 2nd ed. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1878). Other works on - the same subject are Frederic Troyon, _Habitations lacustres des temps - anciens et modernes_ (Lausanne, 1860); E. Desor, _Les Palafittes ou - constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchatel_ (Paris, 1865); E. Desor - and L. Favre, _Le Bel Age du bronze lacustre en Suisse_ (Paris, 1874); - A. Perrin, _Etude prehistorique sur la Savoie specialement a l'epoque - lacustre_ (_Les Palafittes du lac de Bourget_, Paris, 1870); Ernest - Chantre, _Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Paladru_ - (Chambery, 1871); Bartolomeo Gastaldi, _Lake Habitations and - prehistoric Remains in the Turbaries and Marl-beds of Northern and - Central Italy_, translated by C. H. Chambers (London, 1865); Sir John - Lubbock (Lord Avebury), _Prehistoric Times_ (4th ed., London, 1878); - Robert Munro, _The Lake-Dwellings of Europe_ (London, 1890), with a - bibliography of the subject. (J. An.) - - - - -LAKE GENEVA, a city of Walworth county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of -Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom 468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449; -(1910) 3079. It is served by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The -city is picturesquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long -and 1(1/2) to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by -springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick groves of -hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer resort, particularly -for Chicago people. The city is the seat of Oakwood Sanitarium, and at -Williams Bay, 6 m. distant, is the Yerkes Observatory of the University -of Chicago. Dairying is the most important industrial interest. The -first settlement on Lake Geneva was made about 1833. The city was -chartered in 1893. - - - - -LAKE OF THE WOODS, a lake in the south-west of the province of Ontario, -Canada, bordering west on the province of Manitoba, and south on the -state of Minnesota. It is of extremely irregular shape, and contains -many islands. Its length is 70 m., breadth 10 to 50 m., area 1500 sq. m. -It lies in the centre of the Laurentian region between Lakes Winnipeg -and Superior, and an area of 36,000 sq. m. drains to it. It collects the -waters of many rivers, the chief being Rainy river from the east, -draining Rainy Lake. By the Winnipeg river on the north-east it -discharges into Lake Winnipeg. At its source Winnipeg river is 1057 ft. -above the sea, and drops 347 ft. in its course of 165 m. The scenery -both on and around the lake is exceedingly beautiful, and the islands -are largely occupied by the summer residences of city merchants. Kenora, -a flourishing town at the source of the Winnipeg river, is the centre of -the numerous lumbering and mining enterprises of the vicinity. - - - - -LAKE PLACID, a village in Essex county, New York, U.S.A., on the W. -shore of Mirror Lake, near the S. end of Lake Placid, about 42 m. N.W. -of Ticonderoga. Pop. (1905) 1514; (1910) 1682. The village is served by -the Delaware & Hudson railway. The region is one of the most attractive -in the Adirondacks, and is a much frequented summer resort. There are -four good golf courses here, and the village has a well-built club -house, called the "Neighborhood House." The village lies on the narrow -strip of land (about 1/3 m.) between Mirror Lake (about 1 m. long, N. -and S., and 1/3 m. wide), and Lake Placid, about 5 m. long (N.N.E. by -S.S.W.), and about 1(1/2) m. (maximum) broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. -The lake is roughly divided, from N. to S. by three islands--Moose, the -largest, and Hawk, both privately owned, and Buck--and is a beautiful -sheet of water in a picturesque setting of forests and heavily wooded -hills and mountains. Among the principal peaks in the vicinity are -Whiteface Mountain (4871 ft.), about 3 m. N.W. of the N. end of the -lake; McKenzie Mountain (3872 ft.), about 1 m. to the W., and Pulpit -Mountain (2658 ft.), on the E. shore. The summit of Whiteface Mountain -commands a fine view, with Gothic (4738 ft.), Saddleback (4530 ft.), -Basin (4825 ft.), Marcy (5344 ft.), and McIntyre (5210 ft.) mountains -about 10 m. to the S. and Lake Champlain to the E., and to the N.E. may -be seen, on clear days, the spires of Montreal. In the valleys E. and S. -are the headwaters of the famous Ausable river. About 2 m. E. of the -village, at North Elba, is the grave of the abolitionist, John Brown, -with its huge boulder monument, and near it is another monument which -bears the names of the 20 persons who bought the John Brown farm and -gave it to the state. The railway to the village was completed in 1893. -The village was incorporated in 1900. - - - - -LAKEWOOD, a village of Ocean county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the township -of Lakewood, 59 m. S. by W. of New York city, and 8 m. from the coast, -on the Central Railroad of New Jersey. Pop. (1900) of the township, -including the village, 3094; (1905) 4265; (1910) 5149. Lakewood is a -fashionable health and winter resort, and is situated in the midst of a -pine forest, with two small lakes, and many charming walks and drives. -In the village there are a number of fine residences, large hotels, a -library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12 deg. F. warmer -than in New York. The township of Lakewood was incorporated in 1892. - - - - -LAKH (from the Sans. _laksha_, one hundred thousand), a term used in -British India, in a colloquial sense to signify a lakh of rupees -(written 1,00,000), which at the face value of the rupee would be worth -L10,000, but now is worth only L6666. The term is also largely used in -trade returns. A hundred lakhs make a crore. - - - - -LAKHIMPUR, a district of British India in the extreme east of the -province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 4529 sq. m. It lies along -both banks of the Brahmaputra for about 400 m.; it is bounded N. by the -Daphla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills, E. by the Mishmi and Kachin hills, -S. by the watershed of the Patkai range and the Lohit branch of the -Brahmaputra, and W. by the districts of Darrang and Sibsagar. The -Brahmaputra is navigable for steamers in all seasons as far as -Dibrugarh, in the rainy season as far as Sadiya; its navigable -tributaries within the district are the Subansiri, Dibru and Dihing. The -deputy-commissioner in charge exercises political control over numerous -tribes beyond the inner surveyed border. The most important of these -tribes are the Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis, Kachins and Nagas. In -1901 the population was 371,396, an increase of 46% in the decade. The -district has enjoyed remarkable and continuous prosperity. At each -successive census the percentage of increase has been over 40, the -present population being more than three times as great as that of 1872. -This increase is chiefly due to the numerous tea gardens and to the coal -mines and other enterprises of the Assam Railways and Trading Company. -Lakhimpur was the first district into which tea cultivation was -introduced by the government, and the Assam Company began operations -here in 1840. The railway, known as the Dibru-Sadiya line, runs from -Dibrugarh to Makum, with two branches to Talap and Margherita, and has -been connected across the hills with the Assam-Bengal railway. The coal -is of excellent quality, and is exported by river as far as Calcutta. -The chief oil-wells are at Digboi. The oil is refined at Margherita, -producing a good quality of kerosene oil and first-class paraffin, with -wax and other by-products. The company also manufactures bricks and -pipes of various kinds. Another industry is cutting timber, for the -manufacture of tea-chests, &c. - - Lakhimpur figures largely in the annals of Assam as the region where - successive invaders from the east first reached the Brahmaputra. The - Bara Bhuiyas, originally from the western provinces of India, were - driven out by the Chutias (a Shan race), and these in their turn gave - place to their more powerful brethren, the Ahoms, in the 13th century. - The Burmese, who had ruined the native kingdoms, at the end of the - 18th century, were in 1825 expelled by the British, who placed the - southern part of the country, together with Sibsagar under the rule of - Raja Purandhar Singh; but it was not till 1838 that the whole was - taken under direct British administration. The headquarters are at - Dibrugarh. - - See _Lakhimpur District Gazetteer_ (Calcutta, 1905). - - - - -LAKSHMI (Sans. for "mark," "sign," generally used in composition with -_punya_, "prosperous"; hence "good sign," "good fortune"), in Hindu -mythology, the wife of Vishnu worshipped as the goddess of love, beauty -and prosperity. She has many other names, the chief being _Loka mata_ -("mother of the world"), _Padma_ ("the lotus"), _Padma laya_ ("she who -dwells on a lotus") and _Jaladhija_ ("the ocean-born"). She is -represented as of a bright golden colour and seated on a lotus. She is -said to have been born from the sea of milk when it was churned from -ambrosia. Many quaint myths surround her birth. In the Rig Veda her name -does not occur as a goddess. - - - - -LALAING, JACQUES DE (c. 1420-1453), Flemish knight, was originally in -the service of the duke of Cleves and afterwards in that of the duke of -Burgundy, Philip III., the Good, gaining great renown by his prowess in -the tiltyard. The duke of Burgundy entrusted him with embassies to the -pope and the king of France (1451), and subsequently sent him to put -down the revolt of the inhabitants of Ghent, in which expedition he was -killed. His biography, _Le Livre des faits de messire Jacques de -Lalaing_, which has been published several times, is mainly the work of -the Burgundian herald and chronicler Jean le Fevre, better known as -_Toison d'or_; the Flemish historiographer Georges Chastellain and the -herald Charolais also took part in its compilation. - - - - -LALANDE, JOSEPH JEROME LEFRANCAIS DE (1732-1807), French astronomer, was -born at Bourg (department of Ain), on the 11th of July 1732. His parents -sent him to Paris to study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hotel -Cluny, where J. N. Delisle had his observatory, drew him to astronomy, -and he became the zealous and favoured pupil of both Delisle and Pierre -Lemonnier. He, however, completed his legal studies, and was about to -return to Bourg to practise there as an advocate, when Lemonnier -obtained permission to send him to Berlin, to make observations on the -lunar parallax in concert with those of N. L. Lacaille at the Cape of -Good Hope. The successful execution of his task procured for him, before -he was twenty-one, admission to the Academy of Berlin, and the post of -adjunct astronomer to that of Paris. He now devoted himself to the -improvement of the planetary theory, publishing in 1759 a corrected -edition of Halley's tables, with a history of the celebrated comet whose -return in that year he had aided Clairault to calculate. In 1762 J. N. -Delisle resigned in his favour the chair of astronomy in the College de -France, the duties of which were discharged by Lalande for forty-six -years. His house became an astronomical seminary, and amongst his pupils -were J. B. J. Delambre, G. Piazzi, P. Mechain, and his own nephew Michel -Lalande. By his publications in connexion with the transit of 1769 he -won great and, in a measure, deserved fame. But his love of notoriety -and impetuous temper compromised the respect due to his scientific zeal, -though these faults were partially balanced by his generosity and -benevolence. He died on the 4th of April 1807. - - Although his investigations were conducted with diligence rather than - genius, the career of Lalande must be regarded as of eminent service - to astronomy. As a lecturer and writer he gave to the science - unexampled popularity; his planetary tables, into which he introduced - corrections for mutual perturbations, were the best available up to - the end of the 18th century; and the Lalande prize, instituted by him - in 1802 for the chief astronomical performance of each year, still - testifies to his enthusiasm for his favourite pursuit. Amongst his - voluminous works are _Traite d'astronomie_ (2 vols., 1764; enlarged - edition, 4 vols., 1771-1781; 3rd ed., 3 vols., 1792); _Histoire - celeste francaise_ (1801), giving the places of 50,000 stars; - _Bibliographie astronomique_ (1803), with a history of astronomy from - 1781 to 1802; _Astronomie des dames_ (1785); _Abrege de navigation_ - (1793); _Voyage d'un francois en Italie_ (1769), a valuable record of - his travels in 1765-1766. He communicated above one hundred and fifty - papers to the Paris Academy of Sciences, edited the _Connoissance des - temps_ (1759-1774), and again (1794-1807), and wrote the concluding 2 - vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla's _Histoire des mathematiques_ - (1802). - - See _Memoires de l'Institut_, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre); - Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siecle_, p. 547; _Magazin - encyclopedique_, ii. 288 (1810) (Mme de Salm); J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de - l'astr. moderne_, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Madler, _Geschichte der - Himmelskunde_, ii. 141; R. Wolf, _Gesch. der Astronomie_; J. J. - Lalande, _Bibl. astr._ p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. - Handworterbuch_; M. Marie, _Hist. des sciences_, ix. 35. - - - - -LALIN, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Pontevedra. -Pop. (1900) 16,238. Lalin is the centre of the trade in agricultural -products of the fertile highlands between the Deza and Arnego rivers. -The local industries are tanning and the manufacture of paper. Near -Lalin are the ruins of the Gothic abbey of Carboeiro. - - - - -LA LINEA, or LA LINEA DE LA CONCEPCION, a town of Spain, in the province -of Cadiz, between Gibraltar and San Roque. Pop. (1900) 31,802. La Linea, -which derives its name from the _line_ or boundary dividing Spanish -territory from the district of Gibraltar, is a town of comparatively -modern date and was formerly looked upon as a suburb of San Roque. It is -now a distinct frontier post and headquarters of the Spanish commandant -of the lines of Gibraltar. The fortifications erected here in the 16th -century were dismantled by the British in 1810, to prevent the landing -of French invaders, and all the existing buildings are modern. They -include barracks, casinos, a theatre and a bull-ring, much frequented by -the inhabitants and garrison of Gibraltar. La Linea has some trade in -cereals, fruit and vegetables; it is the residence of large numbers of -labourers employed in Gibraltar. - - - - -LALITPUR, a town of British India, in Jhansi district, United Provinces. -Pop. (1901) 11,560. It has a station on the Great Indian Peninsula -railway, and a large trade in oil-seeds, hides and _ghi_. It contains -several beautiful Hindu and Jain temples. It was formerly the -headquarters of a district of the same name, which was incorporated with -that of Jhansi in 1891. The Bundela chiefs of Lalitpur were among those -who most eagerly joined the Mutiny, and it was only after a severe -struggle that the district was pacified. - - - - -LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR, COMTE DE, Baron de Tollendal (1702-1766), French -general, was born at Romans, Dauphine, in January 1702, being the son of -Sir Gerard O'Lally, an Irish Jacobite who married a French lady of noble -family, from whom the son inherited his titles. Entering the French army -in 1721 he served in the war of 1734 against Austria; he was present at -Dettingen (1743), and commanded the regiment de Lally in the famous -Irish brigade at Fontenoy (May 1745). He was made a brigadier on the -field by Louis XV. He had previously been mixed up in several Jacobite -plots, and in 1745 accompanied Charles Edward to Scotland, serving as -aide-de-camp at the battle of Falkirk (January 1746). Escaping to -France, he served with Marshal Saxe in the Low Countries, and at the -capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a _marechal de camp_. When war -broke out with England in 1756 Lally was given the command of a French -expedition to India. He reached Pondicherry in April 1758, and at the -outset met with some trifling military success. He was a man of courage -and a capable general; but his pride and ferocity made him disliked by -his officers and hated by his soldiers, while he regarded the natives as -slaves, despised their assistance, and trampled on their traditions of -caste. In consequence everything went wrong with him. He was -unsuccessful in an attack on Tanjore, and had to retire from the siege -of Madras (1758) owing to the timely arrival of the British fleet. He -was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Wandiwash (1760), and besieged in -Pondicherry and forced to capitulate (1761). He was sent as a prisoner -of war to England. While in London, he heard that he was accused in -France of treachery, and insisted, against advice, on returning on -parole to stand his trial. He was kept prisoner for nearly two years -before the trial began; then, after many painful delays, he was -sentenced to death (May 6, 1766), and three days later beheaded. Louis -XV. tried to throw the responsibility for what was undoubtedly a -judicial murder on his ministers and the public, but his policy needed a -scapegoat, and he was probably well content not to exercise his -authority to save an almost friendless foreigner. - - See G. B. Malleson, _The Career of Count Lally_ (1865); "Z's" (the - marquis de Lally-Tollendal) article in the _Biographie Michaud_; and - Voltaire's _Oeuvres completes_. The legal documents are preserved in - the Bibliotheque Nationale. - - - - -LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GERARD, MARQUIS DE (1751-1830), was born at -Paris on the 5th of March 1751. He was the legitimized son of the comte -de Lally and only discovered the secret of his birth on the day of his -father's execution, when he resolved to devote himself to clearing his -father's memory. He was supported by Voltaire, and in 1778 succeeded in -persuading Louis XVI. to annul the decree which had sentenced the comte -de Lally; but the parlement of Rouen, to which the case was referred -back, in 1784 again decided in favour of Lally's guilt. The case was -retried by other courts, but Lally's innocence was never fully admitted -by the French judges. In 1779 Lally-Tollendal bought the office of -_Grand bailli_ of Etampes, and in 1789 was a deputy to the -states-general for the _noblesse_ of Paris. He played some part in the -early stages of the Revolution, but was too conservative to be in -sympathy with all even of its earlier developments. He threw himself -into opposition to the "tyranny" of Mirabeau, and condemned the epidemic -of renunciation which in the session of the 4th of August 1789 destroyed -the traditional institutions of France. Later in the year he emigrated -to England. During the trial of Louis XVI. by the National Convention -(1793) he offered to defend the king, but was not allowed to return to -France. He did not return till the time of the Consulate. Louis XVIII. -created him a peer of France, and in 1816 he became a member of the -French Academy. From that time until his death, on the 11th of March -1830, he devoted himself to philanthropic work, especially identifying -himself with prison reform. - - See his _Plaidoyer pour Louis XVI._ (London, 1793); Lally-Tollendal - was also in part responsible for the _Memoires_, attributed to Joseph - Weber, concerning Marie Antoinette (1804); he further edited the - article on his father in the _Biographie Michaud_; see also Arnault, - _Discours prononce aux funerailles de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal - le 13 mars 1830_ (Paris); Gauthier de Brecy, _Necrologie de M. le - marquis de Lally-Tollendal_ (Paris, undated); Voltaire, _Oeuvres - completes_ (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of - contents, vol. ii. - - - - -LALO, EDOUARD (1823-1892), French composer, was born at Lille, on the -27th of January 1823. He began his musical studies at the conservatoire -at Lille, and in Paris attended the violin classes of Habeneck. For -several years Lalo led a modest and retired existence, playing the viola -in the quartet party organized by Armingaud and Jacquard, and in -composing chamber music. His early works include two trios, a quartet, -and several pieces for violin and pianoforte. In 1867 he took part in an -operatic competition, an opera from his pen, entitled _Fiesque_, -obtaining the third place out of forty-three. This work was accepted for -production at the Paris Opera, but delays occurred, and nothing was -done. _Fiesque_ was next offered to the Theatre de la Monnaie, Brussels, -and was about to be produced there when the manager became bankrupt. -Thus, when nearly fifty years of age, Lalo found himself in -difficulties. _Fiesque_ was never performed, but the composer published -the pianoforte score, and eventually employed some of the music in other -works. After the Franco-German war French composers found their -opportunity in the concert-room. Lalo was one of these, and during the -succeeding ten years several interesting works from his pen were -produced, among them a sonata for violoncello, a "divertissement" for -orchestra, a violin concerto and the _Symphonie Espagnole_ for violin -and orchestra, one of his best-known compositions. In the meanwhile he -had written a second opera, _Le Roi d'Ys_, which he hoped would be -produced at the Opera. The administration offered him the "scenario" of -a ballet instead. Lalo was obliged to be content with this, and set to -work with so much energy that he fell ill, the last scenes of the ballet -being orchestrated by Gounod. _Namouna_, the ballet in question, was -produced at the Opera in 1882. Six years later, on the 7th of May 1888, -_Le Roi d'Ys_ was brought out at the Opera Comique, and Lalo was at last -enabled to taste the sweets of success. Unfortunately, fame came to him -too late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to _Neron_, a -pantomimic piece played at the Hippodrome in 1891, were his last two -works. He had begun a new opera, but had only written the first act -when, on the 23rd of April 1892, he died. This opera, _La Jacquerie_, -was finished by Arthur Coquard, and was produced in 1895 at Monte Carlo, -Aix-les-Bains and finally in Paris. Lalo had distinct originality, -discernible in his employment of curious rhythmic devices. His music is -ever ingenious and brilliantly effective. - - - - -LA MADDALENA, an island 2(1/2) m. from the N.E. coast of Sardinia. Pop. -(1901) 8361. Napoleon bombarded it in 1793 without success, and Nelson -made it his headquarters for some time. It is now an important naval -station of the Italian fleet, the anchorage being good, and is strongly -fortified. A bridge and an embankment connect it with Caprera. It -appears to have been inhabited in Roman times. - - - - -LAMAISM, a system of doctrine partly religious, partly political. -Religiously it is the corrupt form of Buddhism prevalent in Tibet and -Mongolia. It stands in a relationship to primitive Buddhism similar to -that in which Roman Catholicism, so long as the temporal power of the -pope was still in existence, stood to primitive Christianity. The -ethical and metaphysical ideas most conspicuous in the doctrines of -Lamaism are not confined to the highlands of central Asia, they are -accepted in great measure also in Japan and China. It is the union of -these ideas with a hierarchical system, and with the temporal -sovereignty of the head of that system in Tibet, which constitutes what -is distinctively understood by the term Lamaism. Lamaism has acquired a -special interest to the student of comparative history through the -instructive parallel which its history presents to that of the Church of -Rome. - - - The "Great Vehicle." - -The central point of primitive Buddhism was the doctrine of -"Arahatship"--a system of ethical and mental self-culture, in which -deliverance was found from all the mysteries and sorrows of life in a -change of heart to be reached here on earth. This doctrine seems to have -been held very nearly in its original purity from the time when it was -propounded by Gotama in the 6th century B.C. to the period in which -northern India was conquered by the Huns about the commencement of the -Christian era. Soon after that time there arose a school of Buddhist -teachers who called their doctrine the "Great Vehicle." It was not in -any contradiction to the older doctrine, which they contemptuously -called the "Little Vehicle," but included it all, and was based upon it. -The distinguishing characteristic of the newer school was the importance -which it attached to "Bodhisatship." The older school had taught that -Gotama, who had propounded the doctrine of Arahatship, was a Buddha, -that only a Buddha is capable of discovering that doctrine, and that a -Buddha is a man who by self-denying efforts, continued through many -hundreds of different births, has acquired the so-called _Ten Paramitas_ -or cardinal virtues in such perfection that he is able, when sin and -ignorance have gained the upper hand throughout the world, to save the -human race from impending ruin. But until the process of perfection has -been completed, until the moment when at last the sage, sitting under -the Wisdom tree acquires that particular insight or wisdom which is -called Enlightenment or Buddhahood, he is still only a Bodhisat. The -link of connexion between the various Bodhisats in the future Buddha's -successive births is not a soul which is transferred from body to body, -but the _karma_, or character, which each successive Bodhisat inherits -from his predecessors in the long chain of existences. Now the older -school also held, in the first place, that, when a man had, in this -life, attained to Arahatship, his karma would not pass on to any other -individual in another life--or in other words, that after Arahatship -there would be no rebirth; and, secondly, that four thousand years after -the Buddha had proclaimed the _Dhamma_ or doctrine of Arahatship, his -teaching would have died away, and another Buddha would be required to -bring mankind once more to a knowledge of the truth. The leaders of the -Great Vehicle urged their followers to seek to attain, not so much to -Arahatship, which would involve only their own salvation, but to -Bodhisatship, by the attainment of which they would be conferring the -blessings of the Dhamma upon countless multitudes in the long ages of -the future. By thus laying stress upon Bodhisatship, rather than upon -Arahatship, the new school, though they doubtless merely thought -themselves to be carrying the older orthodox doctrines to their logical -conclusion, were really changing the central point of Buddhism, and were -altering the direction of their mental vision. It was of no avail that -they adhered in other respects in the main to the older teaching, that -they professed to hold to the same ethical system, that they adhered, -except in a few unimportant details, to the old regulations of the order -of the Buddhist mendicant recluses. The ancient books, preserved in the -_Pali Pitakas_, being mainly occupied with the details of Arahatship, -lost their exclusive value in the eyes of those whose attention was -being directed to the details of Bodhisatship. And the opinion that -every leader in their religious circles, every teacher distinguished -among them for his sanctity of life, or for his extensive learning, was -a Bodhisat, who might have and who probably had inherited the karma of -some great teacher of old, opened the door to a flood of superstitious -fancies. - -It is worthy of note that the new school found its earliest professors -and its greatest expounders in a part of India outside the districts to -which the personal influence of Gotama and of his immediate followers -had been confined. The home of early Buddhism was round about Kosala and -Magadha; in the district, that is to say, north and south of the Ganges -between where Allahabad now lies on the west and Rajgir on the east. The -home of the Great Vehicle was, at first, in the countries farther to the -north and west. Buddhism arose in countries where Sanskrit was never -more than a learned tongue, and where the exclusive claims of the -Brahmins had never been universally admitted. The Great Vehicle arose in -the very stronghold of Brahminism, and among a people to whom Sanskrit, -like Latin in the middle ages in Europe, was the literary _lingua -franca_. The new literature therefore, which the new movement called -forth, was written, and has been preserved, in Sanskrit--its principal -books of _Dharma_, or doctrine, being the following nine: (1) -_Prajna-paramita_; (2) _Ganda-vyuha_; (3) _Dasa-bhumis-vara_; (4) -_Samadhi-raja_; (5) _Lankavatara_; (6) _Saddharma-pundarika_; (7) -_Tathagata-guhyaka_; (8) _Lalita-vistara_; (9) _Suvarna-prabhasa_. The -date of none of these works is known with any certainty, but it is -highly improbable that any one of them is older than the 6th century -after the death of Gotama. Copies of all of them were brought to Europe -by Mr B. H. Hodgson, and other copies have been received since then; but -only one of them has as yet been published in Europe (the _Lalita -Vistara_, edited by Lofmann), and only two have been translated into any -European language. These are the _Lalita Vistara_, translated into -French, through the Tibetan, by M. Foucaux, and the _Saddharma -Pundarika_, translated into English by Professor Kern. The former is -legendary work, partly in verse, on the life of Gotama, the historical -Buddha; and the latter, also partly in verse, is devoted to proving the -essential identity of the Great and the Little Vehicles, and the equal -authenticity of both as doctrines enunciated by the master himself. - -Of the authors of these nine works, as of all the older Buddhist works -with one or two exceptions, nothing has been ascertained. The founder of -the system of the Great Vehicle is, however, often referred to under the -name of Nagarjuna, whose probable date is about A.D. 200. - -Together with Nagarjuna, other early teachers of the Great Vehicle whose -names are known are Vasumitra, Vasubandhu, Aryadeva, Dharmapala and -Gunamati--all of whom were looked upon as Bodhisats. As the newer school -did not venture so far as to claim as Bodhisats the disciples stated in -the older books to have been the contemporaries of Gotama (they being -precisely the persons known as Arahats), they attempted to give the -appearance of age to the Bodhisat theory by representing the Buddha as -being surrounded, not only by his human companions the Arahats, but also -by fabulous beings, whom they represented as the Bodhisats existing at -that time. In the opening words of each Mahayana treatise a list is -given of such Bodhisats, who were beginning, together with the -historical Bodhisats, to occupy a position in the Buddhist church of -those times similar to that occupied by the saints in the corresponding -period of the history of Christianity in the Church of Rome. And these -lists of fabulous Bodhisats have now a distinct historical importance. -For they grow in length in the later works; and it is often possible by -comparing them one with another to fix, not the date, but the -comparative age of the books in which they occur. Thus it is a fair -inference to draw from the shortness of the list in the opening words of -the _Lalita Vistara_, as compared with that in the first sections of the -_Saddharma Pundarika_, that the latter work is much the younger of the -two, a conclusion supported also by other considerations. - -Among the Bodhisats mentioned in the _Saddharma Pundarika_, and not -mentioned in the _Lalita Vistara_, as attendant on the Buddha are -Manju-sri and Avalokitesvara. That these saints were already -acknowledged by the followers of the Great Vehicle at the beginning of -the 5th century is clear from the fact that Fa Hien, who visited India -about that time, says that "men of the Great Vehicle" were then -worshipping them at Mathura, not far from Delhi (F. H., chap. xvi.). -These were supposed to be celestial beings who, inspired by love of the -human race, had taken the so-called Great Resolve to become future -Buddhas, and who therefore descended from heaven when the actual Buddha -was on earth, to pay reverence to him, and to learn of him. The belief -in them probably arose out of the doctrine of the older school, which -did not deny the existence of the various creations of previous -mythology and speculation, but allowed of their actual existence as -spiritual beings, and only deprived them of all power over the lives of -men, and declared them to be temporary beings liable, like men, to sin -and ignorance, and requiring, like men, the salvation of Arahatship. -Among them the later Buddhists seem to have placed their numerous -Bodhisats; and to have paid especial reverence to Manju-sri as the -personification of wisdom, and to Avalokiteswara as the personification -of overruling love. The former was afterwards identified with the -mythical first Buddhist missionary, who is supposed to have introduced -civilization into Tibet about two hundred and fifty years after the -death of the Buddha. - - - The five mystic trinities. - -The way was now open to a rapid fall from the simplicity of early -Buddhism, in which men's attention was directed to the various parts of -the system of self-culture, to a belief in a whole pantheon of saints or -angels, which appealed more strongly to the half-civilized races among -whom the Great Vehicle was now professed. A theory sprang up which was -supposed to explain the marvellous powers of the Buddhas by representing -them as only the outward appearance, the reflection, as it were, or -emanation, of ethereal Buddhas dwelling in the skies. These were called -_Dhyani Buddhas_, and their number was supposed to be, like that of the -Buddhas, innumerable. Only five of them, however, occupied any space in -the speculative world in which the ideas of the later Buddhists had now -begun to move. But, being Buddhas, they were supposed to have their -Bodhisats; and thus out of the five last Buddhas of the earlier teaching -there grew up five mystic trinities, each group consisting of one of -these five Buddhas, his prototype in heaven the Dhyani Buddha, and his -celestial Bodhisat. Among these hypothetical beings, the creations of a -sickly scholasticism, hollow abstractions without life or reality, the -particular trinity in which the historical Gotama was assigned a -subordinate place naturally occupied the most exalted rank. Amitabha, -the Dhyani-Buddha of this trinity, soon began to fill the largest place -in the minds of the new school; and Avalokiteswara, his Bodhisat, was -looked upon with a reverence somewhat less than his former glory. It is -needless to add that, under the overpowering influence of these vain -imaginations, the earnest moral teachings of Gotama became more and more -hidden from view. The imaginary saints grew and flourished. Each new -creation, each new step in the theory, demanded another, until the whole -sky was filled with forgeries of the brain, and the nobler and simpler -lessons of the founder of the religion were hidden beneath the -glittering stream of metaphysical subtleties. - -Still worse results followed on the change of the earlier point of view. -The acute minds of the Buddhist pandits, no longer occupied with the -practical lessons of Arahatship, turned their attention, as far as it -was not engaged upon their hierarchy of mythological beings, to -questions of metaphysical speculation, which, in the earliest Buddhism, -are not only discouraged but forbidden. We find long treatises on the -nature of being, idealistic dreams which have as little to do with the -Bodhisatship that is concerned with the salvation of the world as with -the Arahatship that is concerned with the perfect life. Only one lower -step was possible, and that was not long in being taken. The animism -common alike to the untaught Huns and to their Hindu conquerors, but -condemned in early Buddhism, was allowed to revive. As the stronger side -of Gotama's teaching was neglected, the debasing belief in rites and -ceremonies, and charms and incantations, which had been the especial -object of his scorn, began to spread like the Birana weed warmed by a -tropical sun in marsh and muddy soil. As in India, after the expulsion -of Buddhism, the degrading worship of Siva and his dusky bride had been -incorporated into Hinduism from the savage devil worship of Aryan and of -non-Aryan tribes, so, as pure Buddhism died away in the north, the -_Tantra_ system, a mixture of magic and witchcraft and sorcery, was -incorporated into the corrupted Buddhism. - - - The Tantra system. - -The founder of this system seems to have been Asanga, an influential -monk of Peshawar, who wrote the first text-book of the creed, the -_Yogachchara Bhumi Sastra_, in the 6th century A.D. Hsuan Tsang, who -travelled in the first half of the 7th, found the monastery where Asanga -had lived in ruins, and says that he had lived one thousand years after -the Buddha.[1] Asanga managed with great dexterity to reconcile the two -opposing systems by placing a number of Saivite gods or devils, both -male and female, in the inferior heavens of the then prevalent Buddhism, -and by representing them as worshippers and supporters of the Buddha and -of Avalokitesvara. He thus made it possible for the half-converted and -rude tribes to remain Buddhists while they brought offerings, and even -bloody offerings, to these more congenial shrines, and while their -practical belief had no relation at all to the Truths or the Noble -Eightfold Path, but busied itself almost wholly with obtaining magic -powers (_Siddhi_), by means of magic phrases (_Dharani_), and magic -circles (_Mandala_). Asanga's happy idea bore but too ample fruit. In -his own country and Nepal, the new wine, sweet and luscious to the taste -of savages, completely disqualified them from enjoying any purer drink; -and now in both countries Saivism is supreme, and Buddhism is even -nominally extinct, except in some outlying districts of Nepal. But this -full effect has only been worked out in the lapse of ages; the Tantra -literature has also had its growth and its development, and some unhappy -scholar of a future age may have to trace its loathsome history. The -nauseous taste repelled even the self-sacrificing industry of Burnouf, -when he found the later Tantra books to be as immoral as they are -absurd. "The pen," he says, "refuses to transcribe doctrines as -miserable in respect of form as they are odious and degrading in respect -of meaning." - -Such had been the decline and fall of Buddhism considered as an ethical -system before its introduction into Tibet. The manner in which its order -of mendicant recluses, at first founded to afford better opportunities -to those who wished to carry out that system in practical life, -developed at last into a hierarchical monarchy will best be understood -by a sketch of the history of Tibet. - - - Early political history. - -Its real history commences with Srong Tsan Gampo, who was born a little -after 600 A.D., and who is said in the Chinese chronicles to have -entered, in 634, into diplomatic relationship with Tai Tsung, one of the -emperors of the Tang dynasty. He was the founder of the present capital -of Tibet, now known as Lhasa; and in the year 622 (the same year as that -in which Mahomet fled from Mecca) he began the formal introduction of -Buddhism into Tibet. For this purpose he sent the minister Thumi -Sambhota, afterwards looked upon as an incarnation of Manju-sri, to -India, there to collect the sacred books, and to learn and translate -them. Thumi Sambhota accordingly invented an alphabet for the Tibetan -language on the model of the Indian alphabets then in use. And, aided by -the king, who is represented to have been an industrious student and -translator, he wrote the first books by which Buddhism became known in -his native land. The most famous of the works ascribed to him is the -_Mani Kambum_, "the Myriad of Precious Words"--a treatise chiefly on -religion, but which also contains an account of the introduction of -Buddhism into Tibet, and of the closing part of the life of Srong Tsan -Gampo. He is also very probably the author of another very ancient -standard work of Tibetan Buddhism, the _Samatog_, a short digest of -Buddhist morality, on which the civil laws of Tibet have been founded. -It is said in the _Mani Kambum_ to have fallen from heaven in a casket -(Tibetan, _samatog_), and, like the last-mentioned work, is only known -to us in meagre abstract. - -King Srong Tsan Gampo's zeal for Buddhism was shared and supported by -his two queens, Bribsun, a princess from Nepal, and Wen Ching, a -princess from China. They are related to have brought with them sacred -relics, books and pictures, for whose better preservation two large -monasteries were erected. These are the cloisters of La Brang (Jokhang) -and Ra Moche, still, though much changed and enlarged, the most sacred -abbeys in Tibet, and the glory of Lhasa. The two queens have become -semi-divine personages, and are worshipped under the name of the two -_Dara-Eke_, the "glorious mothers," being regarded as incarnations of -the wife of Siva, representing respectively two of the qualities which -she personifies, divine vengeance and divine love. The former is -worshipped by the Mongolians as _Okkin Tengri_, "the Virgin Goddess"; -but in Tibet and China the role of the divine virgin is filled by _Kwan -Yin_, a personification of Avalokitesvara as the heavenly word, who is -often represented with a child in her arms. Srong Tsan Gampo has also -become a saint, being looked upon as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara; -and the description in the ecclesiastical historians of the measures he -took for the welfare of his subjects do great credit to their ideal of -the perfect Buddhist king. He is said to have spent his long reign in -the building of reservoirs, bridges and canals; in the promotion of -agriculture, horticulture and manufactures; in the establishment of -schools and colleges; and in the maintenance of justice and the -encouragement of virtue. But the degree of his success must have been -slight. For after the death of himself and of his wives Buddhism -gradually decayed, and was subjected by succeeding kings to cruel -persecutions; and it was not till more than half a century afterwards, -under King Kir Song de Tsan, who reigned 740-786, that true religion is -acknowledged by the ecclesiastical historians to have become firmly -established in the land. - - - The Tibetan sacred books. - -This monarch again sent to India to replace the sacred books that had -been lost, and to invite Buddhist pandits to translate them. The most -distinguished of those who came were Santa Rakshita, Padma Sambhava and -Kamala Sila, for whom, and for their companions, the king built a -splendid monastery still existing, at Samje, about three days' journey -south-east of Lhasa. It was to them that the Tibetans owed the great -collection of what are still regarded as their sacred books--the -_Kandjur_. It consists of 100 volumes containing 689 works, of which -there are two or three complete sets in Europe, one of them in the India -Office library. A detailed analysis of these scriptures has been -published by the celebrated Hungarian scholar Csoma de Koros, whose -authoritative work has been republished in French with complete indices -and very useful notes by M. Leon Feer. These volumes contain about a -dozen works of the oldest school of Buddhism, the Hinayana, and about -300 works, mostly very short, belonging to the Tantra school. But the -great bulk of the collection consists of Mahayana books, belonging to -all the previously existing varieties of that widely extended Buddhist -sect; and, as the Sanskrit originals of many of these writings are now -lost, the Tibetan translations will be of great value, not only for the -history of Lamaism, but also for the history of the later forms of -Indian Buddhism. - -The last king's second son, Lang Darma, concluded in May 822 a treaty -with the then emperor of China (the twelfth of the Tang dynasty), a -record of which was engraved on a stone put up in the above-mentioned -great convent of La Brang (Jokhang), and is still to be seen there.[2] -He is described in the church chronicles as an incarnation of the evil -spirit, and is said to have succeeded in suppressing Buddhism throughout -the greater part of the land. The period from Srong Tsan Gampo down to -the death of Lang Darma, who was murdered about A.D. 850, in a civil -war, is called in the Buddhist books "the first introduction of -religion." It was followed by more than a century of civil disorder and -wars, during which the exiled Buddhist monks attempted unsuccessfully -again and again to return. Many are the stories of martyrs and -confessors who are believed to have lived in these troublous times, and -their efforts were at last crowned with success, for in the century -commencing with the reign of Bilamgur in 971 there took place "the -second introduction of religion" into Tibet, more especially under the -guidance of the pandit Atisha, who came to Tibet in 1041, and of his -famous native pupil and follower Brom Ston. The long period of -depression seems not to have been without a beneficial influence on the -persecuted Buddhist church, for these teachers are reported to have -placed the Tantra system more in the background, and to have adhered -more strongly to the purer forms of the Mahayana development of the -ancient faith. - - - The temporal sovereignty of the Lamas. - -For about three hundred years the Buddhist church of Tibet was left in -peace, subjecting the country more and more completely to its control, -and growing in power and in wealth. During this time it achieved its -greatest victory, and underwent the most important change in its -character and organization. After the reintroduction of Buddhism into -the "kingdom of snow," the ancient dynasty never recovered its power. -Its representatives continued for some time to claim the sovereignty; -but the country was practically very much in the condition of Germany at -about the same time--chieftains of almost independent power ruled from -their castles on the hill-tops over the adjacent valleys, engaged in -petty wars, and conducted plundering expeditions against the -neighbouring tenants, whilst the great abbeys were places of refuge for -the studious or religious, and their heads were the only rivals to the -barons in social state, and in many respects the only protectors and -friends of the people. Meanwhile Jenghiz Khan had founded the Mongol -empire, and his grandson Kublai Khan became a convert to the Buddhism of -the Tibetan Lamas. He granted to the abbot of the Sakya monastery in -southern Tibet the title of tributary sovereign of the country, head of -the Buddhist church, and overlord over the numerous barons and abbots, -and in return was officially crowned by the abbot as ruler over the -extensive domain of the Mongol empire. Thus was the foundation laid at -one and the same time of the temporal sovereignty of the Lamas of Tibet, -and of the suzerainty over Tibet of the emperors of China. One of the -first acts of the "head of the church" was the printing of a carefully -revised edition of the Tibetan Scriptures--an undertaking which occupied -altogether nearly thirty years and was not completed till 1306. - -Under Kublai's successors in China the Buddhist cause flourished -greatly, and the Sakya Lamas extended their power both at home and -abroad. The dignity of abbot at Sakya became hereditary, the abbots -breaking so far the Buddhist rule of celibacy that they remained married -until they had begotten a son and heir. But rather more than half a -century afterwards their power was threatened by a formidable rival at -home, a Buddhist reformer. - - - The Luther of Tibet. - -Tsongkapa, the Luther of Tibet, was born about 1357 on the spot where -the famous monastery of Kunbum now stands. He very early entered the -order, and studied at Sakya, Brigung and other monasteries. He then -spent eight years as a hermit in Takpo in southern Tibet, where the -comparatively purer teaching of Atisha (referred to above) was still -prevalent. About 1390 he appeared as a public teacher and reformer in -Lhasa, and before his death in 1419 there were three huge monasteries -there containing 30,000 of his disciples, besides others in other parts -of the country. His voluminous works, of which the most famous are the -_Sumbun_ and the _Lam Nim Tshenpo_, exist in printed Tibetan copies in -Europe, but have not yet been translated or analysed. But the principal -lines on which his reformation proceeded are sufficiently attested. He -insisted in the first place on the complete carrying out of the ancient -rules of the order as to the celibacy of its members, and as to -simplicity in dress. One result of the second of these two reforms was -to make it necessary for every monk openly to declare himself either in -favour of or against the new views. For Tsongkapa and his followers wore -the yellow or orange-coloured garments which had been the distinguishing -mark of the order in the lifetime of its founder, and in support of the -ancient rules Tsongkapa reinstated the fortnightly rehearsal of the -_Patimokkha_ or "disburdenment" in regular assemblies of the order at -Lhasa--a practice which had fallen into desuetude. He also restored the -custom of the first disciples to hold the so-called _Vassa_ or yearly -retirement, and the public meeting of the order at its close. In all -these respects he was simply following the directions of the Vinaya, or -regulations of the order, as established probably in the time of Gotama -himself, and as certainly handed down from the earliest times in the -pitakas or sacred books. Further, he set his face against the Tantra -system, and against the animistic superstitions which had been allowed -to creep into life again. He laid stress on the self-culture involved in -the practice of the paramitas or cardinal virtues, and established an -annual national fast or week of prayer to be held during the first days -of each year. This last institution indeed is not found in the ancient -Vinaya, but was almost certainly modelled on the traditional account of -the similar assemblies convoked by Asoka and other Buddhist sovereigns -in India every fifth year. Laymen as well as monks take part in the -proceedings, the details of which are unknown to us except from the -accounts of the Catholic missionaries--Fathers Huc and Gabet--who -describe the principal ceremonial as, in outward appearance, wonderfully -like the high mass. In doctrine the great Tibetan teacher, who had no -access to the Pali Pitakas, adhered in the main to the purer forms of -the Mahayana school; in questions of church government he took little -part, and did not dispute the titular supremacy of the Sakya Lamas. But -the effects of his teaching weakened their power. The "orange-hoods," as -his followers were called, rapidly gained in numbers and influence, -until they so overshadowed the "red-hoods," as the followers of the -older sect were called, that in the middle of the 15th century the -emperor of China acknowledged the two leaders of the new sect at that -time as the titular overlords of the church and tributary rulers over -the realm of Tibet. These two leaders were then known as the _Dalai -Lama_ and the _Pantshen Lama_, and were the abbots of the great -monasteries at Gedun Dubpa, near Lhasa, and at Tashi Lunpo, in Farther -Tibet, respectively. Since that time the abbots of these monasteries -have continued to exercise the sovereignty over Tibet. - - - Constitution of Lamaism. - -As there has been no further change in the doctrine, and no further -reformation in discipline, we may leave the ecclesiastical history of -Lamaism since that date unnoticed, and consider some principal points on -the constitution of the Lamaism of to-day. And first as to the mode of -electing successors to the two Great Lamas. It will have been noticed -that it was an old idea of the northern Buddhists to look upon -distinguished members of the order as incarnations of Avalokitesvara, of -Manju-sri, or of Amitabha. These beings were supposed to possess the -power, whilst they continued to live in heaven, of appearing on earth in -a _Nirmana-kaya_, or apparitional body. In the same way the Pantshen -Lama is looked upon as an incarnation, the Nirmana-kaya, of Amitabha, -who had previously appeared under the outward form of Tshonkapa himself; -and the Dalai Lama is looked upon as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara. -Theoretically, therefore, the former, as the spiritual successor of the -great teacher and also of Amitabha, who occupies the higher place in the -mythology of the Great Vehicle, would be superior to the latter, as the -spiritual representative of Avalokitesvara. But practically the Dalai -Lama, owing to his position in the capital,[3] has the political -supremacy, and is actually called the _Gyalpo Rinpotshe_, "the glorious -king"--his companion being content with the title _Pantshen Rinpotshe_, -"the glorious teacher." When either of them dies it is necessary for the -other to ascertain in whose body the celestial being whose outward form -has been dissolved has been pleased again to incarnate himself. For that -purpose the names of all male children born just after the death of the -deceased Great Lama are laid before his survivor. He chooses three out -of the whole number; their names are thrown into a golden casket -provided for that purpose by a former emperor of China. The Chutuktus, -or abbots of the great monasteries, then assemble, and after a week of -prayer, the lots are drawn in their presence and in presence of the -surviving Great Lama and of the Chinese political resident. The child -whose name is first drawn is the future Great Lama; the other two -receive each of them 500 pieces of silver. The Chutuktus just mentioned -correspond in many respects to the Roman cardinals. Like the Great -Lamas, they bear the title of Rinpotshe or Glorious, and are looked upon -as incarnations of one or other of the celestial Bodhisats of the Great -Vehicle mythology. Their number varies from ten to a hundred; and it is -uncertain whether the honour is inherent in the abbacy of certain of the -greatest cloisters, or whether the Dalai Lama exercises the right of -choosing them. Under these high officials of the Tibetan hierarchy there -come the Chubil Khans, who fill the post of abbot to the lesser -monasteries, and are also incarnations. Their number is very large; -there are few monasteries in Tibet or in Mongolia which do not claim to -possess one of these living Buddhas. Besides these mystical persons -there are in the Tibetan church other ranks and degrees, corresponding -to the deacon, full priest, dean and doctor of divinity in the West. At -the great yearly festival at Lhasa they make in the cathedral an -imposing array, not much less magnificent than that of the clergy in -Rome; for the ancient simplicity of dress has disappeared in the growing -differences of rank, and each division of the spiritual army is -distinguished in Tibet, as in the West, by a special uniform. The -political authority of the Dalai Lama is confined to Tibet itself, but -he is the acknowledged head also of the Buddhist church throughout -Mongolia and China. He has no supremacy over his co-religionists in -Japan, and even in China there are many Buddhists who are not -practically under his control or influence. - - The best work on Lamaism is still Koppen's _Die Lamaische Hierarchie - und Kirche_ (Berlin, 1859). See also Bushell, "The Early History of - Tibet," in the _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1879-1880, vol. - xii.; Sanang Setzen's _History of the East Mongols_ (in Mongolian, - translated into German by J. Schmidt, _Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen_); - "Analyse du Kandjur," by M. Leon Feer, in _Annales du Musee Gaimet_ - (1881); Schott, _Ueber den Buddhismus in Hoch-Asien_; Gutzlaff, - _Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches_; Hue and Gabet, _Souvenirs d'un - voyage dans la Tartarie, le Tibet, et la Chine_ (Paris, 1858); - Pallas's _Sammlung historischer Nachrichten uber die Mongolischen - Volkerschaften_; Babu Sarat Chunder Das's "Contributions on the - Religion and History of Tibet," in the _Journal of the Bengal Asiatic - Society_, 1881; L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895); - A. H. Francke, _History of Western Tibet_ (London, 1907); A. - Grunwedel, _Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei_ - (Berlin, 1900). (T. W. R. D.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Watters's _Yuan Chwang_, edited by Rhys Davids and Bushell, i. - 210, 356, 271. - - [2] Published with facsimile and translation and notes in the - _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_ for 1879-1880, vol. xii. - - [3] This statement representing the substantial and historical - position, is retained, in spite of the crises of March 1910, when the - Dalai Lama took refuge from the Chinese in India, and of 1904, when - the British expedition occupied Lhasa and the Dalai Lama fled to - China (see TIBET). - - - - -LAMALOU-LES-BAINS, a watering-place of southern France in the department -of Herault, 53(1/2) m. W. of Montpellier by rail, in a valley of the -southern Cevennes. Pop. (1906) 720. The waters, which are both hot and -cold, are used in cases of rheumatism, sciatica, locomotor ataxy and -nervous maladies. - - - - -LAMA-MIAO, or DOLON-NOR, a city of the province of Chih-li, China, 150 -m. N. of Peking, in a barren sandy plain watered by the Urtingol, a -tributary of the Shang-tu-ko. The town proper, almost exclusively -occupied by Chinese, is about a mile in length by half a mile in -breadth, has narrow and dirty streets, and contains a population of -about 26,000. Unlike the ordinary Chinese town of the same rank, it is -not walled. A busy trade is carried on between the Chinese and the -Mongolians, who bring in their cattle, sheep, camels, hides and wool to -barter for tea, tobacco, cotton and silk. At some distance from the -Chinese town lies the Mongolian quarter, with two groups of lama temples -and villages occupied by about 2300 priests. Dr Williamson (_Journeys in -North China_, 1870) described the chief temple as a huge oblong building -with an interior not unlike a Gothic church. Lama-miao is the seat of a -manufactory of bronze idols and other articles of ritual, which find -their way to all parts of Mongolia and Tibet. The craftsmen work in -their own houses. - - - - -LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS (1825-1893), American statesman and -judge, was born at the old "Lamar Homestead," in Putnam county, Georgia, -on the 17th of September 1825. His father, Lucius Q. C. Lamar -(1797-1834), was an able lawyer, a judge of the superior court of -Georgia, and the compiler of the _Laws of Georgia from 1810 to 1819_ -(1821). In 1845 young Lamar graduated from Emory College (Oxford, Ga.), -and in 1847 was admitted to the bar. In 1849 he removed to Oxford, -Mississippi, and in 1850-1852 was adjunct professor of mathematics in -the state university. In 1852 he removed to Covington, Ga., to practise -law, and in 1853 was elected a member of the Georgia House of -Representatives. In 1855 he returned to Mississippi, and two years later -became a member of the National House of Representatives, where he -served until December 1860, when he withdrew to become a candidate for -election to the "secession" convention of Mississippi. He was elected to -the convention, and drafted for it the Mississippi ordinance of -secession. In the summer of 1860 he had accepted an appointment to the -chair of ethics and metaphysics in the university of Mississippi, but, -having been appointed a lieutenant-colonel in the Confederate Army in -the spring of 1861, he resigned his professorship. The colonel of his -regiment (Nineteenth Mississippi) was killed early in the battle of -Williamsburg, on the 5th of May 1862, and the command then fell to -Lamar, but in October he resigned from the army. In November 1862 he was -appointed by President Jefferson Davis special commissioner of the -Confederacy to Russia; but he did not proceed farther than Paris, and -his mission was soon terminated by the refusal of the Confederate Senate -to confirm his appointment. In 1866 he was again appointed to the chair -of ethics and metaphysics in the university of Mississippi, and in the -next year was transferred to the chair of law, but in 1870, Republicans -having become trustees of the university upon the readmission of the -state into the Union, he resigned. From 1873 to 1877 he was again a -Democratic representative in Congress; from 1877 to 1885 he was a United -States senator; from 1885 to January 1888 he was secretary of the -interior; and from 1888 until his death at Macon, Ga., on the 23rd of -January 1893, he was an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the -United States. In Congress Lamar fought the silver and greenback craze -and argued forcibly against the protective tariff; in the department of -the interior he introduced various reforms; and on the Supreme Court -bench his dissenting opinion in the _Neagle Case_ (based upon a denial -that certain powers belonging to Congress, but not exercised, were by -implication vested in the department of justice) is famous. But he is -perhaps best known for the part he took after the Civil War in helping -to effect a reconciliation between the North and the South. During the -early secession movement he strove to arouse the white people of the -South from their indifference, declaring that secession alone could save -them from a doom similar to that of the former whites of San Domingo. He -probably never changed his convictions as to the righteousness of the -"lost cause"; but he accepted the result of the war as a final -settlement of the differences leading to it, and strove to restore the -South in the Union, and to effect the reunion of the nation in feeling -as well as in government. This is in part seen from such speeches as his -eulogy on Charles Sumner (27th of April 1874), his leadership in -reorganizing the Democratic party of his own state, and his counsels of -peace in the disputed presidential election of 1876. - - See Edward Mayes, _Lucius Q. C. Lamar: His Life, Times and Speeches_ - (Nashville, Tenn., 1896). - - - - -LAMARCK, JEAN BAPTISTE PIERRE ANTOINE DE MONET, CHEVALIER DE -(1744-1829), French naturalist, was born on the 1st of August 1744, at -Bazantin, a village of Picardy. He was an eleventh child; and his -father, lord of the manor and of old family, but of limited means, -having placed three sons in the army, destined this one for the church, -and sent him to the Jesuits at Amiens, where he continued till his -father's death. After this he would remain with the Jesuits no longer, -and, not yet seventeen years of age, started for the seat of war at -Bergen-op-Zoom, before which place one of his brothers had already been -killed. Mounted on an old horse, with a boy from the village as -attendant, and furnished by a lady with a letter of introduction to a -colonel, he reached his destination on the evening before a battle. Next -morning the colonel found that the new and very diminutive volunteer had -posted himself in the front rank of a body of grenadiers, and could not -be induced to quit the position. In the battle, the company which he had -joined became exposed to the fire of the enemy's artillery, and in the -confusion of retreat was forgotten. All the officers and subalterns were -killed, and not more than fourteen men were left, when the oldest -grenadiers seeing there were no more French in sight proposed to the -young volunteer so soon become commandant to withdraw his men. This he -refused to do without orders. These at last arrived; and for his bravery -he was made an officer on the spot, and soon after was named to a -lieutenancy. - -After the peace, the regiment was sent to Monaco. There one of his -comrades playfully lifted him by the head, and to this it was imputed -that he was seized with disease of the glands of the neck, so severe as -to put a stop to his military career. He went to Paris and began the -study of medicine, supporting himself by working in a banker's office. -He early became interested in meteorology and in physical and chemical -speculations of a chimerical kind, but happily threw his main strength -into botany, and in 1778 published his _Flore francaise_, a work in -which by a dichotomous system of contrasting characters he enabled the -student with facility to determine species. This work, which went -through several editions and long kept the field, gained for its author -immediate popularity as well as admission to the Academy of Sciences. - -In 1781 and 1782, under the title of botanist to the king, an -appointment obtained for him by Buffon, whose son accompanied him, he -travelled through various countries of Europe, extending his knowledge -of natural history; and on his return he began those elaborate -contributions to botany on which his reputation in that science -principally rests, namely, the _Dictionnaire de Botanique_ and the -_Illustrations de Genres_, voluminous works contributed to the -_Encyclopedie Methodique_ (1785). In 1793, in consequence of changes in -the organization of the natural history department at the Jardin du Roi, -where he had held a botanical appointment since 1788, Lamarck was -presented to a zoological chair, and called on to lecture on the -_Insecta_ and _Vermes_ of Linnaeus, the animals for which he introduced -the term _Invertebrata_. Thus driven, comparatively late in life, to -devote his principal attention to zoology instead of botany, he had the -misfortune soon after to suffer from impaired vision; and the malady -resulted subsequently in total blindness. Yet his greatest zoological -work, the _Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebres_, was published -from 1815 to 1822, with the assistance, in the last two volumes, of his -eldest daughter and of P. A. Latreille (1762-1833). A volume of plates -of the fossil shells of the neighbourhood of Paris was collected in 1823 -from his memoirs in the _Annales des Museums_. He died on the 18th of -December 1829. - -The character of Lamarck as a naturalist is remarkable alike for its -excellences and its defects. His excellences were width of scope, -fertility of ideas and a pre-eminent faculty of precise description, -arising not only from a singularly terse style, but from a clear insight -into both the distinctive features and the resemblances of forms. That -part of his zoological work which constitutes his solid claim to the -highest honour as a zoologist is to be found in his extensive and -detailed labours in the departments of living and fossil _Invertebrata_. -His endeavours at classification of the great groups were necessarily -defective on account of the imperfect knowledge possessed in his time in -regard to many of them, e.g. echinoderms, ascidians and intestinal -worms; yet they are not without interest, particularly on account of the -comprehensive attempt to unite in one great division as _Articulata_ all -those groups that appeared to present a segmented construction. -Moreover, Lamarck was the first to distinguish vertebrate from -invertebrate animals by the presence of a vertebral column, and among -the Invertebrata to found the groups _Crustacea_, _Arachnida_ and -_Annelida_. In 1785 (_Hist. del' Acad._) he evinced his appreciation of -the necessity of natural orders in botany by an attempt at the -classification of plants, interesting, though crude and falling -immeasurably short of the system which grew in the hands of his intimate -friend A. L. de Jussieu. The problem of taxonomy has never been put more -philosophically than he subsequently put it in his _Animaux sans -vertebres_: "What arrangement must be given to the general distribution -of animals to make it conformable to the order of nature in the -production of these beings?" - -The most prominent defect in Lamarck must be admitted to have been want -of control in speculation. Doubtless the speculative tendency furnished -a powerful incentive to work, but it outran the legitimate deductions -from observation, and led him into the production of volumes of -worthless chemistry without experimental basis, as well as into spending -much time on fruitless meteorological predictions. His _Annuaires -Meteorologiques_ were published yearly from 1800 to 1810, and were not -discontinued until after an unnecessarily public and brutal tirade from -Napoleon, administered on the occasion of being presented with one of -his works on natural history. - -To the general reader the name of Lamarck is chiefly interesting on -account of his theory of the origin of life and of the diversities of -animal forms. The idea, which appears to have been favoured by Buffon -before him, that species were not through all time unalterable, and that -the more complex might have been developed from pre-existent simpler -forms, became with Lamarck a belief or, as he imagined, a demonstration. -Spontaneous generation, he considered, might be easily conceived as -resulting from such agencies as heat and electricity causing in small -gelatinous bodies an utricular structure, and inducing a "singular -tension," a kind of "erethisme" or "orgasme"; and, having thus accounted -for the first appearance of life, he explained the whole organization of -animals and formation of different organs by four laws (introduction to -his _Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebres_, 1815):-- - - 1. "Life by its proper forces tends continually to increase the volume - of every body possessing it, and to enlarge its parts, up to a limit - which it brings about. - - 2. "The production of a new organ in an animal body results from the - supervention of a new want (_besoin_) continuing to make itself felt, - and a new movement which this want gives birth to and encourages. - - 3. "The development of organs and their force of action are constantly - in ratio to the employment of these organs. - - 4. "All which has been acquired, laid down, or changed in the - organization of individuals in the course of their life is conserved - by generation and transmitted to the new individuals which proceed - from those which have undergone those changes." - -The second law is often referred to as Lamarck's hypothesis of the -evolution of organs in animals by appetence or longing, although he does -not teach that the animal's desires affect its conformation directly, -but that altered wants lead to altered habits, which result in the -formation of new organs as well as in modification, growth or dwindling -of those previously existing. Thus, he suggests that, ruminants being -pursued by carnivora, their legs have grown slender; and, their legs -being only fit for support, while their jaws are weak, they have made -attack with the crown of the head, and the determination of fluids -thither has led to the growth of horns. So also the stretching of the -giraffe's neck to reach the foliage he supposes to have led to its -elongation; and the kangaroo, sitting upright to support the young in -its pouch, he imagines to have had its fore-limbs dwarfed by disuse, and -its hind legs and tail exaggerated by using them in leaping. The fourth -law expresses the inheritance of acquired characters, which is denied by -August Weismann and his followers. For a more detailed account of -Lamarck's place in the history of the doctrine of evolution, see -EVOLUTION. - - - - -LA MARGHERITA, CLEMENTE SOLARO, COUNT DEL (1792-1869), Piedmontese -statesman, was born at Mondovi. He studied law at Siena and Turin, but -Piedmont was at that time under French domination, and being devoted to -the house of Savoy he refused to take his degree, as this proceeding -would have obliged him to recognize the authority of the usurper; after -the restoration of the Sardinian kingdom, however, he graduated. In 1816 -he entered the diplomatic service. Later he returned to Turin, and -succeeded in gaining the confidence and esteem of King Charles Albert, -who in 1835 appointed him minister of foreign affairs. A fervent Roman -Catholic, devoted to the pope and to the Jesuits, friendly to Austria -and firmly attached to the principles of autocracy, he strongly opposed -every attempt at political innovation, and was in consequence bitterly -hated by the liberals. When the popular agitation in favour of -constitutional reform first broke out the king felt obliged to dispense -with La Margherita's services, although he had conducted public affairs -with considerable ability and absolute loyalty, even upholding the -dignity of the kingdom in the face of the arrogant attitude of the -cabinet of Vienna. He expounded his political creed and his policy as -minister to Charles Albert (from February 1835 to October 1847) in his -_Memorandum storico-politico_, published in 1851, a document of great -interest for the study of the conditions of Piedmont and Italy at that -time. In 1853 he was elected deputy for San Quirico, but he persisted in -regarding his mandate as derived from the royal authority rather than as -an emanation of the popular will. As leader of the Clerical Right in the -parliament he strongly opposed Cavour's policy, which was eventually to -lead to Italian unity, and on the establishment of the kingdom of Italy -he retired from public life. - - - - -LA MARMORA, ALFONSO FERRERO (1804-1878), Italian general and statesman, -was born at Turin on the 18th of November 1804. He entered the Sardinian -army in 1823, and was a captain in March 1848, when he gained -distinction and the rank of major at the siege of Peschiera. On the 5th -of August 1848 he liberated Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, from the -Milan revolutionaries, and in October was promoted general and appointed -minister of war. After suppressing the revolt of Genoa in 1849, he again -assumed in November 1849 the portfolio of war, which, save during the -period of his command of the Crimean expedition, he retained until 1859. -Having reconstructed the Piedmontese army, he took part in the war of -1859 against Austria; and in July of that year succeeded Cavour in the -premiership. In 1860 he was sent to Berlin and St Petersburg to arrange -for the recognition of the kingdom of Italy, and subsequently he held -the offices of governor of Milan and royal lieutenant at Naples, until, -in September 1864, he succeeded Minghetti as premier. In this capacity -he modified the scope of the September Convention by a note in which he -claimed for Italy full freedom of action in respect of national -aspirations to the possession of Rome, a document of which Visconti -Venosta afterwards took advantage when justifying the Italian occupation -of Rome in 1870. In April 1866 La Marmora concluded an alliance with -Prussia against Austria, and, on the outbreak of war in June, took -command of an army corps, but was defeated at Custozza on the 23rd of -June. Accused of treason by his fellow-countrymen, and of duplicity by -the Prussians, he eventually published in defence of his tactics (1873) -a series of documents entitled _Un po' piu di luce sugli eventi dell' -anno_ 1866 (More light on the events of 1866) a step which caused -irritation in Germany, and exposed him to the charge of having violated -state secrets. Meanwhile he had been sent to Paris in 1867 to oppose the -French expedition to Rome, and in 1870, after the occupation of Rome by -the Italians, had been appointed lieutenant-royal of the new capital. He -died at Florence on the 5th of January 1878. La Marmora's writings -include _Un episodio del risorgimento italiano_ (Florence, 1875); and _I -segreti di stato nel governo constituzionale_ (Florence, 1877). - - See G. Massani, _Il generale Alfonso La Marmora_ (Milan, 1880). - - - - -LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE LOUIS DE PRAT DE (1790-1869), French poet, -historian and statesman, was born at Macon on the 21st of October 1790. -The order of his surnames is a controversial matter, and they are -sometimes reversed. The family of Lamartine was good, and the title of -Prat was taken from an estate in Franche Comte. His father was -imprisoned during the Terror, and only released owing to the events of -the 9th Thermidor. Lamartine's early education was received from his -mother. He was sent to school at Lyons in 1805, but not being happy -there was transferred to the care of the Peres de la Foi at Belley, -where he remained until 1809. For some time afterwards he lived at home, -reading romantic and poetical literature, but in 1811 he set out for -Italy, where he seems to have sojourned nearly two years. His family -having been steady royalists, he entered the Gardes du corps at the -return of the Bourbons, and during the Hundred Days he sought refuge -first in Switzerland and then at Aix-en-Savoie, where he fell in love, -with abundant results of the poetical kind. After Waterloo he returned -to Paris. In 1818-1819 he revisited Switzerland, Savoy and Italy, the -death of his beloved affording him new subjects for verse. After some -difficulties he had his first book, the _Meditations, poetiques et -religieuses_, published (1820). It was exceedingly popular, and helped -him to make a position. He had left the army for some time; he now -entered the diplomatic service and was appointed secretary to the -embassy at Naples. On his way to his post he married, in 1823, at Geneva -a young English lady, Marianne Birch, who had both money and beauty, and -in the same year his _Nouvelles meditations poetiques_ appeared. - -In 1824 he was transferred to Florence, where he remained five years. -His _Last Canto of Childe Harold_ appeared in 1825, and he had to fight -a duel (in which he was wounded) with an Italian officer, Colonel Pepe, -in consequence of a phrase in it. Charles X., on whose coronation he -wrote a poem, gave him the order of the Legion of Honour. The _Harmonies -poetiques et religieuses_ appeared in 1829, when he had left Florence. -Having refused an appointment in Paris under the Polignac ministry, he -went on a special mission to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In the same -year he was elected to the Academy. Lamartine was in Switzerland, not in -Paris, at the time of the Revolution of July, and, though he put forth a -pamphlet on "Rational Policy," he did not at that crisis take any active -part in politics, refusing, however, to continue his diplomatic services -under the new government. In 1832 he set out with his wife and daughter -for Palestine, having been unsuccessful in his candidature for a seat in -the chamber. His daughter Julia died at Beirut, and before long he -received the news of his election by a constituency (Bergues) in the -department of the Nord. He returned through Turkey and Germany, and made -his first speech shortly after the beginning of 1834. Thereafter he -spoke constantly, and acquired considerable reputation as an -orator,--bringing out, moreover, many books in prose and verse. His -Eastern travels (_Voyage en Orient_) appeared in 1835, his _Chute d'un -ange_ and _Jocelyn_ in 1837, and his _Recueillements_, the last -remarkable volume of his poetry, in 1839. As the reign of Louis Philippe -went on, Lamartine, who had previously been a liberal royalist, -something after the fashion of Chateaubriand, became more and more -democratic in his opinions. He set about his greatest prose work, the -_Histoire des Girondins_, which at first appeared periodically, and was -published as a whole in 1847. Like many other French histories, it was a -pamphlet as well as a chronicle, and the subjects of Lamartine's pen -became his models in politics. - -At the revolution of February Lamartine was one of the first to declare -for a provisional government, and became a member of it, with the post -of minister for foreign affairs. He was elected for the new constituent -assembly in ten different departments, and was chosen one of the five -members of the Executive Committee. For a few months indeed Lamartine, -from being a distinguished man of letters, an official of inferior rank -in diplomacy, and an eloquent but unpractical speaker in parliament, -became one of the foremost men in Europe. His inexperience in the -routine work of government, the utterly unpractical nature of his -colleagues, and the turbulence of the Parisian mob, proved fatal to his -chances. He gave some proofs of statesmanlike ability, and his eloquence -was repeatedly called into requisition to pacify the Parisians. But no -one can permanently carry on the government of a great country by -speeches from the balcony of a house in the capital, and Lamartine found -himself in a dilemma. So long as he held aloof from Ledru-Rollin and the -more radical of his colleagues, the disunion resulting weakened the -government; as soon as he effected an approximation to them the middle -classes fell off from him. The quelling of the insurrection of the 15th -of May was his last successful act. A month later the renewal of active -disturbances brought on the fighting of June, and Lamartine's influence -was extinguished in favour of Cavaignac. Moreover, his chance of renewed -political pre-eminence was gone. He had been tried and found wanting, -having neither the virtues nor the vices of his situation. In January -1849, though he was nominated for the presidency, only a few thousand -votes were given to him, and three months later he was not even elected -to the Legislative Assembly. - -The remaining story of Lamartine's life is somewhat melancholy. He had -never been a rich man, nor had he been a saving one, and during his -period of popularity and office he had incurred great expenses. He now -set to work to repair his fortune by unremitting literary labour. He -brought out in the _Presse_ (1849) a series of _Confidences_, and -somewhat later a kind of autobiography, entitled _Raphael_. He wrote -several historical works of more or less importance, the _History of the -Revolution of 1848_, _The History of the Restoration_, _The History of -Turkey_, _The History of Russia_, besides a large number of small -biographical and miscellaneous works. In 1858 a subscription was opened -for his benefit. Two years afterwards, following the example of -Chateaubriand, he supervised an elaborate edition of his own works in -forty-one volumes. This occupied five years, and while he was engaged on -it his wife died (1863). He was now over seventy; his powers had -deserted him, and even if they had not the public taste had entirely -changed. His efforts had not succeeded in placing him in a position of -independence; and at last, in 1867, the government of the Empire (from -which he had perforce stood aloof, though he never considered it -necessary to adopt the active protesting attitude of Edgar Quinet and -Victor Hugo) came to his assistance, a vote of L20,000 being proposed in -April of that year for his benefit by Emile Ollivier. This was -creditable to both parties, for Lamartine, both as a distinguished man -of letters and as a past servant of the state, had every claim to the -bounty of his country. But he was reproached for accepting it by the -extreme republicans and irreconcilables. He did not enjoy it long, dying -on the 28th of February 1869. - - As a statesman Lamartine was placed during his brief tenure of office - in a position from which it would have been almost impossible for any - man, who was not prepared and able to play the dictator, to emerge - with credit. At no time in history were unpractical crotchets so rife - in the heads of men as in 1848. But Lamartine could hardly have guided - the ship of state safely even in much calmer weather. He was amiable - and even estimable, the chief fault of his character being vanity and - an incurable tendency towards theatrical effect, which makes his - travels, memoirs and other personal records as well as his historical - works radically untrustworthy. Nor does it appear that he had any - settled political ideas. He did good by moderating the revolutionary - and destructive ardour of the Parisian populace in 1848; but he had - been perhaps more responsible than any other single person for - bringing about the events of that year by the vague and frothy - republican declamation of his _Histoire des Girondins_. - - More must be said of his literary position. Lamartine had the - advantage of coming at a time when the literary field, at least in the - departments of belles lettres, was almost empty. The feeble school of - descriptive writers, epic poets of the extreme decadence, fabulists - and miscellaneous verse-makers, which the Empire had nourished could - satisfy no one. Madame de Stael was dead; Chateaubriand, though alive, - was something of a classic, and had not effected a full revolution. - Lamartine did not himself go the complete length of the Romantic - revival, but he went far in that direction. He availed himself of the - reviving interest in legitimism and Catholicism which was represented - by Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, of the nature worship of Rousseau and - Bernardin de Saint Pierre, of the sentimentalism of Madame de Stael, - of the medievalism and the romance of Chateaubriand and Scott, of the - _maladie du siecle_ of Chateaubriand and Byron. Perhaps if his matter - be very closely analysed it will be found that he added hardly - anything of his own. But if the parts of the mixture were like other - things the mixture itself was not. It seemed indeed to the immediate - generation so original that tradition has it that the _Meditations_ - were refused by a publisher because they were in none of the accepted - styles. They appeared when Lamartine was nearly thirty years old. The - best of them, and the best thing that Lamartine ever did, is the - famous _Lac_, describing his return to the little mountain tarn of Le - Bourget after the death of his mistress, with whom he had visited it - in other days. The verse is exquisitely harmonious, the sentiments - conventional but refined and delicate, the imagery well chosen and - gracefully expressed. There is an unquestionable want of vigour, but - to readers of that day the want of vigour was entirely compensated by - the presence of freshness and grace. Lamartine's chief misfortune in - poetry was not only that his note was a somewhat weak one, but that he - could strike but one. The four volumes of the _Meditations_, the - _Harmonies_ and the _Recueillements_, which contained the prime of his - verse, are perhaps the most monotonous reading to be found anywhere in - work of equal bulk by a poet of equal talent. They contain nothing but - meditative lyrical pieces, almost any one of which is typical of the - whole, though there is considerable variation of merit. The two - narrative poems which succeeded the early lyrics, _Jocelyn_ and the - _Chute d'un ange_, were, according to Lamartine's original plan, parts - of a vast "Epic of the Ages," some further fragments of which survive. - _Jocelyn_ had at one time more popularity in England than most French - verse. _La Chute d'un ange_, in which the Byronic influence is more - obvious than in any other of Lamartine's works, and in which some have - also seen that of Alfred de Vigny, is more ambitious in theme, and - less regulated by scrupulous conditions of delicacy in handling, than - most of its author's poetry. It does, however, little more than prove - that such audacities were not for him. - - As a prose writer Lamartine was very fertile. His characteristics in - his prose fiction and descriptive work are not very different from - those of his poetry. He is always and everywhere sentimental, though - very frequently, as in his shorter prose tales (_The Stone Mason of - Saint-Point_, _Graziella_, &c.), he is graceful as well as - sentimental. In his histories the effect is worse. It has been hinted - that Lamartine's personal narratives are doubtfully trustworthy; with - regard to his Eastern travels some of the episodes were stigmatized as - mere inventions. In his histories proper the special motive for - embellishment disappears, but the habit of inaccuracy remains. As an - historian he belongs exclusively to the rhetorical school as - distinguished from the philosophical on the one hand and the - documentary on the other. - - It is not surprising when these characteristics of Lamartine's work - are appreciated to find that his fame declined with singular rapidity - in France. As a poet he had lost his reputation many years before he - died. He was entirely eclipsed by the brilliant and vigorous school - who succeeded him with Victor Hugo at their head. His power of - initiative in poetry was very small, and the range of poetic ground - which he could cover strictly limited. He could only carry the - picturesque sentimentalism of Rousseau, Bernardin de Saint Pierre and - Chateaubriand a little farther, and clothe it in language and verse a - little less antiquated than that of Chenedolle and Millevoye. He has - been said to be a French Cowper, and the parallel holds good in - respect of versification and of his relative position to the more - daringly innovating school that followed, though not in respect of - individual peculiarities. Lamartine in short occupied a kind of - half-way house between the 18th century and the Romantic movement, and - he never got any farther. When Matthew Arnold questioned his - importance in conversation with Sainte-Beuve, the answer was, "He is - important to _us_," and it was a true answer; but the limitation is - obvious. In more recent years, however, efforts have been made by - Brunetiere and others to remove it. The usual revolution of critical - as of other taste, the oblivion of personal and political - unpopularity, and above all the reaction against Hugo and the extreme - Romantics, have been the main agents in this. Lamartine has been - extolled as a pattern of combined passion and restraint, as a model of - nobility of sentiment, and as a harmonizer of pure French classicism - in taste and expression with much, if not all, the better part of - Romanticism itself. These oscillations of opinion are frequent, if not - universal, and it is only after more than one or two swings that the - pendulum remains at the perpendicular. The above remarks are an - attempt to correct extravagance in either direction. But it is - difficult to believe that Lamartine can ever permanently take rank - among the first order of poets. - - The edition mentioned is the most complete one of Lamartine, but there - are many issues of his separate works. After his death some poems and - _Memoires inedits_ of his youth were published, and also two volumes - of correspondence, while in 1893 Mlle V. de Lamartine added a volume - of _Lettres_ to him. The change of views above referred to may be - studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetiere, Faguet, Lemaitre, - &c., and in the more substantive work of Ch. de Pomairols, _Lamartine_ - (1889); E. Deschanel, _Lamartine_ (1893); E. Zyrowski, _Lamartine_ - (1896); and perhaps best of all in the Preface to Emile Legouis' - Clarendon Press edition of _Jocelyn_ (1906), where a vigorous effort - is made to combat the idea of Lamartine's sentimentality and - femininity as a poet. (G. Sa.) - - - - -LAMB, CHARLES (1775-1834), English essayist and critic, was born in -Crown Office Row, Inner Temple, London, on the 10th of February 1775. -His father, John Lamb, a Lincolnshire man, who filled the situation of -clerk and servant-companion to Samuel Salt, a member of parliament and -one of the benchers of the Inner Temple, was successful in obtaining for -Charles, the youngest of three surviving children, a presentation to -Christ's Hospital, where the boy remained from his eighth to his -fifteenth year (1782-1789). Here he had for a schoolfellow Samuel Taylor -Coleridge, his senior by rather more than two years, and a close and -tender friendship began which lasted for the rest of the lives of both. -When the time came for leaving school, where he had learned some Greek -and acquired considerable facility in Latin composition, Lamb, after a -brief stay at home (probably spent, as his school holidays had often -been, over old English authors in Salt's library) was condemned to the -labours of the desk--"an inconquerable impediment" in his speech -disqualifying him for the clerical profession, which, as the school -exhibitions were usually only given to those preparing for the church, -thus deprived him of the only means by which he could have obtained a -university education. For a short time he was in the office of Joseph -Paice, a London merchant, and then for twenty-three weeks, until the 8th -of February 1792, he held a small post in the Examiner's Office of the -South Sea House, where his brother John was established, a period which, -although his age was but sixteen, was to provide him nearly thirty years -later with materials for the first of the _Essays of Elia_. On the 5th -of April 1792, he entered the Accountant's Office in the East India -House, where during the next three and thirty years the hundred official -folios of what he used to call his true "works" were produced. - -Of the years 1792-1795 we know little. At the end of 1794 he saw much of -Coleridge and joined him in writing sonnets in the _Morning Post_, -addressed to eminent persons: early in 1795 he met Southey and was much -in the company of James White, whom he probably helped in the -composition of the _Original Letters of Sir John Falstaff_; and at the -end of the year for a short time he became so unhinged mentally as to -necessitate confinement in an asylum. The cause, it is probable, was an -unsuccessful love affair with Ann Simmons, the Hertfordshire maiden to -whom his first sonnets are addressed, whom he would have seen when on -his visits as a youth to Blakesware House, near Widford, the country -home of the Plumer family, of which Lamb's grandmother, Mary Field, was -for many years, until her death in 1792, sole custodian. - -It was in the late summer of 1796 that a dreadful calamity came upon the -Lambs, which seemed to blight all Lamb's prospects in the very morning -of life. On the 22nd of September his sister Mary, "worn down to a state -of extreme nervous misery by attention to needlework by day and to her -mother at night," was suddenly seized with acute mania, in which she -stabbed her mother to the heart. The calm self-mastery and loving -self-renunciation which Charles Lamb, by constitution excitable, nervous -and self-mistrustful, displayed at this crisis in his own history and in -that of those nearest him, will ever give him an imperishable claim to -the reverence and affection of all who are capable of appreciating the -heroisms of common life. With the help of friends he succeeded in -obtaining his sister's release from the lifelong restraint to which she -would otherwise have been doomed, on the express condition that he -himself should undertake the responsibility for her safe keeping. It -proved no light charge: for though no one was capable of affording a -more intelligent or affectionate companionship than Mary Lamb during her -periods of health, there was ever present the apprehension of the -recurrence of her malady; and when from time to time the premonitory -symptoms had become unmistakable, there was no alternative but her -removal, which took place in quietness and tears. How deeply the whole -course of Lamb's domestic life must have been affected by his singular -loyalty as a brother needs not to be pointed out. - -Lamb's first appearance as an author was made in the year of the great -tragedy of his life (1796), when there were published in the volume of -_Poems on Various Subjects_ by Coleridge four sonnets by "Mr Charles -Lamb of the India House." In the following year he contributed, with -Charles Lloyd, a pupil of Coleridge, some pieces in blank verse to the -second edition of Coleridge's _Poems_. In 1797 his short summer holiday -was spent with Coleridge at Nether Stowey, where he met the Wordsworths, -William and Dorothy, and established a friendship with both which only -his own death terminated. In 1798, under the influence of Henry -Mackenzie's novel _Julie de Roubigne_, he published a short and pathetic -prose tale entitled _Rosamund Gray_, in which it is possible to trace -beneath disguised conditions references to the misfortunes of the -author's own family, and many personal touches; and in the same year he -joined Lloyd in a volume of _Blank Verse_, to which Lamb contributed -poems occasioned by the death of his mother and his aunt Sarah Lamb, -among them being his best-known lyric, "The Old Familiar Faces." In this -year, 1798, he achieved the unexpected publicity of an attack by the -_Anti-Jacobin_ upon him as an associate of Coleridge and Southey (to -whose _Annual Anthology_ he had contributed) in their Jacobin -machinations. In 1799, on the death of her father, Mary Lamb came to -live again with her brother, their home then being in Pentonville; but -it was not until 1800 that they really settled together, their first -independent joint home being at Mitre Court Buildings in the Temple, -where they lived until 1809. At the end of 1801, or beginning of 1802, -appeared Lamb's first play _John Woodvil_, on which he set great store, -a slight dramatic piece written in the style of the earlier Elizabethan -period and containing some genuine poetry and happy delineation of the -gentler emotions, but as a whole deficient in plot, vigour and -character; it was held up to ridicule by the _Edinburgh Review_ as a -specimen of the rudest condition of the drama, a work by "a man of the -age of Thespis." The dramatic spirit, however, was not thus easily -quenched in Lamb, and his next effort was a farce, _Mr H----_, the point -of which lay in the hero's anxiety to conceal his name "Hogsflesh"; but -it did not survive the first night of its appearance at Drury Lane, in -December 1806. Its author bore the failure with rare equanimity and good -humour--even to joining in the hissing--and soon struck into new and -more successful fields of literary exertion. Before, however, passing to -these it should be mentioned that he made various efforts to earn money -by journalism, partly by humorous articles, partly as dramatic critic, -but chiefly as a contributor of sarcastic or funny paragraphs, "sparing -neither man nor woman," in the _Morning Post_, principally in 1803. - -In 1807 appeared _Tales founded on the Plays of Shakespeare_, written by -Charles and Mary Lamb, in which Charles was responsible for the -tragedies and Mary for the comedies; and in 1808, _Specimens of English -Dramatic Poets who lived about the time of Shakespeare_, with short but -felicitous critical notes. It was this work which laid the foundation of -Lamb's reputation as a critic, for it was filled with imaginative -understanding of the old playwrights, and a warm, discerning and novel -appreciation of their great merits. In the same year, 1808, Mary Lamb, -assisted by her brother, published _Poetry for Children_, and a -collection of short school-girl tales under the title _Mrs Leicester's -School_; and to the same date belongs _The Adventures of Ulysses_, -designed by Lamb as a companion to _The Adventures of Telemachus_. In -1810 began to appear Leigh Hunt's quarterly periodical, _The Reflector_, -in which Lamb published much (including the fine essays on the tragedies -of Shakespeare and on Hogarth) that subsequently appeared in the first -collective edition of his _Works_, which he put forth in 1818. - -Between 1811, when _The Reflector_ ceased, and 1820, he wrote almost -nothing. In these years we may imagine him at his most social period, -playing much whist and entertaining his friends on Wednesday or Thursday -nights; meanwhile gathering that reputation as a conversationalist or -inspirer of conversation in others, which Hazlitt, who was at one time -one of Lamb's closest friends, has done so much to celebrate. When in -1818 appeared the _Works_ in two volumes, it may be that Lamb considered -his literary career over. Before coming to 1820, and an event which was -in reality to be the beginning of that career as it is generally -known--the establishment of the _London Magazine_--it should be recorded -that in the summer of 1819 Lamb, with his sister's full consent, -proposed marriage to Fanny Kelly, the actress, who was then in her -thirtieth year. Miss Kelly could not accept, giving as one reason her -devotion to her mother. Lamb bore the rebuff with characteristic humour -and fortitude. - -The establishment of the _London Magazine_ in 1820 stimulated Lamb to -the production of a series of new essays (the _Essays of Elia_) which -may be said to form the chief corner-stone in the small but classic -temple of his fame. The first of these, as it fell out, was a -description of the old South Sea House, with which Lamb happened to have -associated the name of a "gay light-hearted foreigner" called Elia, who -was a clerk in the days of his service there. The pseudonym adopted on -this occasion was retained for the subsequent contributions, which -appeared collectively in a volume of essays called _Elia_, in 1823. -After a career of five years the _London Magazine_ came to an end; and -about the same period Lamb's long connexion with the India House -terminated, a pension of L450 (L441 net) having been assigned to him. -The increased leisure, however, for which he had long sighed, did not -prove favourable to literary production, which henceforth was limited to -a few trifling contributions to the _New Monthly_ and other serials, and -the excavation of gems from the mass of dramatic literature bequeathed -to the British Museum by David Garrick, which Lamb laboriously read -through in 1827, an occupation which supplied him for a time with the -regular hours of work he missed so much. The malady of his sister, which -continued to increase with ever shortening intervals of relief, broke in -painfully on his lettered ease and comfort; and it is unfortunately -impossible to ignore the deteriorating effects of an over-free -indulgence in the use of alcohol, and, in early life, tobacco, on a -temperament such as his. His removal on account of his sister to the -quiet of the country at Enfield, by tending to withdraw him from the -stimulating society of the large circle of literary friends who had -helped to make his weekly or monthly "at homes" so remarkable, doubtless -also tended to intensify his listlessness and helplessness. One of the -brightest elements in the closing years of his life was the friendship -and companionship of Emma Isola, whom he and his sister had adopted, and -whose marriage in 1833 to Edward Moxon, the publisher, though a source -of unselfish joy to Lamb, left him more than ever alone. While living at -Edmonton, whither he had moved in 1833 so that his sister might have the -continual care of Mr and Mrs Walden, who were accustomed to patients of -weak intellect, Lamb was overtaken by an attack of erysipelas brought on -by an accidental fall as he was walking on the London road. After a few -days' illness he died on the 27th of December, 1834. The sudden death of -one so widely known, admired and beloved, fell on the public as well as -on his own attached circle with all the poignancy of a personal calamity -and a private grief. His memory wanted no tribute that affection could -bestow, and Wordsworth commemorated in simple and solemn verse the -genius, virtues and fraternal devotion of his early friend. - -Charles Lamb is entitled to a place as an essayist beside Montaigne, Sir -Thomas Browne, Steele and Addison. He unites many of the characteristics -of each of these writers--refined and exquisite humour, a genuine and -cordial vein of pleasantry and heart-touching pathos. His fancy is -distinguished by great delicacy and tenderness; and even his conceits -are imbued with human feeling and passion. He had an extreme and almost -exclusive partiality for earlier prose writers, particularly for Fuller, -Browne and Burton, as well as for the dramatists of Shakespeare's time; -and the care with which he studied them is apparent in all he ever -wrote. It shines out conspicuously in his style, which has an antique -air and is redolent of the peculiarities of the 17th century. Its -quaintness has subjected the author to the charge of affectation, but -there is nothing really affected in his writings. His style is not so -much an imitation as a reflexion of the older writers; for in spirit he -made himself their contemporary. A confirmed habit of studying them in -preference to modern literature had made something of their style -natural to him; and long experience had rendered it not only easy and -familiar but habitual. It was not a masquerade dress he wore, but the -costume which showed the man to most advantage. With thought and meaning -often profound, though clothed in simple language, every sentence of his -essays is pregnant. - -He played a considerable part in reviving the dramatic writers of the -Shakesperian age; for he preceded Gifford and others in wiping the dust -of ages from their works. In his brief comments on each specimen he -displays exquisite powers of discrimination: his discernment of the true -meaning of his author is almost infallible. His work was a departure in -criticism. Former editors had supplied textual criticism and alternative -readings: Lamb's object was to show how our ancestors felt when they -placed themselves by the power of imagination in trying situations, in -the conflicts of duty or passion or the strife of contending duties; -what sorts of loves and enmities theirs were. - -As a poet Lamb is not entitled to so high a place as that which can be -claimed for him as essayist and critic. His dependence on Elizabethan -models is here also manifest, but in such a way as to bring into all the -greater prominence his native deficiency in "the accomplishment of -verse." Yet it is impossible, once having read, ever to forget the -tenderness and grace of such poems as "Hester," "The Old Familiar -Faces," and the lines "On an infant dying as soon as born" or the quaint -humour of "A Farewell to Tobacco." As a letter writer Lamb ranks very -high, and when in a nonsensical mood there is none to touch him. - - Editions and memoirs of Lamb are numerous. The _Letters_, with a - sketch of his life by Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd, appeared in 1837; the - _Final Memorials of Charles Lamb_ by the same hand, after Mary Lamb's - death, in 1848; Barry Cornwall's _Charles Lamb: A Memoir_, in 1866. Mr - P. Fitzgerald's _Charles Lamb: his Friends, his Haunts and his Books_ - (1866); W. Carew Hazlitt's _Mary and Charles Lamb_ (1874). Mr - Fitzgerald and Mr Hazlitt have also both edited the _Letters_, and Mr - Fitzgerald brought Talfourd to date with an edition of Lamb's works in - 1870-1876. Later and fuller editions are those of Canon Ainger in 12 - volumes, Mr Macdonald in 12 volumes and Mr E. V. Lucas in 7 volumes, - to which in 1905 was added _The Life of Charles Lamb_, in 2 volumes. - (E. V. L.) - - - - -LAMB (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Lamm_), the young -of sheep. The Paschal Lamb or Agnus Dei is used as a symbol of Jesus -Christ, the Lamb of God (John i. 29), and "lamb," like "flock," is often -used figuratively of the members of a Christian church or community, -with an allusion to Jesus' charge to Peter (John xxi. 15). The "lamb and -flag" is an heraldic emblem, the dexter fore-leg of the lamb supporting -a staff bearing a banner charged with the St George's cross. This was -one of the crests of the Knights Templars, used on seals as early as -1241; it was adopted as a badge or crest by the Middle Temple, the Inner -Temple using another crest of the Templars, the winged horse or Pegasus. -The old Tangier regiment, now the Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment, -bore a Paschal Lamb as its badge. From their colonel, Percy Kirke -(q.v.), they were known as Kirke's Lambs. The exaggerated reputation of -the regiment for brutality, both in Tangier and in England after -Sedgmoor, lent irony to the nickname. - - - - -LAMBALLE, MARIE THERESE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO, PRINCESSE DE -(1749-1792), fourth daughter of Louis Victor of Carignano (d. 1774) -(great-grandfather of King Charles Albert of Sardinia), and of Christine -Henriette of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rothenburg, was born at Turin on the 8th of -September 1749. In 1767 she was married to Louis Alexandre Stanislaus de -Bourbon, prince of Lamballe, son of the duke of Penthievre, a grandson -of Louis XIV.'s natural son the count of Toulouse. Her husband dying the -following year, she retired with her father-in-law to Rambouillet, where -she lived until the marriage of the dauphin, when she returned to court. -Marie Antoinette, charmed by her gentle and naive manners, singled her -out for a companion and confidante. The impetuous character of the -dauphiness found in Madame de Lamballe that submissive temperament which -yields to force of environment, and the two became fast friends. After -her accession Marie Antoinette, in spite of the king's opposition, had -her appointed superintendent of the royal household. Between 1776 and -1785 the comtesse de Polignac succeeded in supplanting her; but when the -queen tired of the avarice of the Polignacs, she turned again to Madame -de Lamballe. From 1785 to the Revolution she was Marie Antoinette's -closest friend and the pliant instrument of her caprices. She came with -the queen to the Tuileries and as her salon served as a meeting-place -for the queen and the members of the Assembly whom she wished to gain -over, the people believed her to be the soul of all the intrigues. After -a visit to England in 1791 to appeal for help for the royal family she -made her will and returned to the Tuileries, where she continued her -services to the queen until the 10th of August, when she shared her -imprisonment in the Temple. On the 19th of August she was transferred to -La Force, and having refused to take the oath against the monarchy, she -was on the 3rd of September delivered over to the fury of the populace, -after which her head was placed on a pike and carried before the windows -of the queen. - - See George Bertin, _Madame de Lamballe_ (Paris, 1888); Austin Dobson, - _Four Frenchwomen_ (1890); B. C. Hardy, _Princesse de Lamballe_ - (1908); Comte de Lescure, _La Princesse de Lamballe ... d'apres des - documents inedits_ (1864); some letters of the princess published by - Ch. Schmidt in _La Revolution francaise_ (vol. xxxix., 1900); L. - Lambeau, _Essais sur la mort de madame la princesse de Lamballe_ - (1902); Sir F. Montefiore, _The Princesse de Lamballe_ (1896). _The - Secret Memoirs of the Royal Family of France ... now first published - from the Journal, Letters and Conversations of the Princesse de - Lamballe_ (London, 2 vols., 1826) have since appeared in various - editions in English and in French. They are attributed to Catherine - Hyde, Marchioness Govion-Broglio-Solari, and are apocryphal. - - - - -LAMBALLE, a town of north-western France, in the department of -Cotes-du-Nord, on the Gouessant 13 m. E.S.E. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop. -(1906) 4347. Crowning the eminence on which the town is built is a -beautiful Gothic church (13th and 14th centuries), once the chapel of -the castle of the counts of Penthievre. La Noue, the famous Huguenot -leader, was mortally wounded in 1591 in the siege of the castle, which -was dismantled in 1626 by Richelieu. Of the other buildings, the church -of St Martin (11th, 15th and 16th centuries) is the chief. Lamballe has -an important _haras_ (depot for stallions) and carries on trade in -grain, tanning and leather-dressing; earthenware is manufactured in the -environs. Lamballe was the capital of the territory of the counts of -Penthievre, who in 1569 were made dukes. - - - - -LAMBAYEQUE, a coast department of northern Peru, bounded N. by Piura, E. -and S. by Cajamarca and Libertad. Area, 4614 sq. m. Pop. (1906 estimate) -93,070. It belongs to the arid region of the coast, and is settled along -the river valleys where irrigation is possible. It is one of the chief -sugar-producing departments of Peru, and in some valleys, especially -near Ferrenafe, rice is largely produced. Four railways connect its -principal producing centres with the small ports of Eten and Pimentel, -viz.: Eten to Ferrenafe, 27 m.; Eten to Cayalti, 23 m.; Pimentel to -Lambayeque, 15 m.; and Chiclayo to Patapo, 15 m. The principal towns are -Chiclayo, the departmental capital, with a population (1906 estimate) of -10,500, Ferrenafe 6000, and Lambayeque 4500. - - - - -LAMBEAUX, JEF (JOSEPH MARIE THOMAS), (1852-1908), Belgian sculptor, was -born at Antwerp. He studied at the Antwerp Academy of Fine Arts, and was -a pupil of Jean Geefs. His first work, "War," was exhibited in 1871, and -was followed by a long series of humorous groups, including "Children -dancing," "Say 'Good Morning,'" "The Lucky Number" and "An Accident" -(1875). He then went to Paris, where he executed for the Belgian salons -"The Beggar" and "The Blind Pauper," and produced "The Kiss" (1881), -generally regarded as his masterpiece. After visiting Italy, where he -was much impressed by the works of Jean Bologne, he showed a strong -predilection for effects of force and motion. Other notable works are -his fountain at Antwerp (1886), "Robbing the Eagle's Eyrie" (1890), -"Drunkenness" (1893), "The Triumph of Woman," "The Bitten Faun" (which -created a great stir at the Exposition Universelle at Liege in 1905), -and "The Human Passions," a colossal marble bas-relief, elaborated from -a sketch exhibited in 1889. Of his numerous busts may be mentioned those -of Hendrik Conscience, and of Charles Bals, the burgomaster of Brussels. -He died on the 6th of June 1908. - - - - -LAMBERMONT, AUGUSTE, BARON (1819-1905), Belgian statesman, was born at -Dion-le-Val in Brabant on the 25th of March 1819. He came of a family of -small farmer proprietors, who had held land during three centuries. He -was intended for the priesthood and entered the seminary of Floreffe, -but his energies claimed a more active sphere. He left the monastery for -Louvain University. Here he studied law, and also prepared himself for -the military examinations. At that juncture the first Carlist war broke -out, and Lambermont hastened to the scene of action. His services were -accepted (April 1838) and he was entrusted with the command of two small -cannon. He also acted as A.D.C. to Colonel Durando. He greatly -distinguished himself, and for his intrepidity on one occasion he was -decorated with the Cross of the highest military Order of St Ferdinand. -Returning to Belgium he entered the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in -1842. He served in this department sixty-three years. He was closely -associated with several of the most important questions in Belgian -history during the last half of the 19th century--notably the freeing of -the Scheldt. He was one of the very first Belgians to see the importance -of developing the trade of their country, and at his own request he was -attached to the commercial branch of the foreign office. The tolls -imposed by the Dutch on navigation on the Scheldt strangled Belgian -trade, for Antwerp was the only port of the country. The Dutch had the -right to make this levy under treaties going back to the treaty of -Munster in 1648, and they clung to it still more tenaciously after -Belgium separated herself in 1830-1831 from the united kingdom of the -Netherlands--the London conference in 1839 fixing the toll payable to -Holland at 1.50 florins (3s.) per ton. From 1856 to 1863 Lambermont -devoted most of his energies to the removal of this impediment. In 1856 -he drew up a plan of action, and he prosecuted it with untiring -perseverance until he saw it embodied in an international convention -seven years later. Twenty-one powers and states attended a conference -held on the question at Brussels in 1863, and on the 15th of July the -treaty freeing the Scheldt was signed. For this achievement Lambermont -was made a baron. Among other important conferences in which Lambermont -took a leading part were those of Brussels (1874) on the usages of war, -Berlin (1884-1885) on Africa and the Congo region, and Brussels (1890) -on Central African Affairs and the Slave Trade. He was joint reporter -with Baron de Courcel of the Berlin conference in 1884-1885, and on -several occasions he was chosen as arbitrator by one or other of the -great European powers. But his great achievement was the freeing of the -Scheldt, and in token of its gratitude the city of Antwerp erected a -fine monument to his memory. He died on the 7th of March 1905. - - - - -LAMBERT, DANIEL (1770-1809), an Englishman famous for his great size, -was born near Leicester on the 13th of March 1770, the son of the keeper -of the jail, to which post he succeeded in 1791. About this time his -size and weight increased enormously, and though he had led an active -and athletic life he weighed in 1793 thirty-two stone (448 lb.). In 1806 -he resolved to profit by his notoriety, and resigning his office went up -to London and exhibited himself. He died on the 21st of July 1809, and -at the time measured 5 ft. 11 in. in height and weighed 52(3/4) stone -(739 lb.). His waistcoat, now in the Kings Lynn Museum, measures 102 in. -round the waist. His coffin contained 112 ft. of elm and was built on -wheels. His name has been used as a synonym for immensity. George -Meredith describes London as the "Daniel Lambert of cities," and Herbert -Spencer uses the phrase "a Daniel Lambert of learning." His enormous -proportions were depicted on a number of tavern signs, but the best -portrait of him, a large mezzotint, is preserved at the British Museum -in Lyson's _Collectanea_. - - - - -LAMBERT, FRANCIS (c. 1486-1530), Protestant reformer, was the son of a -papal official at Avignon, where he was born between 1485 and 1487. At -the age of 15 he entered the Franciscan monastery at Avignon, and after -1517 he was an itinerant preacher, travelling through France, Italy and -Switzerland. His study of the Scriptures shook his faith in Roman -Catholic theology, and by 1522 he had abandoned his order, and became -known to the leaders of the Reformation in Switzerland and Germany. He -did not, however, identify himself either with Zwinglianism or -Lutheranism; he disputed with Zwingli at Zurich in 1522, and then made -his way to Eisenach and Wittenberg, where he married in 1523. He -returned to Strassburg in 1524, being anxious to spread the doctrines of -the Reformation among the French-speaking population of the -neighbourhood. By the Germans he was distrusted, and in 1526 his -activities were prohibited by the city of Strassburg. He was, however, -befriended by Jacob Sturm, who recommended him to the Landgraf Philip of -Hesse, the most liberal of the German reforming princes. With Philip's -encouragement he drafted that scheme of ecclesiastical reform for which -he is famous. Its basis was essentially democratic and congregational, -though it provided for the government of the whole church by means of a -synod. Pastors were to be elected by the congregation, and the whole -system of canon-law was repudiated. This scheme was submitted by Philip -to a synod at Homburg; but Luther intervened and persuaded the Landgraf -to abandon it. It was far too democratic to commend itself to the -Lutherans, who had by this time bound the Lutheran cause to the support -of princes rather than to that of the people. Philip continued to favour -Lambert, who was appointed professor and head of the theological faculty -in the Landgraf's new university of Marburg. Patrick Hamilton (q.v.), -the Scottish martyr, was one of his pupils; and it was at Lambert's -instigation that Hamilton composed his _Loci communes_, or _Patrick's -Pleas_ as they were popularly called in Scotland. Lambert was also one -of the divines who took part in the great conference of Marburg in 1529; -he had long wavered between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian view of the -Lord's Supper, but at this conference he definitely adopted the -Zwinglian view. He died of the plague on the 18th of April 1530, and was -buried at Marburg. - - A catalogue of Lambert's writings is given in Haag's _La France - protestante_. See also lives of Lambert by Baum (Strassburg, 1840); F. - W. Hessencamp (Elberfeld, 1860), Stieve (Breslau, 1867) and Louis - Ruffet (Paris, 1873); Lorimer, _Life of Patrick Hamilton_ (1857); A. - L. Richter, _Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrh_. - (Weimar, 1846); Hessencamp, _Hessische Kirchenordnungen im Zeitalter - der Reformation_; Philip of _Hesse's Correspondence with Bucer_, ed. - M. Lenz; Lindsay, _Hist. Reformation_; _Allgemeine deutsche - Biographie_. (A. F. P.) - - - - -LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH (1728-1777), German physicist, mathematician -and astronomer, was born at Mulhausen, Alsace, on the 26th of August -1728. He was the son of a tailor; and the slight elementary instruction -he obtained at the free school of his native town was supplemented by -his own private reading. He became book-keeper at Montbeliard ironworks, -and subsequently (1745) secretary to Professor Iselin, the editor of a -newspaper at Basel, who three years later recommended him as private -tutor to the family of Count A. von Salis of Coire. Coming thus into -virtual possession of a good library, Lambert had peculiar opportunities -for improving himself in his literary and scientific studies. In 1759, -after completing with his pupils a tour of two years' duration through -Gottingen, Utrecht, Paris, Marseilles and Turin, he resigned his -tutorship and settled at Augsburg. Munich, Erlangen, Coire and Leipzig -became for brief successive intervals his home. In 1764 he removed to -Berlin, where he received many favours at the hand of Frederick the -Great and was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of -Berlin, and in 1774 edited the Berlin _Ephemeris_. He died of -consumption on the 25th of September 1777. His publications show him to -have been a man of original and active mind with a singular facility in -applying mathematics to practical questions. - -His mathematical discoveries were extended and overshadowed by his -contemporaries. His development of the equation x^m + px = q in an -infinite series was extended by Leonhard Euler, and particularly by -Joseph Louis Lagrange. In 1761 he proved the irrationality of [pi]; a -simpler proof was given somewhat later by Legendre. The introduction of -hyperbolic functions into trigonometry was also due to him. His -geometrical discoveries are of great value, his _Die freie Perspective_ -(1759-1774) being a work of great merit. Astronomy was also enriched by -his investigations, and he was led to several remarkable theorems on -conics which bear his name. The most important are: (1) To express the -time of describing an elliptic arc under the Newtonian law of -gravitation in terms of the focal distances of the initial and final -points, and the length of the chord joining them. (2) A theorem relating -to the apparent curvature of the geocentric path of a comet. - - Lambert's most important work, _Pyrometrie_ (Berlin, 1779), is a - systematic treatise on heat, containing the records and full - discussion of many of his own experiments. Worthy of special notice - also are _Photometria_ (Augsburg, 1760), _Insigniores orbitae - cometarum proprietates_ (Augsburg, 1761), and _Beitrage zum Gebrauche - der Mathematik und deren Anwendung_ (4 vols., Berlin, 1765-1772). - - The _Memoirs_ of the Berlin Academy from 1761 to 1784 contain many of - his papers, which treat of such subjects as resistance of fluids, - magnetism, comets, probabilities, the problem of three bodies, - meteorology, &c. In the _Acta Helvetica_ (1752-1760) and in the _Nova - acta erudita_ (1763-1769) several of his contributions appear. In - Bode's _Jahrbuch_ (1776-1780) he discusses nutation, aberration of - light, Saturn's rings and comets; in the _Nova acta Helvetica_ (1787) - he has a long paper "Sur le son des corps elastiques," in Bernoulli - and Hindenburg's _Magazin_ (1787-1788) he treats of the roots of - equation and of parallel lines; and in Hindenburg's _Archiv_ - (1798-1799) he writes on optics and perspective. Many of these pieces - were published posthumously. Recognized as among the first - mathematicians of his day, he was also widely known for the - universality and depth of his philological and philosophical - knowledge. The most valuable of his logical and philosophical memoirs - were published collectively in 2 vols. (1782). - - See Huber's _Lambert nach seinem Leben und Wirken_; M. Chasles, - _Geschichte der Geometrie_; and Baensch, Lamberts _Philosophie und - seine Stellung zu Kant_ (1902). - - - - -LAMBERT [_alias_ NICHOLSON], JOHN (d. 1538), English Protestant martyr, -was born at Norwich and educated at Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. -and was admitted in 1521 a fellow of Queen's College on the nomination -of Catherine of Aragon. After acting for some years as a "mass-priest," -his views were unsettled by the arguments of Bilney and Arthur; and -episcopal persecution compelled him, according to his own account, to -assume the name Lambert instead of Nicholson. He likewise removed to -Antwerp, where he became chaplain to the English factory, and formed a -friendship with Frith and Tyndale. Returning to England in 1531, he came -under the notice of Archbishop Warham, who questioned him closely on his -religious beliefs. Warham's death in August 1532 relieved Lambert from -immediate danger, and he earned a living for some years by teaching -Latin and Greek near the Stocks Market in London. The duke of Norfolk -and other reactionaries accused him of heresy in 1536, but reforming -tendencies were still in the ascendant, and Lambert escaped. In 1538, -however, the reaction had begun, and Lambert was its first victim. He -singled himself out for persecution by denying the Real Presence: and -Henry VIII., who had just rejected the Lutheran proposals for a -theological union, was in no mood to tolerate worse heresies. Lambert -had challenged some views expressed by Dr John Taylor, afterwards bishop -of Lincoln; and Cranmer as archbishop condemned Lambert's opinions. He -appealed to the king as supreme head of the Church, and on the 16th of -November Henry heard the case in person before a large assembly of -spiritual and temporal peers. For five hours Lambert disputed with the -king and ten bishops; and then, as he boldly denied that the Eucharist -was the body of Christ, he was condemned to death by Cromwell as -vicegerent. Henry's condescension and patience produced a great -impression on his Catholic subjects; but Cromwell is said by Foxe to -have asked Lambert's pardon before his execution, and Cranmer eventually -adopted the views he condemned in Lambert. Lambert was burnt at -Smithfield on the 22nd of November. - - See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._; Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_; - Froude, _History_; Dixon, _Church History_; Gairdner, _Lollardy and - the Reformation_, _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ and authorities there cited. - (A. F. P.) - - - - -LAMBERT, JOHN (1619-1694), English general in the Great Rebellion, was -born at Calton Hall, Kirkby Malham, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. His -family was of ancient lineage, and long settled in the county. He -studied law, but did not make it his profession. In 1639 he married -Frances, daughter of Sir William Lister. At the opening of the Civil War -he took up arms for the parliament, and in September 1642 was appointed -a captain of horse in the army commanded by Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax. A -year later he had become colonel of a regiment of horse, and he -distinguished himself at the siege of Hull in October, 1643. Early in -1644 he did good service at the battles of Nantwich and Bradford. At -Marston Moor Lambert's own regiment was routed by the charge of Goring's -horse; but he cut his way through with a few troops and joined Cromwell -on the other side of the field. When the New Model army was formed in -the beginning of 1645, Colonel Lambert was appointed to succeed Fairfax -in command of the northern forces. General Poyntz, however, soon -replaced him, and under this officer he served in the Yorkshire campaign -of 1645, receiving a wound before Pontefract. In 1646 he was given a -regiment in the New Model, serving with Fairfax in the west of England, -and he was a commissioner, with Cromwell and others, for the surrender -of Oxford in the same year. "It is evident," says C. H. Firth (_Dict. -Nat. Biog._), "that he was from the first regarded as an officer of -exceptional capacity and specially selected for semi-political -employments." - -When the quarrel between the army and the parliament began, Lambert -threw himself warmly into the army's cause. He assisted Ireton in -drawing up the several addresses and remonstrances issued by the army, -both men having had some experience in the law, and being "of a subtle -and working brain." Early in August 1647 Lambert was sent by Fairfax as -major-general to take charge of the forces in the northern counties. His -wise and just managing of affairs in those parts is commended by -Whitelocke. He suppressed a mutiny among his troops, kept strict -discipline and hunted down the moss-troopers who infested the moorland -country. - -When the Scottish army under the marquis of Hamilton invaded England in -the summer of 1648, Lambert was engaged in suppressing the Royalist -rising in his district. The arrival of the Scots obliged him to retreat; -but Lambert displayed the greatest energy and did not cease to harass -the invaders till Cromwell came up from Wales and with him destroyed the -Scottish army in the three days' fighting from Preston to Warrington. -After the battle Lambert's cavalry headed the chase, pursuing the -defeated army _a outrance_, and finally surrounded it at Uttoxeter, -where Hamilton surrendered to Lambert on the 25th of August. He then led -the advance of Cromwell's army into Scotland, where he was left in -charge on Cromwell's return. From December 1648 to March 1649 he was -engaged in the siege of Pontefract Castle; Lambert was thus absent from -London at the time of Pride's Purge and the trial and execution of the -king. - -When Cromwell was appointed to the command of the war in Scotland (July -1650), Lambert went with him as major-general and second in command. He -was wounded at Musselburgh, but returned to the front in time to take a -conspicuous share in the victory of Dunbar. He himself defeated the -"Protesters" or "Western Whigs" at Hamilton, on the 1st of December -1650. In July 1651 he was sent into Fife to get in the rear and flank of -the Scottish army near Falkirk, and force them to decisive action by -cutting off their supplies. This mission, in the course of which Lambert -won an important victory at Inverkeithing, was executed with entire -success, whereupon Charles II., as Lambert had foreseen, made for -England. For the events of the Worcester campaign, which quickly -followed, see GREAT REBELLION. Lambert's part in the general plan was -carried out most brilliantly, and in the crowning victory of Worcester -he commanded the right wing of the English army, and had his horse shot -under him. Parliament now conferred on him a grant of lands in Scotland -worth L1000 per annum. - -In October 1651 Lambert was made a commissioner to settle the affairs of -Scotland, and on the death of Ireton he was appointed lord deputy of -Ireland (January 1652). He accepted the office with pleasure, and made -magnificent preparations; parliament, however, soon afterwards -reconstituted the Irish administration and Lambert refused to accept -office on the new terms. Henceforward he began to oppose the Rump. In -the council of officers he headed the party desiring representative -government, as opposed to Harrison who favoured a selected oligarchy of -"God-fearing" men, but both hated what remained of the Long parliament, -and joined in urging Cromwell to dissolve it by force. At the same time -Lambert was consulted by the parliamentary leaders as to the possibility -of dismissing Cromwell from his command, and on the 15th of March 1653 -Cromwell refused to see him, speaking of him contemptuously as -"bottomless Lambert." On the 20th of April, however, Lambert accompanied -Cromwell when he dismissed the council of state, on the same day as the -forcible expulsion of the parliament. Lambert now favoured the formation -of a small executive council, to be followed by an elective parliament -whose powers should be limited by a written instrument of government. -Being at this time the ruling spirit in the council of state, and the -idol of the army, there were some who looked on him as a possible rival -of Cromwell for the chief executive power, while the royalists for a -short time had hopes of his support. He was invited, with Cromwell, -Harrison and Desborough, to sit in the nominated parliament of 1653; and -when the unpopularity of that assembly increased, Cromwell drew nearer -to Lambert. In November 1653 Lambert presided over a meeting of -officers, when the question of constitutional settlement was discussed, -and a proposal made for the forcible expulsion of the nominated -parliament. On the 1st of December he urged Cromwell to assume the title -of king, which the latter refused. On the 12th the parliament resigned -its powers into Cromwell's hands, and on the 13th Lambert obtained the -consent of the officers to the Instrument of Government (q.v.), in the -framing of which he had taken a leading part. He was one of the seven -officers nominated to seats in the council created by the Instrument. In -the foreign policy of the protectorate he was the most clamorous of -those who called for alliance with Spain and war with France in 1653, -and he firmly withstood Cromwell's design for an expedition to the West -Indies. - -In the debates in parliament on the Instrument of Government in 1654 -Lambert proposed that the office of protector should be made hereditary, -but was defeated by a majority which included members of Cromwell's -family. In the parliament of this year, and again in 1656, Lord Lambert, -as he was now styled, sat as member for the West Riding. He was one of -the major-generals appointed in August 1655 to command the militia in -the ten districts into which it was proposed to divide England, and who -were to be responsible for the maintenance of order and the -administration of the law in their several districts. Lambert took a -prominent part in the committee of council which drew up instructions to -the major-generals, and he was probably the originator, and certainly -the organizer, of the system of police which these officers were to -control. Gardiner conjectures that it was through divergence of opinion -between the protector and Lambert in connexion with these "instructions" -that the estrangement between the two men began. At all events, although -Lambert had himself at an earlier date requested Cromwell to take the -royal dignity, when the proposal to declare Oliver king was started in -parliament (February 1657) he at once declared strongly against it. A -hundred officers headed by Fleetwood and Lambert waited on the -protector, and begged him to put a stop to the proceedings. Lambert was -not convinced by Cromwell's arguments, and their complete estrangement, -personal as well as political, followed. On his refusal to take the oath -of allegiance to the protector, Lambert was deprived of his commissions, -receiving, however, a pension of L2000 a year. He retired to his garden -at Wimbledon, and appeared no more in public during Oliver Cromwell's -lifetime; but shortly before his death Cromwell sought a reconciliation, -and Lambert and his wife visited him at Whitehall. - -When Richard Cromwell was proclaimed protector his chief difficulty lay -with the army, over which he exercised no effective control. Lambert, -though holding no military commission, was the most popular of the old -Cromwellian generals with the rank and file of the army, and it was very -generally believed that he would instal himself in Oliver's seat of -power. Richard's adherents tried to conciliate him, and the royalist -leaders made overtures to him, even proposing that Charles II. should -marry Lambert's daughter. Lambert at first gave a lukewarm support to -Richard Cromwell, and took no part in the intrigues of the officers at -Fleetwood's residence, Wallingford House. He was a member of the -parliament which met in January 1659, and when it was dissolved in April -under compulsion of Fleetwood and Desborough, he was restored to his -commands. He headed the deputation to Lenthall in May inviting the -return of the Rump, which led to the tame retirement of Richard Cromwell -into obscurity; and he was appointed a member of the committee of safety -and of the council of state. When the parliament, desirous of -controlling the power of the army, withheld from Fleetwood the right of -nominating officers, Lambert was named one of a council of seven charged -with this duty. The parliament's evident distrust of the soldiers caused -much discontent in the army; while the entire absence of real authority -encouraged the royalists to make overt attempts to restore Charles II., -the most serious of which, under Sir George Booth and the earl of Derby, -was crushed by Lambert near Chester on the 19th of August. He promoted a -petition from his army that Fleetwood might be made lord-general and -himself major-general. The republican party in the House took offence. -The Commons (October 12th, 1659) cashiered Lambert and other officers, -and retained Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the -authority of the speaker. On the next day Lambert caused the doors of -the House to be shut and the members kept out. On the 26th a "committee -of safety" was appointed, of which he was a member. He was also -appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland, -Fleetwood being general. Lambert was now sent with a large force to meet -Monk, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either -negotiate with him or force him to terms. Monk, however, set his army in -motion southward. Lambert's army began to melt away, and he was kept in -suspense by Monk till his whole army fell from him and he returned to -London almost alone. Monk marched to London unopposed. The "excluded" -Presbyterian members were recalled. Lambert was sent to the Tower (March -3rd, 1660), from which he escaped a month later. He tried to rekindle -the civil war in favour of the Commonwealth, but was speedily recaptured -and sent back to the Tower (April 24th). On the Restoration he was -exempted from danger of life by an address of both Houses to the king, -but the next parliament (1662) charged him with high treason. -Thenceforward for the rest of his life Lambert remained in custody in -Guernsey. He died in 1694. - - Lambert would have left a better name in history if he had been a - cavalier. His genial, ardent and excitable nature, easily raised and - easily depressed, was more akin to the royalist than to the puritan - spirit. Vain and sometimes overbearing, as well as ambitious, he - believed that Cromwell could not stand without him; and when Cromwell - was dead, he imagined himself entitled and fitted to succeed him. Yet - his ambition was less selfish than that of Monk. Lambert is accused of - no ill faith, no want of generosity, no cold and calculating policy. - As a soldier he was far more than a fighting general and possessed - many of the qualities of a great general. He was, moreover, an able - writer and speaker, and an accomplished negotiator and took pleasure - in quiet and domestic pursuits. He learnt his love of gardening from - Lord Fairfax, who was also his master in the art of war. He painted - flowers, besides cultivating them, and incurred the blame of Mrs - Hutchinson by "dressing his flowers in his garden and working at the - needle with his wife and his maids." He made no special profession of - religion; but no imputation is cast upon his moral character by his - detractors. It has been said that he became a Roman Catholic before - his death. - - - - -LAMBERT OF HERSFELD (d. c. 1088), German chronicler, was probably a -Thuringian by birth and became a monk in the Benedictine abbey of -Hersfeld in 1058. As he was ordained priest at Aschaffenburg he is -sometimes called Lambert of Aschaffenburg, or Schafnaburg. He made a -pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and visited various monasteries of his -order; but he is famous as the author of some _Annales_. From the -creation of the world until about 1040 these _Annales_ are a jejune copy -of other annals, but from 1040 to their conclusion in 1077 they are -interesting for the history of Germany and the papacy. The important -events during the earlier part of the reign of the emperor Henry IV., -including the visit to Canossa and the battle of Hohenburg, are vividly -described. Their tone is hostile to Henry IV. and friendly to the -papacy; their Latin style is excellent. The _Annales_ were first -published in 1525 and are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae -historica_, Bande iii. and v. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). Formerly -Lambert's reputation for accuracy and impartiality was very high, but -both qualities have been somewhat discredited. - - Lambert is also regarded as the author of the _Historia - Hersfeldensis_, the extant fragments of which are published in Band v. - of the _Monumenta_ of a _Vita Lulli_, Lullus, archbishop of Mainz, - being the founder of the abbey of Hersfeld; and of a _Carmen de bello - Saxonico_. His _Opera_ have been edited with an introduction by O. - Holder-Egger (Hanover, 1894). - - See H. Delbruck, _Uber die Glaubwurdigkeit Lamberts von Hersfeld_ - (Bonn, 1873); A. Eigenbrodt, _Lampert von Hersfeld und die neuere - Quellenforschung_ (Cassel, 1896); L. von Ranke, _Zur Kritik - frankisch-deutscher Reichsannalisten_ (Berlin, 1854); W. Wattenbach, - _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_ Band ii. (Berlin, 1906) and A. - Potthast, _Bibliotheca Historica_ (Berlin, 1896). - - - - -LAMBESSA, the ancient Lambaesa, a village of Algeria, in the -arrondissement of Batna and department of Constantine, 7 m. S.E. of -Batna and 17 W. of Timgad. The modern village, the centre of an -agricultural colony founded in 1848, is noteworthy for its great convict -establishment (built about 1850). The remains of the Roman town, and -more especially of the Roman camp, in spite of wanton vandalism, are -among the most interesting ruins in northern Africa. They are now -preserved by the _Service des Monuments historiques_ and excavations -have resulted in many interesting discoveries. The ruins are situated on -the lower terraces of the Jebel Aures, and consist of triumphal arches -(one to Septimius Severus, another to Commodus), temples, aqueducts, -vestiges of an amphitheatre, baths and an immense quantity of masonry -belonging to private houses. To the north and east lie extensive -cemeteries with the stones standing in their original alignments; to the -west is a similar area, from which, however, the stones have been -largely removed for building the modern village. Of the temple of -Aesculapius only one column is standing, though in the middle of the -19th century its facade was entire. The capitol or temple dedicated to -Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which has been cleared of debris, has a -portico with eight columns. On level ground about two-thirds of a mile -from the centre of the ancient town stands the camp, its site now partly -occupied by the penitentiary and its gardens. It measures 1640 ft. N. to -S. by 1476 ft. E. to W., and in the middle rise the ruins of a building -commonly called, but incorrectly, the praetorium. This noble building, -which dates from A.D. 268, is 92 ft. long by 66 ft. broad and 49 ft. -high; its southern facade has a splendid peristyle half the height of -the wall, consisting of a front row of massive Ionic columns and an -engaged row of Corinthian pilasters. Behind this building (which was -roofed), is a large court giving access to other buildings, one being -the arsenal. In it have been found many thousands of projectiles. To the -S.E. are the remains of the baths. The ruins of both city and camp have -yielded many inscriptions (Renier edited 1500, and there are 4185 in the -_Corpus Inscr. Lat._ vol. viii.); and, though a very large proportion -are epitaphs of the barest kind, the more important pieces supply an -outline of the history of the place. Over 2500 inscriptions relating to -the camp have been deciphered. In a museum in the village are objects of -antiquity discovered in the vicinity. Besides inscriptions, statues, -&c., are some fine mosaics found in 1905 near the arch of Septimius -Severus. The statues include those of Aesculapius and Hygieia, taken -from the temple of Aesculapius. - - Lambaesa was a military foundation. The camp of the third legion - (Legio III. Augusta), to which it owes its origin, appears to have - been established between A.D. 123 and 129, in the time of Hadrian, - whose address to his soldiers was found inscribed on a pillar in a - second camp to the west of the great camp still extant. By 166 mention - is made of the decurions of a vicus, 10 curiae of which are known by - name; and the vicus became a municipium probably at the time when it - was made the capital of the newly founded province of Numidia. The - legion was removed by Gordianus, but restored by Valerianus and - Gallienus; and its final departure did not take place till after 392. - The town soon afterwards declined. It never became the seat of a - bishop, and no Christian inscriptions have been found among the ruins. - - About 2 m. S. of Lambessa are the ruins of Markuna, the ancient - Verecunda, including two triumphal arches. - - See S. Gsell, _Les Monuments antiques de l'Algerie_ (Paris, 1901) and - _L'Algerie dans l'antiquite_ (Algiers, 1903); L. Renier, _Inscriptions - romaines de l'Algerie_ (Paris, 1855); Gustav Wilmann, "Die rom. - Lagerstadt Afrikas," in _Commentationes phil. in honorem Th. Mommseni_ - (Berlin, 1877); Sir L. Playfair, _Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce_ - (London, 1877); A. Graham, _Roman Africa_ (London, 1902). - - - - -LAMBETH, a southern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded -N.W. by the river Thames, N.E. by Southwark, E. by Camberwell and W. by -Wandsworth and Battersea, and extending S. to the boundary of the county -of London. Pop. (1901) 301,895. The name is commonly confined to the -northern part of the borough, bordering the river; but the principal -districts included are Kennington and Vauxhall (north central), Brixton -(central) and part of Norwood (south). Four road-bridges cross the -Thames within the limits of the borough, namely Waterloo, Westminster, -Lambeth and Vauxhall, of which the first, a fine stone structure, dates -from 1817, and is the oldest Thames bridge standing within the county of -London. The main thoroughfare runs S. from Westminster Bridge Road as -Kennington Road, continuing as Brixton Road and Brixton Hill, Clapham -Road branching S.W. from it at Kennington. Several thoroughfares also -converge upon Vauxhall Bridge, and from a point near this down to -Westminster Bridge the river is bordered by the fine Albert Embankment. - -Early records present the name _Lamb-hythe_ in various forms. The suffix -is common along the river in the meaning of a haven, but the prefix is -less clear; a Saxon word signifying mud is suggested. Brixton and -Kennington are mentioned in Domesday; and in Vauxhall is concealed the -name of Falkes de Breaute, an unscrupulous adventurer of the time of -John and Henry III. exiled in 1225. The manor of North Lambeth was given -to the bishopric of Rochester in the time of Edward the Confessor, and -the bishops had a house here till the 16th century. They did not, -however, retain the manor beyond the close of the 12th century, when it -was acquired by the see of Canterbury. The palace of the archbishops is -still here, and forms, with the parish church, a picturesque group of -buildings, lying close to the river opposite the majestic Houses of -Parliament, and to some extent joining with them to make of this reach -of the Thames one of the finest prospects in London. The oldest part of -the palace remaining is the Early English chapel. The so-called -Lollard's Tower, which retains evidence of its use as a prison, dates c. -1440. There is a fine Tudor gatehouse of brick, and the hall is dated -1663. The portion now inhabited by the archbishops was erected in 1834 -and fronts a spacious quadrangle. Among the portraits of the archbishops -here are examples by Holbein, Van Dyck, Hogarth and Reynolds. There is a -valuable library. The church of St Mary was rebuilt c. 1850, though the -ancient monuments preserved give it an appearance of antiquity. Here are -tombs of some of the archbishops, including Bancroft (d. 1610), and of -the two Tradescants, collectors, and a memorial to Elias Ashmole, whose -name is preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University, to which -he presented the collections of his friend the younger Tradescant (d. -1662). In the present Westminster Bridge Road was a circus, well known -in the later 18th and early 19th centuries as Astley's, and near -Vauxhall Bridge were the celebrated Vauxhall Gardens. - - The principal modern pleasure grounds are Kennington Park (20 acres), - and Brockwell Park (127 acres) south of Brixton, and near the southern - end of Kennington Road is Kennington Oval, the ground of the Surrey - County Cricket Club, the scene of its home matches and of other - important fixtures. Among institutions the principal is St Thomas' - Hospital, the extensive buildings of which front the Albert - Embankment. The original foundation dated from 1213, was situated in - Southwark, and was connected with the priory of Bermondsey. The - existing buildings, subsequently enlarged, were opened in 1871, are - divided into a series of blocks, and include a medical school. Other - hospitals are the Royal, for children and women, Waterloo Road, the - Lying-in Hospital, York Road, and the South-western fever hospital in - Stockwell. There are technical institutes in Brixton and Norwood; and - on Brixton Hill is Brixton Prison. In the northern part of the borough - are numerous factories, including the great Doulton pottery works. The - parliamentary borough of Lambeth has four divisions, North, - Kennington, Brixton and Norwood, each returning one member. The - borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. - Area, 4080.4 acres. - - - - -LAMBETH CONFERENCES, the name given to the periodical assemblies of -bishops of the Anglican Communion (Pan-Anglican synods), which since -1867 have met at Lambeth Palace, the London residence of the archbishop -of Canterbury. The idea of these meetings was first suggested in a -letter to the archbishop of Canterbury by Bishop Hopkins of Vermont in -1851, but the immediate impulse came from the colonial Church in Canada. -In 1865 the synod of that province, in an urgent letter to the -archbishop of Canterbury (Dr Longley), represented the unsettlement of -members of the Canadian Church caused by recent legal decisions of the -Privy Council, and their alarm lest the revived action of Convocation -"should leave us governed by canons different from those in force in -England and Ireland, and thus cause us to drift into the status of an -independent branch of the Catholic Church." They therefore requested him -to call a "national synod of the bishops of the Anglican Church at home -and abroad," to meet under his leadership. After consulting both houses -of the Convocation of Canterbury, Archbishop Longley assented, and -convened all the bishops of the Anglican Communion (then 144 in number) -to meet at Lambeth in 1867. Many Anglican bishops (amongst them the -archbishop of York and most of his suffragans) felt so doubtful as to -the wisdom of such an assembly that they refused to attend it, and Dean -Stanley declined to allow Westminster Abbey to be used for the closing -service, giving as his reasons the partial character of the assembly, -uncertainty as to the effect of its measures and "the presence of -prelates not belonging to our Church." Archbishop Longley said in his -opening address, however, that they had no desire to assume "the -functions of a general synod of all the churches in full communion with -the Church of England," but merely to "discuss matters of practical -interest, and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may -serve as safe guides to future action." Experience has shown how -valuable and wise this course was. The resolutions of the Lambeth -Conferences have never been regarded as synodical decrees, but their -weight has increased with each conference. Apprehensions such as those -which possessed the mind of Dean Stanley have long passed away. - -Seventy-six bishops accepted the primate's invitation to the first -conference, which met at Lambeth on the 24th of September 1867, and sat -for four days, the sessions being in private. The archbishop opened the -conference with an address: deliberation followed; committees were -appointed to report on special questions; resolutions were adopted, and -an encyclical letter was addressed to the faithful of the Anglican -Communion. Each of the subsequent conferences has been first received in -Canterbury cathedral and addressed by the archbishop from the chair of -St Augustine. It has then met at Lambeth, and after sitting for five -days for deliberation upon the fixed subjects and appointment of -committees, has adjourned, to meet again at the end of a fortnight and -sit for five days more, to receive reports, adopt resolutions and to put -forth the encyclical letter. - - I. _First Conference_ (September 24-28, 1867), convened and presided - over by Archbishop Longley. The proposed order of subjects was - entirely altered in view of the Colenso case, for which urgency was - claimed; and most of the time was spent in discussing it. Of the - thirteen resolutions adopted by the conference, two have direct - reference to this case; the rest have to do with the creation of new - sees and missionary jurisdictions, commendatory letters, and a - "voluntary spiritual tribunal" in cases of doctrine and the due - subordination of synods. The reports of the committees were not ready, - and were carried forward to the conference of 1878. - - II. _Second Conference_ (July 2-27, 1878), convened and presided over - by Archbishop Tait. On this occasion no hesitation appears to have - been felt; 100 bishops were present, and the opening sermon was - preached by the archbishop of York. The reports of the five special - committees (based in part upon those of the committee of 1867) were - embodied in the encyclical letter, viz. on the best mode of - maintaining union, voluntary boards of arbitration, missionary bishops - and missionaries, continental chaplains and the report of a committee - on difficulties submitted to the conference. - - III. _Third Conference_ (July 3-27, 1888), convened and presided over - by Archbishop Benson; 145 bishops present; the chief subject of - consideration being the position of communities which do not possess - the historic episcopate. In addition to the encyclical letter, - nineteen resolutions were put forth, and the reports of twelve special - committees are appended upon which they are based, the subjects being - intemperance, purity, divorce, polygamy, observance of Sunday, - socialism, care of emigrants, mutual relations of dioceses of the - Anglican Communion, home reunion, Scandinavian Church, Old Catholics, - &c., Eastern Churches, standards of doctrine and worship. Perhaps the - most important of these is the famous "Lambeth Quadrilateral," which - laid down a fourfold basis for home reunion--the Holy Scriptures, the - Apostles' and Nicene creeds, the two sacraments ordained by Christ - himself and the historic episcopate. - - IV. _Fourth Conference_ (July 5-31, 1897), convened by Archbishop - Benson, presided over by Archbishop Temple; 194 bishops present. One - of the chief subjects for consideration was the creation of a - "tribunal of reference"; but the resolutions on this subject were - withdrawn, owing, it is said, to the opposition of the American - bishops, and a more general resolution in favour of a "consultative - body" was substituted. The encyclical letter is accompanied by - sixty-three resolutions (which include careful provision for - provincial organization and the extension of the title "archbishop" to - all metropolitans, a "thankful recognition of the revival of - brotherhoods and sisterhoods, and of the office of deaconess," and a - desire to promote friendly relations with the Eastern Churches and the - various Old Catholic bodies), and the reports of the eleven committees - are subjoined. - - V. _Fifth Conference_ (July 6-August 5, 1908), convened by Archbishop - Randall Davidson, who presided; 241 bishops were present. The chief - subjects of discussion were: the relations of faith and modern - thought, the supply and training of the clergy, education, foreign - missions, revision and "enrichment" of the Prayer-Book, the relation - of the Church to "ministries of healing" (Christian Science, &c.), the - questions of marriage and divorce, organization of the Anglican - Church, reunion with other Churches. The results of the deliberations - were embodied in seventy-eight resolutions, which were appended to the - encyclical issued, in the name of the conference, by the Archbishop of - Canterbury on the 8th of August. - - The fifth Lambeth conference, following as it did close on the great - Pan-Anglican congress, is remarkable mainly as a proof of the growth - of the influence and many-sided activity of the Anglican Church, and - as a conspicuous manifestation of her characteristic principles. Of - the seventy-eight resolutions none is in any sense epoch-making, and - their spirit is that of the traditional Anglican _via media_. In - general they are characterized by a firm adherence to the fundamental - articles of Catholic orthodoxy, tempered by a tolerant attitude - towards those not of "the household of the faith." The report of the - committee on faith and modern thought is "a faithful attempt to show - how the claim of our Lord Jesus Christ, which the Church is set to - present to each generation, may, under the characteristic conditions - of our time, best command allegiance." On the question of education - (Res. 11-19) the conference reaffirmed strongly the necessity for - definite Christian teaching in schools, "secular systems" being - condemned as "educationally as well as morally unsound, since they - fail to co-ordinate the training of the whole nature of the child" - (Res. 11). The resolutions on questions affecting foreign missions - (20-26) deal with e.g. the overlapping of episcopal jurisdictions (22) - and the establishment of Churches on lines of race or colour, which is - condemned (20). The resolutions on questions of marriage and divorce - (37-43) reaffirm the traditional attitude of the Church; it is, - however, interesting to note that the resolution (40) deprecating the - remarriage in church of the innocent party to a divorce was carried - only by eighty-seven votes to eighty-four. In resolutions 44 to 53 the - conference deals with the duty of the Church towards modern democratic - ideals and social problems; affirms the responsibility of investors - for the character and conditions of the concerns in which their money - is placed (49); "while frankly acknowledging the moral gains sometimes - won by war" strongly supports the extension of international - arbitration (52); and emphasizes the duty of a stricter observance of - Sunday (53). On the question of reunion, the ideal of corporate unity - was reaffirmed (58). It was decided to send a deputation of bishops - with a letter of greeting to the national council of the Russian - Church about to be assembled (60) and certain conditions were laid - down for inter-communion with certain of the Churches of the Orthodox - Eastern Communion (62) and the "ancient separated Churches of the - East" (63-65). Resolution 67 warned Anglicans from contracting - marriages, under actual conditions, with Roman Catholics. By - resolution 68 the conference stated its desire to "maintain and - strengthen the friendly relations" between the Churches of the - Anglican Communion and "the ancient Church of Holland" (Jansenist, see - UTRECHT) and the old Catholic Churches; and resolutions 70-73 made - elaborate provisions for a projected corporate union between the - Anglican Church and the _Unitas Fratrum_ (Moravian Brethren). As to - "home reunion," however, it was made perfectly clear that this would - only be possible "on lines suggested by such precedents as those of - 1610," i.e. by the Presbyterian Churches accepting the episcopal - model. So far as the organization of the Anglican Church is concerned, - the most important outcome of the conference was the reconstruction of - the Central Consultative Body on representative lines (54-56); this - body to consist of the archbishop of Canterbury and seventeen bishops - appointed by the various Churches of the Anglican Communion throughout - the world. A notable feature of the conference was the presence of the - Swedish bishop of Kalmar, who presented a letter from the archbishop - of Upsala, as a tentative advance towards closer relations between the - Anglican Church and the Evangelical Church of Sweden. - - See Archbishop R. T. Davidson, _The Lambeth Conferences of 1867, 1878 - and 1888_ (London, 1896); _Conference of Bishops of the Anglican - Communion, Encyclical Letter_, &c. (London, 1897 and 1908). - - - - -LAMBINUS, DIONYSIUS, the Latinized name of DENIS LAMBIN (1520-1572), -French classical scholar, born at Montreuil-sur-mer in Picardy. Having -devoted several years to classical studies during a residence in Italy, -he was invited to Paris in 1650 to fill the professorship of Latin in -the College de France, which he soon afterwards exchanged for that of -Greek. His lectures were frequently interrupted by his ill-health and -the religious disturbances of the time. His death (September 1572) is -said to have been caused by his apprehension that he might share the -fate of his friend Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramee), who had been killed -in the massacre of St Bartholomew. Lambinus was one of the greatest -scholars of his age, and his editions of classical authors are still -useful. In textual criticism he was a conservative, but by no means a -slavish one; indeed, his opponents accused him of rashness in -emendation. His chief defect is that he refers vaguely to his MSS. -without specifying the source of his readings, so that their relative -importance cannot be estimated. But his commentaries, with their wealth -of illustration and parallel passages, are a mine of information. In the -opinion of the best scholars, he preserved the happy mean in his -annotations, although his own countrymen have coined the word _lambiner_ -to express trifling and diffuseness. - - His chief editions are: Horace (1561); Lucretius (1564), on which see - H. A. J. Munro's preface to his edition; Cicero (1566); Cornelius - Nepos (1569); Demosthenes (1570), completing the unfinished work of - Guillaume Morel; Plautus (1576). - - See Peter Lazer, _De Dionysio Lambino narratio_, printed in Orelli's - _Onomasticon Tullianum_ (i. 1836), and _Trium disertissimorum virorum - praefationes ac epistolae familiares aliquot: Mureti, Lambini, Regii_ - (Paris, 1579); also Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_ (1908, - ii. 188), and A. Horawitz in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine - Encyclopadie_. - - - - -LAMBOURN, a market town in the Newbury parliamentary division of -Berkshire, England, 65 m. W. of London, the terminus of the Lambourn -Valley light railway from Newbury. Pop. (1901) 2071. It lies high up the -narrow valley of the Lambourn, a tributary of the Kennet famous for its -trout-fishing, among the Berkshire Downs. The church of St Michael is -cruciform and principally late Norman, but has numerous additions of -later periods and has been considerably altered by modern restoration. -The inmates of an almshouse founded by John Estbury, _c._ 1500, by his -desire still hold service daily at his tomb in the church. A -Perpendicular market-cross stands without the church. The town has -agricultural trade, but its chief importance is derived from large -training stables in the neighbourhood. To the north of the town is a -large group of _tumuli_ known as the Seven Barrows, ascertained by -excavation to be a British burial-place. - - - - -LAMECH [Hebrew: Lemech], the biblical patriarch, appears in each of the -antediluvian genealogies, Gen. iv. 16-24 J., and Gen. v. P. In the -former he is a descendant of Cain, and through his sons the author of -primitive civilization; in the latter he is the father of Noah. But it -is now generally held that these two genealogies are variant adaptations -of the Babylonian list of primitive kings (see ENOCH). It is doubtful -whether Lamech is to be identified with the name of any one of these -kings; he may have been introduced into the genealogy from another -tradition. - -In the older narrative in Gen. iv. Lamech's family are the originators -of various advances in civilization; he himself is the first to marry -more than one wife, 'Adah ("ornament," perhaps specially "dawn") and -Zillah ("shadow"). He has three sons Jabal, Jubal, and Tubal, the -last-named qualified by the addition of Cain (= "smith"[1]). The -assonance of these names is probably intentional, cf. the brothers Hasan -and Hosein of early Mahommedan history. Jabal institutes the life of -nomadic shepherds, Jubal is the inventor of music, Tubal-Cain the first -smith. Jabal and Jubal may be forms of a root used in Hebrew and -Phoenician for ram and ram's horn (i.e. trumpet), and underlying our -"jubilee." Tubal may be the eponymous ancestor of the people of that -name mentioned in Ezekiel in connexion with "vessels of bronze."[2] All -three names are sometimes derived from [Hebrew: yuval] in the sense of -offspring, so that they would be three different words for "son," and -there are numerous other theories as to their etymology. Lamech has also -a daughter Naamah ("gracious," "pleasant," "comely"; cf. No'man, a name -of the deity Adonis). This narrative clearly intends to account for the -origin of these various arts as they existed in the narrator's time; it -is not likely that he thought of these discoveries as separated from his -own age by a universal flood; nor does the tone of the narrative suggest -that the primitive tradition thought of these pioneers of civilization -as members of an accursed family. Probably the passage was originally -independent of the document which told of Cain and Abel and of the -Flood; Jabal may be a variant of Abel. An ancient poem is connected with -this genealogy: - - "Adah and Zillah, hear my voice; - Ye wives of Lamech, give ear unto my speech. - I slay a man for a wound, - A young man for a stroke; - For Cain's vengeance is sevenfold, - But Lamech's seventy-fold and seven." - -In view of the connexion, the poem is interpreted as expressing Lamech's -exultation at the advantage he expects to derive from Tubal-Cain's new -inventions; the worker in bronze will forge for him new and formidable -weapons, so that he will be able to take signal vengeance for the least -injury. But the poem probably had originally nothing to do with the -genealogy. It may have been a piece of folk-song celebrating the prowess -of the tribe of Lamech; or it may have had some relation to a story of -Cain and Abel in which Cain was a hero and not a villain. - -The genealogy in Gen. v. belongs to the Priestly Code, _c._ 450 B.C., -and may be due to a revision of ancient tradition in the light of -Babylonian archaeology. It is noteworthy that according to the numbers -in the Samaritan MSS. Lamech dies in the year of the Flood. - - The origin of the name Lamech and its original meaning are doubtful. - It was probably the name of a tribe or deity, or both. According to C. - J. Ball,[3] Lamech is an adaptation of the Babylonian _Lamga_, a title - of Sin the moon god, and synonymous with _Ubara_ in the name - Ubara-Tutu, the Otiartes of Berossus, who is the ninth of the ten - primitive Babylonian kings, and the father of the hero of the - Babylonian flood story, just as Lamech is the ninth patriarch, and the - father of Noah. Spurrell[4] states that Lamech cannot be explained - from the Hebrew, but may possibly be connected with the Arabic - _yalmakun_, "a strong young man." - - Outside of Genesis, Lamech is only mentioned in the Bible in 1 Chron. - i. 3, Luke iii. 36. Later Jewish tradition expanded and interpreted - the story in its usual fashion. (W. H. Be.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The text of Gen. iv. 22 is partly corrupt; and it is possible - that the text used by the Septuagint did not contain Cain. - - [2] Gen. x. 2, Ezek. xxvii. 13. - - [3] _Genesis_, in Haupt's _Sacred Books of the Old Testament_ on iv. - 19, cf. also the notes on 20-22, for Lamech's family. The - identification of Lamech with _Lamga_ is also suggested by Sayce, - _Expository Times_, vii. 367. Cf. also Cheyne, "Cainites" in _Encyc. - Biblica_. - - [4] _Notes on the Hebrew Text of Genesis, in loco._ - - - - -LAMEGO, a city of northern Portugal, in the district of Vizeu and -formerly included in the province of Beira; 6 m. by road S. of the river -Douro and 42 m. E. of Oporto. Pop. (1900) 9471. The nearest railway -station is Peso da Regoa, on the opposite side of the Douro and on the -Barca d'Alva-Oporto railway. Lamego is an ancient and picturesque city, -in the midst of a beautiful mountain region. Its principal buildings are -the 14th-century Gothic cathedral, Moorish citadel, Roman baths and a -church which occupies the site of a mosque, and, though intrinsically -commonplace, is celebrated in Portugal as the seat of the legendary -cortes of 1143 or 1144 (see PORTUGAL, _History_). The principal -industries are viticulture and the rearing of swine, which furnish the -so-called "Lisbon hams." Lamego was a Moorish frontier fortress of some -importance in the 9th and 10th centuries. It was captured in 1057 by -Ferdinand I. of Castile and Leon. - - - - -LAMELLIBRANCHIA (Lat. _lamella_, a small or thin plate, and Gr. [Greek: -branchia], gills), the fourth of the five classes of animals -constituting the phylum Mollusca (q.v.). The Lamellibranchia are mainly -characterized by the rudimentary condition of the head, and the -retention of the primitive bilateral symmetry, the latter feature being -accentuated by the lateral compression of the body and the development -of the shell as two bilaterally symmetrical plates or valves covering -each one side of the animal. The foot is commonly a simple cylindrical -or ploughshare-shaped organ, used for boring in sand and mud, and more -rarely presents a crawling disk similar to that of Gastropoda; in some -forms it is aborted. The paired ctenidia are very greatly developed -right and left of the elongated body, and form the most prominent organ -of the group. Their function is chiefly not respiratory but nutritive, -since it is by the currents produced by their ciliated surface that -food-particles are brought to the feebly-developed mouth and buccal -cavity. - -The Lamellibranchia present as a whole a somewhat uniform structure. The -chief points in which they vary are--(1) in the structure of the -ctenidia or branchial plates; (2) in the presence of one or of two chief -muscles, the fibres of which run across the animal's body from one valve -of the shell to the other (adductors); (3) in the greater or less -elaboration of the posterior portion of the mantle-skirt so as to form a -pair of tubes, by one of which water is introduced into the sub-pallial -chamber, whilst by the other it is expelled; (4) in the perfect or -deficient symmetry of the two valves of the shell and the connected soft -parts, as compared with one another; (5) in the development of the foot -as a disk-like crawling organ (_Arca_, _Nucula_, _Pectunculus_, -_Trigonia_, _Lepton_, _Galeomma_), as a simple plough-like or -tongue-shaped organ (_Unionidae_, &c.), as a re-curved saltatory organ -(_Cardium_, &c.), as a long burrowing cylinder (_Solenidae_, &c.), or -its partial (Mytilacea) or even complete abortion (Ostraeacea). - -The essential Molluscan organs are, with these exceptions, uniformly -well developed. The mantle-skirt is always long, and hides the rest of -the animal from view, its dependent margins meeting in the middle line -below the ventral surface when the animal is retracted; it is, as it -were, slit in the median line before and behind so as to form two flaps, -a right and a left; on these the right and the left calcareous valves of -the shell are borne respectively, connected by an uncalcified part of -the shell called the ligament. In many embryo Lamellibranchs a -centro-dorsal primitive shell-gland or follicle has been detected. The -mouth lies in the median line anteriorly, the anus in the median line -posteriorly. - -Both ctenidia, right and left, are invariably present, the axis of each -taking origin from the side of the body as in the schematic -archi-Mollusc (see fig. 15). A pair of renal tubes opening right and -left, rather far forward on the sides of the body, are always present. -Each opens by its internal extremity into the pericardium. A pair of -genital apertures, connected by genital ducts with the paired gonads, -are found right and left near the nephridial pores, except in a few -cases where the genital duct joins that of the renal organ -(_Spondylus_). The sexes are often, but not always, distinct. No -accessory glands or copulatory organs are ever present in -Lamellibranchs. The ctenidia often act as brood-pouches. - -A dorsal contractile heart, with symmetrical right and left auricles -receiving aerated blood from the ctenidia and mantle-skirt, is present, -being unequally developed only in those few forms which are inequivalve. -The typical pericardium is well developed. It, as in other Mollusca, is -not a blood-space but develops from the coelom, and it communicates with -the exterior by the pair of renal tubes. As in Cephalopoda (and possibly -other Mollusca) water can be introduced through the nephridia into this -space. The alimentary canal keeps very nearly to the median vertical -plane whilst exhibiting a number of flexures and loopings in this plane. -A pair of large glandular outgrowths, the so-called "liver" or great -digestive gland, exists as in other Molluscs. A pair of pedal otocysts, -and a pair of osphradia at the base of the gills, appear to be always -present. A typical nervous system is present (fig. 19), consisting of a -cerebro-pleural ganglion-pair, united by connectives to a pedal -ganglion-pair and a visceral ganglion-pair (parieto-splanchnic). - -A pyloric caecum connected with the stomach is commonly found, -containing a tough flexible cylinder of transparent cartilaginous -appearance, called the "crystalline style" (_Mactra_). In many -Lamellibranchs a gland is found on the hinder surface of the foot in the -mid line, which secretes a substance which sets into the form of -threads--the so-called "byssus"--by means of which the animal can fix -itself. Sometimes this gland is found in the young and not in the adult -(_Anodonta_, _Unio_, _Cyclas_). In some Lamellibranchs (_Pecten_, -_Spondylus_, _Pholas_, _Mactra_, _Tellina_, _Pectunculus_, _Galeomma_, -&c.), although cephalic eyes are generally absent, special eyes are -developed on the free margin of the mantle-skirt, apparently by the -modification of tentacles commonly found there. There are no pores in -the foot or elsewhere in Lamellibranchia by which water can pass into -and out of the vascular system, as formerly asserted. - -The Lamellibranchia live chiefly in the sea, some in fresh waters. A -very few have the power of swimming by opening and shutting the valves -of the shell (_Pecten_, _Lima_); most can crawl slowly or burrow -rapidly; others are, when adult, permanently fixed to stones or rocks -either by the shell or the byssus. In development some Lamellibranchia -pass through a free-swimming trochosphere stage with pre-oral ciliated -band; other fresh-water forms which carry the young in brood-pouches -formed by the ctenidia have suppressed this larval phase. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagrams of the external form and anatomy of -_Anodonta cygnea_, the Pond-Mussel; in figures 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 the animal -is seen from the left side, the centro-dorsal region uppermost. (1) -Animal removed from its shell, a probe g passed into the sub-pallial -chamber through the excurrent siphonal notch. (2) View from the ventral -surface of an Anodon with its foot expanded and issuing from between the -gaping shells. (3) The left mantle-flap reflected upwards so as to -expose the sides of the body. (4) Diagrammatic section of Anodon to show -the course of the alimentary canal. (5) The two gill-plates of the left -side reflected upwards so as to expose the fissure between foot and gill -where the probe g passes. (6) Diagram to show the positions of the -nerve-ganglia, heart and nephridia. - - Letters in all the figures as follows: - - a, Centro-dorsal area. - b, Margin of the left mantle-flap. - c, Margin of the right mantle-flap. - d, Excurrent siphonal notch of the mantle margin. - e, Incurrent siphonal notch of the mantle margin. - f, Foot. - g, Probe passed into the superior division of the sub-pallial chamber - through the excurrent siphonal notch, and issuing by the side of the - foot into the inferior division of the sub-pallial chamber. - h, Anterior (pallial) adductor muscle of the shells. - i, Anterior retractor muscle of the foot. - k, Protractor muscle of the foot. - l, Posterior (pedal) adductor muscle of the shells. - m, Posterior retractor muscle of the foot. - n, Anterior labial tentacle. - o, Posterior labial tentacle. - p, Base-line of origin of the reflected mantle-flap from the side of - the body. - q, Left external gill-plate. - r, Left internal gill-plate. - rr, Internal lamella of the right inner gill-plate. - rg, Right outer gill-plate. - s, Line of concrescence of the outer lamella of the left outer - gill-plate with the left mantle-flap. - t, Pallial tentacles. - u, The thickened muscular pallial margin which adheres to the shell - and forms the pallial line of the left side. - v, That of the right side. - w, The mouth. - x, Aperture of the left organ of Bojanus (nephridium) exposed by - cutting the attachment of the inner lamella of the inner gill-plate. - y, Aperture of the genital duct. - z, Fissure between the free edge of the inner lamella of the inner - gill-plate and the side of the foot, through which the probe g passes - into the upper division of the sub-pallial space. - aa, Line of concrescence of the inner lamella of the right inner - gill-plate with the inner lamella of the left inner gill-plate. - ab, ac, ad, Three pit-like depressions in the median line of the foot - supposed by some writers to be pores admitting water into the vascular - system. - ae, Left shell valve. - af, Space occupied by liver. - ag, Space occupied by gonad. - ah, Muscular substance of the foot. - ai, Duct of the liver on the wall of the stomach. - ak, Stomach. - al, Rectum traversing the ventricle of the heart. - am, Pericardium. - an, Glandular portion of the left nephridium. - ap, Ventricle of the heart. - aq, Aperture by which the left auricle joins the ventricle. - ar, Non-glandular portion of the left nephridium. - as, Anus. - at, Pore leading from the pericardium into the glandular sac of the - left nephridium. - au, Pore leading from the glandular into the non-glandular portion of - the left nephridium. - av, Internal pore leading from the non-glandular portion of the left - nephridium to the external pore x. - aw, Left cerebro-pleuro-visceral ganglion. - ax, Left pedal ganglion. - ay, Left otocyst. - az, Left olfactory ganglion (parieto-splanchnic). - bb, Floor of the pericardium separating that space from the - non-glandular portion of the nephridia.] - -As an example of the organization of a Lamellibranch, we shall review -the structure of the common pond-mussel or swan mussel (_Anodonta -cygnea_), comparing it with other Lamellibranchia. - - The swan-mussel has superficially a perfectly developed bilateral - symmetry. The left side of the animal is seen as when removed from its - shell in fig. 1 (1). The valves of the shell have been removed by - severing their adhesions to the muscular areae h, i, k, l, m, u. The - free edge of the left half of the mantle-skirt b is represented as a - little contracted in order to show the exactly similar free edge of - the right half of the mantle-skirt c. These edges are not attached to, - although they touch, one another; each flap (right or left) can be - freely thrown back in the way carried out in fig. 1 (3) for that of - the left side. This is not always the case with Lamellibranchs; there - is in the group a tendency for the corresponding edges of the - mantle-skirt to fuse together by concrescence, and so to form a more - or less completely closed bag, as in the Scaphopoda (_Dentalium_). In - this way the notches d, e of the hinder part of the mantle-skirt of - _Anodonta_ are in the siphonate forms converted into two separate - holes, the edges of the mantle being elsewhere fused together along - this hinder margin. Further than this, the part of the mantle-skirt - bounding the two holes is frequently drawn out so as to form a pair of - tubes which project from the shell (figs. 8, 29). In such - Lamellibranchs as the oysters, scallops and many others which have the - edges of the mantle-skirt quite free, there are numerous tentacles - upon those edges. In _Anodonta_ these pallial tentacles are confined - to a small area surrounding the inferior siphonal notch (fig. 1 [3], - t). When the edges of the mantle ventral to the inhalant orifice are - united, an anterior aperture is left for the protrusion of the foot, - and thus there are three pallial apertures altogether, and species in - this condition are called "Tripora." This is the usual condition in - the Eulamellibranchia and Septibranchia. When the pedal aperture is - small and far forward there may be a fourth aperture in the region of - the fusion behind the pedal aperture. This occurs in _Solen_, and such - forms are called "Quadrifora." - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.--View of the two Valves of the Shell of - _Cytherea_ (one of the Sinupalliate Isomya), from the dorsal aspect.] - - The centro-dorsal point a of the animal of _Anodonta_ (fig. 1 [1]) is - called the umbonal area; the great anterior muscular surface h is that - of the anterior adductor muscle, the posterior similar surface i is - that of the posterior adductor muscle; the long line of attachment u - is the simple "pallial muscle,"--a thickened ridge which is seen to - run parallel to the margin of the mantle-skirt in this Lamellibranch. - In siphonate forms the pallial muscle is not simple, but is indented - posteriorly by a sinus formed by the muscles which retract the - siphons. - - It is the approximate equality in the size of the anterior and - posterior adductor muscles which led to the name Isomya for the group - to which _Anodonta_ belongs. The hinder adductor muscle is always - large in Lamellibranchs, but the anterior adductor may be very small - (Heteromya), or absent altogether (Monomya). The anterior adductor - muscle is in front of the mouth and alimentary tract altogether, and - must be regarded as a special and peculiar development of the median - anterior part of the mantle-flap. The posterior adductor is ventral - and anterior to the anus. The former classification based on these - differences in the adductor muscles is now abandoned, having proved to - be an unnatural one. A single family may include isomyarian, - anisomyarian and monomyarian forms, and the latter in development pass - through stages in which they resemble the first two. In fact all - Lamellibranchs begin with a condition in which there is only one - adductor, and that not the posterior but the anterior. This is called - the protomonomyarian stage. Then the posterior adductor develops, and - becomes equal to the anterior, and finally in some cases the anterior - becomes smaller or disappears. The single adductor muscle of the - Monomya is separated by a difference of fibre into two portions, but - neither of these can be regarded as possibly representing the anterior - adductor of the other Lamellibranchs. One of these portions is more - ligamentous and serves to keep the two shells constantly attached to - one another, whilst the more fleshy portion serves to close the shell - rapidly when it has been gaping. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Right Valve of the same Shell from the Outer - Face.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Left Valve of the same Shell from the Inner - Face. (Figs. 2, 3, 4 from Owen.)] - - In removing the valves of the shell from an _Anodonta_, it is - necessary not only to cut through the muscular attachments of the - body-wall to the shell but to sever also a strong elastic ligament, or - spring resembling india-rubber, joining the two shells about the - umbonal area. The shell of _Anodonta_ does not present these parts in - the most strongly marked condition, and accordingly our figures (figs. - 2, 3, 4) represent the valves of the sinupalliate genus _Cytherea_. - The corresponding parts are recognizable in _Anodonta_. Referring to - the figures (2, 3) for an explanation of terms applicable to the parts - of the valve and the markings on its inner surface--corresponding to - the muscular areas already noted on the surface of the animal's - body--we must specially note here the position of that denticulated - thickening of the dorsal margin of the valve which is called the hinge - (fig. 4). By this hinge one valve is closely fitted to the other. - Below this hinge each shell becomes concave, above it each shell rises - a little to form the umbo, and it is into this ridge-like upgrowth of - each valve that the elastic ligament or spring is fixed (fig. 4). As - shown in the diagram (fig. 5) representing a transverse section of the - two valves of a Lamellibranch, the two shells form a double lever, of - which the toothed-hinge is the fulcrum. The adductor muscles placed in - the concavity of the shells act upon the long arms of the lever at a - mechanical advantage; their contraction keeps the shells shut, and - stretches the ligament or spring h. On the other hand, the ligament h - acts upon the short arm formed by the umbonal ridge of the shells; - whenever the adductors relax, the elastic substance of the ligament - contracts, and the shells gape. It is on this account that the valves - of a dead Lamellibranch always gape; the elastic ligament is no longer - counteracted by the effort of the adductors. The state of closure of - the valves of the shell is not, therefore, one of rest; when it is at - rest--that is, when there is no muscular effort--the valves of a - Lamellibranch are slightly gaping, and are closed by the action of the - adductors when the animal is disturbed. The ligament is simple in - _Anodonta_; in many Lamellibranchs it is separated into two layers, an - outer and an inner (thicker and denser). That the condition of gaping - of the shell-valves is essential to the life of the Lamellibranch - appears from the fact that food to nourish it, water to aerate its - blood, and spermatozoa to fertilize its eggs, are all introduced into - this gaping chamber by currents of water, set going by the - highly-developed ctenidia. The current of water enters into the - sub-pallial space at the spot marked e in fig. 1 (1), and, after - passing as far forward as the mouth w in fig. 1 (5), takes an outward - course and leaves the sub-pallial space by the upper notch d. These - notches are known in _Anodonta_ as the afferent and efferent siphonal - notches respectively, and correspond to the long tube-like afferent - inferior and efferent superior "siphons" formed by the mantle in many - other Lamellibranchs (fig. 8). - - [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Diagram of a section of a Lamellibranch's - shells, ligament and adductor muscle. a, b, right and left valves of - the shell; c, d, the umbones or short arms of the lever; e, f, the - long arms of the lever; g, the hinge; h, the ligament; i, the adductor - muscle.] - - Whilst the valves of the shell are equal in _Anodonta_ we find in many - Lamellibranchs (_Ostraea_, _Chama_, _Corbula_, &c.) one valve larger, - and the other smaller and sometimes flat, whilst the larger shell may - be fixed to rock or to stones (_Ostraea_, &c.). A further variation - consists in the development of additional shelly plates upon the - dorsal line between the two large valves (_Pholadidae_). In _Pholas - dactylus_ we find a pair of umbonal plates, a dors-umbonal plate and a - dorsal plate. It is to be remembered that the whole of the cuticular - hard product produced on the dorsal surface and on the mantle-flaps is - to be regarded as the "shell," of which a median band-like area, the - ligament, usually remains uncalcified, so as to result in the - production of two valves united by the elastic ligament. But the - shelly substance does not always in boring forms adhere to this form - after its first growth. In _Aspergillum_ the whole of the tubular - mantle area secretes a continuous shelly tube, although in the young - condition two valves were present. These are seen (fig. 7) set in the - firm substance of the adult tubular shell, which has even replaced the - ligament, so that the tube is complete. In _Teredo_ a similar tube is - formed as the animal elongates (boring in wood), the original - shell-valves not adhering to it but remaining movable and provided - with a special muscular apparatus in place of a ligament. In the shell - of Lamellibranchs three distinct layers can be distinguished: an - external chitinous, non-calcified layer, the periostracum; a middle - layer composed of calcareous prisms perpendicular to the surface, the - prismatic layer; and an internal layer composed of laminae parallel to - the surface, the nacreous layer. The last is secreted by the whole - surface of the mantle except the border, and additions to its - thickness continue to be made through life. The periostracum is - produced by the extreme edge of the mantle border, the prismatic layer - by the part of the border within the edge. These two layers, - therefore, when once formed cannot increase in thickness; as the - mantle grows in extent its border passes beyond the formed parts of - the two outer layers, and the latter are covered internally by a - deposit of nacreous matter. Special deposits of the nacreous matter - around foreign bodies form pearls, the foreign nucleus being usually - of parasitic origin (see PEARL). - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Shell of _Aspergillum vaginiferum_. (From - Owen.)] - - [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Shell of _Aspergillum vaginiferum_ to show the - original valves a, now embedded in a continuous calcification of - tubular form. (From Owen.)] - - Let us now examine the organs which lie beneath the mantle-skirt of - _Anodonta_, and are bathed by the current of water which circulates - through it. This can be done by lifting up and throwing back the left - half of the mantle-skirt as is represented in fig. 1 (3). We thus - expose the plough-like foot (f), the two left labial tentacles, and - the two left gill-plates or left ctenidium. In fig. 1 (5), one of the - labial tentacles n is also thrown back to show the mouth w, and the - two left gill-plates are reflected to show the gill-plates of the - right side (rr, rq) projecting behind the foot, the inner or median - plate of each side being united by concrescence to its fellow of the - opposite side along a continuous line (aa). The left inner gill-plate - is also snipped to show the subjacent orifices of the left renal organ - x, and of the genital gland (testis or ovary) y. The foot thus exposed - in _Anodonta_ is a simple muscular tongue-like organ. It can be - protruded between the flaps of the mantle (fig. 1 [1] [2]) so as to - issue from the shell, and by its action the _Anodonta_ can slowly - crawl or burrow in soft mud or sand. Other Lamellibranchs may have a - larger foot relatively than has _Anodonta_. In _Arca_ it has a - sole-like surface. In _Arca_ too and many others it carries a - byssus-forming gland and a byssus-cementing gland. In the cockles, in - _Cardium_ and in _Trigonia_, it is capable of a sudden stroke, which - causes the animal to jump when out of the water, in the latter genus - to a height of four feet. In _Mytilus_ the foot is reduced to little - more than a tubercle carrying the apertures of these glands. In the - oyster it is absent altogether. - - [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Psammobia florida_, right side, showing - expanded foot e, and g incurrent and g' excurrent siphons. (From - Owen.)] - - The labial tentacles or palps of _Anodonta_ (n, o in fig. 1 [3], [5]) - are highly vascular flat processes richly supplied with nerves. The - left anterior tentacle (seen in the figure) is joined at its base in - front of the mouth (w) to the right anterior tentacle, and similarly - the left (o) and right posterior tentacles are joined behind the - mouth. Those of _Arca_ (i, k in fig. 9) show this relation to the - mouth (a). These organs are characteristic of all Lamellibranchs; they - do not vary except in size, being sometimes drawn out to streamer-like - dimensions. Their appearance and position suggest that they are in - some way related morphologically to the gill-plates, the anterior - labial tentacle being a continuation of the outer gill-plate, and the - posterior a continuation of the inner gill-plate. There is no - embryological evidence to support this suggested connexion, and, as - will appear immediately, the history of the gill-plates in various - forms of Lamellibranchs does not directly favour it. The palps are - really derived from part of the velar area of the larva. - - [Illustration: FIG. 9.--View from the ventral (pedal) aspect of the - animal of _Arca noae_, the mantle-flap and gill-filaments having been - cut away. (Lankester.) - - a, Mouth. - b, Anus. - c, Free spirally turned extremity of the gill-axis or ctenidial axis - of the right side. - d, Do. of the left side. - e, f, Anterior portions of these axes fused by concrescence to the - wall of the body. - g, Anterior adductor muscle. - h, Posterior adductor. - i, Anterior labial tentacle. - k, Posterior labial tentacle. - l, Base line of the foot. - m, Sole of the foot. - n, Callosity.] - - The gill-plates have a structure very different from that of the - labial tentacles, and one which in _Anodonta_ is singularly - complicated as compared with the condition presented by these organs - in some other Lamellibranchs, and with what must have been their - original condition in the ancestors of the whole series of living - Lamellibranchia. The phenomenon of "concrescence" which we have - already had to note as showing itself so importantly in regard to the - free edges of the mantle-skirt and the formation of the siphons, is - what, above all things, has complicated the structure of the - Lamellibranch ctenidium. Our present knowledge of the interesting - series of modifications through which the Lamellibranch gill-plates - have developed to their most complicated form is due to R. H. Peck, K. - Mitsukuri and W. G. Ridewood. The Molluscan ctenidium is typically a - plume-like structure, consisting of a vascular axis, on each side of - which is set a row of numerous lamelliform or filamentous processes. - These processes are hollow, and receive the venous blood from, and - return it again aerated into, the hollow axis, in which an afferent - and an efferent blood-vessel may be differentiated. In the genus - _Nucula_ (fig. 10) we have an example of a Lamellibranch retaining - this plume-like form of gill. In the Arcacea (e.g. _Arca_ and - _Pectunculus_) the lateral processes which are set on the axis of the - ctenidium are not lamellae, but are slightly flattened, very long - tubes or hollow filaments. These filaments are so fine and are set so - closely together that they appear to form a continuous membrane until - examined with a lens. The microscope shows that the neighbouring - filaments are held together by patches of cilia, called "ciliated - junctions," which interlock with one another just as two brushes may - be made to do. In fig. 11, A a portion of four filaments of a - ctenidium of the sea-mussel (_Mytilus_) is represented, having - precisely the same structure as those of _Arca_. The filaments of the - gill (ctenidium) of _Mytilus_ and _Arca_ thus form two closely set - rows which depend from the axis of the gill like two parallel plates. - Further, their structure is profoundly modified by the curious - condition of the free ends of the depending filaments. These are - actually reflected at a sharp angle--doubled on themselves in - fact--and thus form an additional row of filaments (see fig. 11 B). - Consequently, each primitive filament has a descending and an - ascending ramus, and instead of each row forming a simple plate, the - plate is double, consisting of a descending and an ascending lamella. - As the axis of the ctenidium lies by the side of the body, and is very - frequently connate with the body, as so often happens in Gastropods - also, we find it convenient to speak of the two plate-like structures - formed on each ctenidial axis as the outer and the inner gill-plate; - each of these is composed of two lamellae, an outer (the reflected) - and an adaxial in the case of the outer gill-plate, and an adaxial and - an inner (the reflected) in the case of the inner gill-plate. This is - the condition seen in _Arca_ and _Mytilus_, the so-called plates - dividing upon the slightest touch into their constituent filaments, - which are but loosely conjoined by their "ciliated junctions." - Complications follow upon this in other forms. Even in _Mytilus_ and - _Arca_ a connexion is here and there formed between the ascending and - descending rami of a filament by hollow extensible outgrowths called - "interlamellar junctions" (_il._ j in B, fig. 11). Nevertheless the - filament is a complete tube formed of chitinous substance and clothed - externally by ciliated epithelium, internally by endothelium and - lacunar tissue--a form of connective tissue--as shown in fig. 11, C. - Now let us suppose as happens in the genus _Dreissensia_--a genus not - far removed from _Mytilus_--that the ciliated inter-filamentar - junctions (fig. 12) give place to solid permanent inter-filamentar - junctions, so that the filaments are converted, as it were, into a - trellis-work. Then let us suppose that the interlamellar junctions - already noted in _Mytilus_ become very numerous, large and irregular; - by them the two trellis-works of filaments would be united so as to - leave only a sponge-like set of spaces between them. Within the - trabeculae of the sponge-work blood circulates, and between the - trabeculae the water passes, having entered by the apertures left in - the trellis-work formed by the united gill-filaments (fig. 14). The - larger the intralamellar spongy growth becomes, the more do the - original gill-filaments lose the character of blood-holding tubes, and - tend to become dense elastic rods for the simple purpose of supporting - the spongy growth. This is seen both in the section of _Dreissensia_ - gill (fig. 12) and in those of _Anodonta_ (fig. 13, A, B, C). In the - drawing of _Dreissensia_ the individual filaments f, f, f are cut - across in one lamella at the horizon of an inter-filamentar junction, - in the other (lower in the figure) at a point where they are free. The - chitinous substance ch is observed to be greatly thickened as compared - with what it is in fig. 11, C, tending in fact to obliterate - altogether the lumen of the filament. And in _Anodonta_ (fig. 13, C) - this obliteration is effected. In _Anodonta_, besides being thickened, - the skeletal substance of the filament develops a specially dense, - rod-like body on each side of each filament. Although the structure of - the ctenidium is thus highly complicated in _Anodonta_, it is yet more - so in some of the siphonate genera of Lamellibranchs. The filaments - take on a secondary grouping, the surface of the lamella being thrown - into a series of half-cylindrical ridges, each consisting of ten or - twenty filaments; a filament of much greater strength and thickness - than the others may be placed between each pair of groups. In - _Anodonta_, as in many other Lamellibranchs, the ova and hatched - embryos are carried for a time in the ctenidia or gill apparatus, and - in this particular case the space between the two lamellae of the - outer gill-plate is that which serves to receive the ova (fig. 13, A). - The young are nourished by a substance formed by the cells which cover - the spongy interlamellar outgrowths. - - [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Structure of the Ctenidia of _Nucula_. (After - Mitsukuri.) See also fig. 2. - - A. Section across the axis of a ctenidium with a pair of - plates--flattened and shortened filaments--attached. - i, j, k, g, Are placed on or near the membrane which attaches the - axis of the ctenidium to the side of the body. - a, b, Free extremities of the plates (filaments). - d, Mid-line of the inferior border. - e, Surface of the plate. - t, Its upper border. - h, Chitinous lining of the plate. - r, Dilated blood-space. - u, Fibrous tract. - o, Upper blood-vessel of the axis. - n, Lower blood-vessel of the axis. - s, Chitinous framework of the axis. - cp, Canal in the same. - A, B, Line along which the cross-section C of the plate is taken. - B. Animal of a male _Nucula proxima_, Say, as seen when the left - valve of the shell and the left half of the mantle-skirt are - removed. - a, a, Anterior adductor muscle. - p.a, Posterior adductor muscle. - v.m, Visceral mass. - f, Foot. - g, Gill. - l, Labial Tentacle. - l.a, Filamentous appendage of the labial tentacle. - lb, Hood-like appendage of the labial tentacle. - m, Membrane suspending the gill and attached to the body along the - line x, y, z, w. - p, Posterior end of the gill (ctenidium). - C. Section across one of the gill-plates (A, B, in A) comparable - with fig. 11 C. - i.a, Outer border. - d.a, Axial border. - l.f, Latero-frontal epithelium. - e, Epithelium of general surface. - r, Dilated blood-space. - h, Chitinous lining (compare A).] - - [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Filaments of the Ctenidium of _Mytilus - edulis_. (After R. H. Peck.) - - A, Part of four filaments seen from the outer face in order to show - the ciliated junctions c.j. - B, Diagram of the posterior face of a single complete filament with - descending ramus and ascending ramus ending in a hook-like process; - ep., ep., the ciliated junctions; il, j., interlamellar junction. - C, Transverse section of a filament taken so as to cut neither a - ciliated junction nor an interlamellar junction. f.e., Frontal - epithelium; l.f.e'., l.f.e"., the two rows of latero-frontal - epithelial cells with long cilia; ch, chitinous tubular lining of - the filament; lac., blood lacuna traversed by a few processes of - connective tissue cells; b.c., blood-corpuscle.] - - Other points in the modification of the typical ctenidium must be - noted in order to understand the ctenidium of _Anodonta_. The axis of - each ctenidium, right and left, starts from a point well forward near - the labial tentacles, but it is at first only a ridge, and does not - project as a free cylindrical axis until the back part of the foot is - reached. This is difficult to see in _Anodonta_, but if the - mantle-skirt be entirely cleared away, and if the dependent lamellae - which spring from the ctenidial axis be carefully cropped so as to - leave the axis itself intact, we obtain the form shown in fig. 15, - where g and h are respectively the left and the right ctenidial axes - projecting freely beyond the body. In _Arca_ this can be seen with far - less trouble, for the filaments are more easily removed than are the - consolidated lamellae formed by the filaments of _Anodonta_, and in - _Arca_ the free axes of the ctenidia are large and firm in texture - (fig. 9, c, d). - - [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Transverse Section of the Outer Gill-plate of - _Dreissensia polymorpha_. (After R. H. Peck.) - - f, Constituent gill-filaments. - ff, Fibrous sub-epidermic tissue. - ch, Chitonous substance of the filaments. - nch, Cells related to the chitonous substance. - lac, Lacunar tissue. - pig, Pigment-cells. - bc, Blood-corpuscles. - fe, Frontal epithelium. - lfe', lfe", Two rows of latero-frontal epithelial cells with long - cilia. - lrf, Fibrous, possibly muscular, substance of the inter-filamentar - junctions.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Transverse Sections of Gill-plates of - _Anodonta_. (After R. H. Peck.) - - A, Outer gill-plate. - B, Inner gill-plate. - C, A portion of B more highly magnified. - o.l, Outer lamella. - i.l, Inner lamella. - v, Blood-vessel. - f, Constituent filaments. - lac, Lacunar tissue. - ch, Chitonous substance of the filament. - chr, Chitonous rod embedded in the softer substance ch.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Gill-lamellae of _Anodonta_. (After R. H. - Peck.) - - Diagram of a block cut from the outer lamella of the outer gill-plate - and seen from the interlamellar surface. f, Constituent filaments; - trf, fibrous tissue of the transverse inter-filamentar junctions; v, - blood-vessel _ilj_, Inter-lamellar junction. The series of oval holes - on the back of the lamella are the water-pores which open between the - filaments in irregular rows separated horizontally by the transverse - inter-filamentar junctions.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Diagram of a view from the left side of the - animal of _Anodonta cygnaea_, from which the mantle-skirt, the labial - tentacles and the gill-filaments have been entirely removed so as to - show the relations of the axis of the gill-plumes or ctenidia g, h. - (Original.) - - a, Centro-dorsal area. - b, Anterior adductor muscle. - c, Posterior adductor muscle. - d, Mouth. - e, Anus. - f, Foot. - g, Free portion of the axis of left ctenidium. - h, Axis of right ctenidium. - k, Portion of the axis of the left ctenidium which is fused with the - base of the foot, the two dotted lines indicating the origins of the - two rows of gill-filaments. - m, Line of origin of the anterior labial tentacle. - n, Nephridial aperture. - o, Genital aperture. - r, Line of origin of the posterior labial tentacle.] - - If we were to make a vertical section across the long axis of a - Lamellibranch which had the axis of its ctenidium free from its origin - onwards, we should find such relations as are shown in the diagram - fig. 16, A. The gill axis d is seen lying in the sub-pallial chamber - between the foot b and the mantle c. From it depend the gill-filaments - or lamellae--formed by united filaments--drawn as black lines f. On - the left side these lamellae are represented as having only a small - reflected growth, on the right side the reflected ramus or lamella is - complete (fr and er). The actual condition in _Anodonta_ at the region - where the gills begin anteriorly is shown in fig. 16, B. The axis of - the ctenidium is seen to be adherent to, or fused by concrescence - with, the body-wall, and moreover on each side the outer lamella of - the outer gill-plate is fused to the mantle, whilst the inner lamella - of the inner gill-plate is fused to the foot. If we take another - section nearer the hinder margin of the foot, we get the arrangement - shown diagrammatically in fig. 16, C, and more correctly in fig. 17. - In this region the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates are no - longer affixed to the foot. Passing still farther back behind the - foot, we find in _Anodonta_ the condition shown in the section D, fig. - 16. The axes i are now free; the outer lamellae of the outer - gill-plates (er) still adhere by concrescence to the mantle-skirt, - whilst the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates meet one another - and fuse by concrescence at g. In the lateral view of the animal with - reflected mantle-skirt and gill-plates, the line of concrescence of - the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates is readily seen; it is - marked aa in fig. 1 (5). In the same figure the free part of the inner - lamella of the inner gill-plate resting on the foot is marked z, - whilst the attached part--the most anterior--has been snipped with - scissors so as to show the genital and nephridial apertures x and y. - The concrescence, then, of the free edge of the reflected lamellae of - the gill-plates of Anodon is very extensive. It is important, because - such a concrescence is by no means universal, and does not occur, for - example, in _Mytilus_ or in _Arca_; further, because when its - occurrence is once appreciated, the reduction of the gill-plates of - _Anodonta_ to the plume-type of the simplest ctenidium presents no - difficulty; and, lastly, it has importance in reference to its - physiological significance. The mechanical result of the concrescence - of the outer lamellae to the mantle-flap, and of the inner lamellae to - one another as shown in section D, fig. 16, is that the sub-pallial - space is divided into two spaces by a horizontal septum. The upper - space (i) communicates with the outer world by the excurrent or - superior siphonal notch of the mantle (fig. 1, d); the lower space - communicates by the lower siphonal notch (e in fig. 1). The only - communication between the two spaces, excepting through the - trellis-work of the gill-plates, is by the slit (z in fig. 1 (5)) left - by the non-concrescence of a part of the inner lamella of the inner - gill-plate with the foot. A probe (g) is introduced through this - slit-like passage, and it is seen to pass out by the excurrent - siphonal notch. It is through this passage, or indirectly through the - pores of the gill-plates, that the water introduced into the lower - sub-pallial space must pass on its way to the excurrent siphonal - notch. Such a subdivision of the pallial chamber, and direction of the - currents set up within it do not exist in a number of Lamellibranchs - which have the gill-lamellae comparatively free (_Mytilus_, _Arca_, - _Trigonia_, &c.), and it is in these forms that there is least - modification by concrescence of the primary filamentous elements of - the lamellae. - - [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Diagrams of Transverse Sections of a - Lamellibranch to show the Adhesion, by Concrescence, of the - Gill-Lamellae to the Mantle-flaps, to the foot and to one another. - (Lankester.) - - A, Shows two conditions with free gill-axis. - B, Condition at foremost region in _Anodonta_. - C, Hind region of foot in _Anodonta_. - D, Region altogether posterior to the foot in _Anodonta_. - a, Visceral mass. - b, Foot. - c, Mantle flap. - d, Axis of gill or ctenidium. - e, Adaxial lamella of outer gill-plate. - er, Reflected lamella of outer gill-plate. - f, Adaxial lamella of inner gill-plate. - fr, Reflected lamella of inner gill-plate. - g, Line of concrescence of the reflected lamellae of the two inner - gill-plates. - h, Rectum. - i, Supra-branchial space of the sub-pallial chamber.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Vertical Section through an _Anodonta_, about - the mid-region of the Foot. - - m, Mantle-flap. - br, Outer, b'r', inner gill-plate--each composed of two lamellae. - f, Foot. - v, Ventricle of the heart. - a, Auricle. - p, p', Pericardial cavity. - i, Intestine.] - - In the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia Professor (Sir) E. R. - Lankester suggested that these differences of gill-structure would - furnish characters of classificatory value, and this suggestion has - been followed out by Dr Paul Pelseneer in the classification now - generally adopted. - - The alimentary canal of _Anodonta_ is shown in fig. 1 (4). The mouth - is placed between the anterior adductor and the foot; the anus opens - on a median papilla overlying the posterior adductor, and discharges - into the superior pallial chamber along which the excurrent stream - passes. The coil of the intestine in _Anodonta_ is similar to that of - other Lamellibranchs. The rectum traverses the pericardium, and has - the ventricle of the heart wrapped, as it were, around it. This is not - an unusual arrangement in Lamellibranchs, and a similar disposition - occurs in some Gastropoda (_Haliotis_). A pair of ducts (ai) lead from - the first enlargement of the alimentary tract called stomach into a - pair of large digestive glands, the so-called liver, the branches of - which are closely packed in this region (af). The food of the - _Anodonta_, as of other Lamellibranchs, consists of microscopic animal - and vegetable organisms, brought to the mouth by the stream which sets - into the sub-pallial chamber at the lower siphonal notch (e in fig. - 1). Probably a straining of water from solid particles is effected by - the lattice-work of the ctenidia or gill-plates. - - The heart of _Anodonta_ consists of a median ventricle embracing the - rectum (fig. 18, A), and giving off an anterior and a posterior - artery, and of two auricles which open into the ventricle by orifices - protected by valves. - - [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Diagrams showing the Relations of Pericardium - and Nephridia in a Lamellibranch such as _Anodonta_. - - A, Pericardium opened dorsally so as to expose the heart and the - floor of the pericardial chamber d. - B, Heart removed and floor of the pericardium cut away on the left - side so as to open the non-glandular sac of the nephridium, - exposing the glandular sac b, which is also cut into so as to show - the probe f. - C, Ideal pericardium and nephridium viewed laterally. - D, Lateral view showing the actual relation of the glandular and - non-glandular sacs of the nephridium. The arrows indicate the - course of fluid from the pericardium outwards. - a, Ventricle of the heart. - b, Auricle. - bb, Cut remnant of the auricle. - c, Dorsal wall of the pericardium cut and reflected. - e, Reno-pericardial orifice. - f, Probe introduced into the left reno-pericardial orifice. - g, Non-glandular sac of the left nephridium. - h, Glandular sac of the left nephridium. - i, Pore leading from the glandular into the non-glandular sac of - the left nephridium. - k, Pore leading from the non-glandular sac to the exterior. - ac, Anterior. - ab, Posterior, cut remnants of the intestine and ventricle.] - - The blood is colourless, and has colourless amoeboid corpuscles - floating in it. In _Ceratisolen legumen_, various species of _Arca_ - and a few other species the blood is crimson, owing to the presence of - corpuscles impregnated with haemoglobin. In _Anodonta_ the blood is - driven by the ventricle through the arteries into vessel-like spaces, - which soon become irregular lacunae surrounding the viscera, but in - parts--e.g. the labial tentacles and walls of the gut--very fine - vessels with endothelial cell-lining are found. The blood makes its - way by large veins to a venous sinus which lies in the middle line - below the heart, having the paired renal organs (nephridia) placed - between it and that organ. Hence it passes through the vessels of the - glandular walls of the nephridia right and left into the - gill-lamellae, whence it returns through many openings into the - widely-stretched auricles. In the filaments of the gill of - Protobranchia and many Filibranchia the tubular cavity is divided by a - more or less complete fibrous septum into two channels, for an - afferent and efferent blood-current. The ventricle and auricles of - _Anodonta_ lie in a pericardium which is clothed with a pavement - endothelium (d, fig. 18). It does not contain blood or communicate - directly with the blood-system; this isolation of the pericardium we - have noted already in Gastropods and Cephalopods. A good case for the - examination of the question as to whether blood enters the pericardium - of Lamellibranchs, or escapes from the foot, or by the renal organs - when the animal suddenly contracts, is furnished by the _Ceratisolen - legumen_, which has red blood-corpuscles. According to observations - made by Penrose on an uninjured _Ceratisolen legumen_, no red - corpuscles are to be seen in the pericardial space, although the heart - is filled with them, and no such corpuscles are ever discharged by the - animal when it is irritated. - - [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Nerve-ganglia and Cords of three - Lamellibranchs. (From Gegenbaur.) - - A, Of _Teredo_. - B, Of _Anodonta_. - C, Of _Pecten_. - a, Cerebral ganglion-pair (= cerebro-pleuro-visceral). - b, Pedal ganglion-pair. - c, Olfactory (osphradial) ganglion-pair.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Otocyst of _Cyclas_. (From Gegenbaur.) - - c, Capsule. - e, Ciliated cells lining the same. - o, Otolith.] - - The pair of renal organs of _Anodonta_, called in Lamellibranchs the - organs of Bojanus, lie below the membranous floor of the pericardium, - and open into it by two well-marked apertures (e and f in fig. 18). - Each nephridium, after being bent upon itself as shown in fig. 18, C, - D, opens to the exterior by a pore placed at the point marked x in - fig. 1 (5) (6). One half of each nephridium is of a dark-green colour - and glandular (h in fig. 18). This opens into the reflected portion - which overlies it as shown in the diagram fig. 18, D, i; the latter - has non-glandular walls, and opens by the pore k to the exterior. The - renal organs may be more ramified in other Lamellibranchs than they - are in _Anodonta_. In some they are difficult to discover. That of the - common oyster was described by Hoek. Each nephridium in the oyster is - a pyriform sac, which communicates by a narrow canal with the - urino-genital groove placed to the front of the great adductor muscle; - by a second narrow canal it communicates with the pericardium. From - all parts of the pyriform sac narrow stalk-like tubes are given off, - ending in abundant widely-spread branching glandular caeca, which form - the essential renal secreting apparatus. The genital duct opens by a - pore into the urino-genital groove of the oyster (the same arrangement - being repeated on each side of the body) close to but distinct from - the aperture of the nephridial canal. Hence, except for the formation - of a urino-genital groove, the apertures are placed as they are in - _Anodonta_. Previously to Hoek's discovery a brown-coloured investment - of the auricles of the heart of the oyster had been supposed to - represent the nephridia in a rudimentary state. This investment, which - occurs also in many Filibranchia, forms the pericardial glands, - comparable to the pericardial accessory glandular growths of - Cephalopoda. In _Unionidae_ and several other forms the pericardial - glands are extended into diverticula of the pericardium which - penetrate the mantle and constitute the organ of Heber. The glands - secrete hippuric acid which passes from the pericardium into the renal - organs. - - _Nervous System and Sense-Organs._--In _Anodonta_ there are three - well-developed pairs of nerve ganglia (fig. 19, B, and fig. 1 (6)). An - anterior pair, lying one on each side of the mouth (fig. 19, B, a) and - connected in front of it by a commissure, are the representatives of - the cerebral and pleural ganglia of the typical Mollusc, which are not - here differentiated as they are in Gastropods. A pair placed close - together in the foot (fig. 19, B, b, and fig. 1 (6), ax) are the - typical pedal ganglia; they are joined to the cerebro-pleural ganglia - by connectives. - - Posteriorly beneath the posterior adductors, and covered only by a - thin layer of elongated epidermal cells, are the visceral ganglia. - United with these ganglia on the outer sides are the osphradial - ganglia, above which the epithelium is modified to form a pair of - sense-organs, corresponding to the osphradia of other Molluscs. In - some Lamellibranchs the osphradial ganglia receive nerve-fibres, not - from the visceral ganglia, but from the cerebral ganglia along the - visceral commissure. Formerly the posterior pair of ganglia were - identified as simply the osphradial ganglia, and the anterior pair as - the cerebral, pleural and visceral ganglia united into a single pair. - But it has since been discovered that in the Protobranchia the - cerebral ganglia and the pleural are distinct, each giving origin to - its own connective which runs to the pedal ganglion. The cerebro-pedal - and pleuro-pedal connectives, however, in these cases are only - separate in the initial parts of their course, and unite together for - the lower half of their length, or for nearly the whole length. - Moreover, in many forms, in which in the adult condition there is only - a single pair of anterior ganglia and a single pedal connective, a - pleural ganglion distinct from the cerebral has been recognized in the - course of development. There is, however, no evidence of the union of - a visceral pair with the cerebro-pleural. - - [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Pallial Eye of _Spondylus_. (From Hickson.) - - a, Prae-corneal epithelium. - b, Cellular lens. - c, Retinal body. - d, Tapetum. - e, Pigment. - f, Retinal nerve. - g, Complementary nerve. - h, Epithelial cells filled with pigment. - k, Tentacle.] - - The sense-organs of _Anodonta_ other than the osphradia consist of a - pair of otocysts attached to the pedal ganglia (fig. 1 (6), ay). The - otocysts of _Cyclas_ are peculiarly favourable for study on account of - the transparency of the small foot in which they lie, and may be taken - as typical of those of Lamellibranchs generally. The structure of one - is exhibited in fig. 20. A single otolith is present as in the veliger - embryos of Opisthobranchia. In Filibranchia and many Protobranchia the - otocyst (or statocyst) contains numerous particles (otoconia). The - organs are developed as invaginations of the epidermis of the foot, - and in the majority of the Protobranchia the orifice of invagination - remains open throughout life; this is also the case in _Mytilus_ - including the common mussel. - - [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Two Stages in the Development of _Anodonta_. - (From Balfour.) Both figures represent the glochidium stage. - - A, When free swimming, shows the two dentigerous valves widely open. - B, A later stage, after fixture to the fin of a fish. - sh, Shell. - ad, Adductor muscle. - s, Teeth of the shell. - by, Byssus. - a.ad, Anterior adductor. - p.ad, Posterior adductor. - mt, Mantle-flap. - f, Foot. - br, Branchial filaments. - au.v, Otocyst. - al, Alimentary canal.] - - _Anodonta_ has no eyes of any sort, and the tentacles on the mantle - edge are limited to its posterior border. This deficiency is very - usual in the class; at the same time, many Lamellibranchs have - tentacles on the edge of the mantle supplied by a pair of large - well-developed nerves, which are given off from the cerebro-pleural - ganglion-pair, and very frequently some of these tentacles have - undergone a special metamorphosis converting them into - highly-organized eyes. Such eyes on the mantle-edge are found in - _Pecten_, _Spondylus_, _Lima_, _Pinna_, _Pectunculus_, _Modiola_, - _Cardium_, _Tellina_, _Mactra_, _Venus_, _Solen_, _Pholas_ and - _Galeomma_. They are totally distinct from the cephalic eyes of - typical Mollusca, and have a different structure and historical - development. They have originated not as pits but as tentacles. They - agree with the dorsal eyes of _Oncidium_ (Pulmonata) in the curious - fact that the optic nerve penetrates the capsule of the eye and passes - in front of the retinal body (fig. 21), so that its fibres join the - anterior faces of the nerve-end cells as in Vertebrates, instead of - their posterior faces as in the cephalic eyes of Mollusca and - Arthropoda; moreover, the lens is not a cuticular product but a - cellular structure, which, again, is a feature of agreement with the - Vertebrate eye. It must, however, be distinctly borne in mind that - there is a fundamental difference between the eye of Vertebrates and - of all other groups in the fact that in the Vertebrata the retinal - body is itself a part of the central nervous system, and not a - separate modification of the epidermis--myelonic as opposed to - epidermic. The structure of the reputed eyes of several of the - above-named genera has not been carefully examined. In _Pecten_ and - _Spondylus_, however, they have been fully studied (see fig. 21, and - explanation). Rudimentary cephalic eyes occur in the _Mytilidae_ and - in _Avicula_ at the base of the first filament of the inner gill, each - consisting of a pigmented epithelial fossa containing a cuticular - lens. In the _Arcidae_ the pallial eyes are compound or faceted - somewhat like those of Arthropods. - - [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Development of the Oyster, _Ostrea edulis_. - (Modified from Horst.) - - A, Blastula stage (one-cell-layered sac), with commencing - invagination of the wall of the sac at bl, the blastopore. - B, Optical section of a somewhat later stage, in which a second - invagination has begun--namely, that of the shell-gland sk. - bl, Blastopore. - en, Invaginated endoderm (wall of the future arch-enteron). - ec, Ectoderm. - C, Similar optical section at a little later stage. The - invagination connected with the blastopore is now more contracted, - d; and cells, me, forming the mesoblast from which the coelom and - muscular and skeleto-trophic tissues develop, are separated. - D, Similar section of a later stage. The blastopore, bl, has - closed; the anus will subsequently perforate the corresponding - area. A new aperture, m, the mouth, has eaten its way into the - invaginated endodermal sac, and the cells pushed in with it - constitute the stomodaeum. The shell-gland, sk, is flattened out, - and a delicate shell, s, appears on its surface. The ciliated velar - ring is cut in the section, as shown by the two projecting cilia on - the upper part of the figure. The embryo is now a Trochosphere. - E, Surface view of an embryo at a period almost identical with that - of D. - F, Later embryo seen as a transparent object. - m, Mouth. - ft, Foot. - a, Anus. - e, Intestine. - st, Stomach. - tp, Velar area of the prostomium. The extent of the shell and - commencing upgrowth of the mantle-skirt is indicated by a line - forming a curve from a to F. - - _N.B._--In this development, as in that of _Pisidium_ (fig. 25), no - part of the blastopore persists either as mouth or as anus, but the - aperture closes--the pedicle of invagination, or narrow neck of the - invaginated arch-enteron, becoming the intestine. The mouth and the - anus are formed as independent in-pushings, the mouth with - stomodaeum first, and the short anal proctodaeum much later. This - interpretation of the appearances is contrary to that of Horst, from - whom our drawings of the oyster's development are taken. The account - given by the American William K. Brooks differs greatly as to matter - of fact from that of Horst, and appears to be erroneous in some - respects.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Embryo of _Pisidium pusillum_ in the - diblastula stage, surface view (after Lankester). The embryo has - increased in size by accumulation of liquid between the outer and the - invaginated cells. The blastopore has closed.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 25.--B, Same embryo as fig. 24, in optical median - section, showing the invaginated cells hy which form the arch-enteron, - and the mesoblastic cells me which are budded off from the surface of - the mass hy, and apply themselves to the inner surface of the - epiblastic cell-layer ep. C. The same embryo focused so as to show the - mesoblastic cells which immediately underlie the outer cell-layer.] - - _Generative Organs._--The gonads of _Anodonta_ are placed in distinct - male and female individuals. In some Lamellibranchs--for instance, the - European Oyster and the _Pisidium pusillum_--the sexes are united in - the same individual; but here, as in most hermaphrodite animals, the - two sexual elements are not ripe in the same individual at the same - moment. It has been conclusively shown that the _Ostrea edulis_ does - not fertilize itself. The American Oyster (_O. virginiana_) and the - Portuguese Oyster (_O. angulata_) have the sexes separate, and - fertilization is effected in the open water after the discharge of the - ova and the spermatozoa from the females and males respectively. In - the _Ostrea edulis_ fertilization of the eggs is effected at the - moment of their escape from the uro-genital groove, or even before, by - means of spermatozoa drawn into the sub-pallial chamber by the - incurrent ciliary stream, and the embryos pass through the early - stages of development whilst entangled between the gill-lamellae of - the female parent (fig. 23). In _Anodonta_ the eggs pass into the - space between the two lamellae of the outer gill-plate, and are there - fertilized, and advance whilst still in this position to the - glochidium phase of development (fig. 22). They may be found here in - thousands in the summer and autumn months. The gonads themselves are - extremely simple arborescent glands which open to the exterior by two - simple ducts, one right and one left, continuous with the tubular - branches of the gonads. In the most primitive Lamellibranchs there is - no separate generative aperture but the gonads discharge into the - renal cavity, as in _Patella_ among Gastropods. This is the case in - the Protobranchia, e.g. _Solenomya_, in which the gonad opens into the - reno-pericardial duct. But the generative products do not pass through - the whole length of the renal tube: there is a direct opening from the - pericardial end of the tube to the distal end, and the ova or sperms - pass through this. In _Arca_, in _Anomiidae_ and in _Pectinidae_ the - gonad opens into the external part of the renal tube. The next stage - of modification is seen in _Ostraea_, _Cyclas_ and some _Lucinidae_, - in which the generative and renal ducts open into a cloacal slit on - the surface of the body. In _Mytilus_ the two apertures are on a - common papilla, in other cases the two apertures are as in _Anodonta_. - The Anatinacea and _Poromya_ among the Septibranchia are, however, - peculiar in having two genital apertures on each side, one male and - one female. These forms are hermaphrodite, with an ovary and testis - completely separate from each other on each side of the body, each - having its own duct and aperture. - - The development of _Anodonta_ is remarkable for the curious larval - form known as _glochidium_ (fig. 22). The glochidium quits the - gill-pouch of its parent and swims by alternate opening and shutting - of the valves of its shell, as do adult _Pecten_ and _Lima_, trailing - at the same time a long byssus thread. This byssus is not homologous - with that of other Lamellibranchs, but originates from a single - glandular epithelial cell embedded in the tissues on the dorsal - anterior side of the adductor muscle. By this it is brought into - contact with the fin of a fish, such as perch, stickleback or others, - and effects a hold thereon by means of the toothed edge of its shells. - Here it becomes encysted, and is nourished by the exudations of the - fish. It remains in this condition for a period of two to six weeks, - and during this time the permanent organs are developed from the cells - of two symmetrical cavities behind the adductor muscle. The early - larva of _Anodonta_ is not unlike the trochosphere of other - Lamellibranchs, but the mouth is wanting. The glochidium is formed by - the precocious development of the anterior adductor and the - retardation of all the other organs except the shell. Other - Lamellibranchs exhibit either a trochosphere larva which becomes a - veliger differing only from the Gastropod's and Pteropod's veliger in - having bilateral shell-calcifications instead of a single central one; - or, like _Anodonta_, they may develop within the gill-plates of the - mother, though without presenting such a specialized larva as the - glochidium. An example of the former is seen in the development of the - European oyster, to the figure of which and its explanation the reader - is specially referred (fig. 23). An example of the latter is seen in a - common little fresh-water bivalve, the _Pisidium pusillum_, which has - been studied by Lankester. The gastrula is formed in this case by - invagination. The embryonic cells continue to divide, and form an oval - vesicle containing liquid (fig. 24); within this, at one pole, is seen - the mass of invaginated cells (fig. 25, hy). These invaginated cells - are the arch-enteron; they proliferate and give off branching cells, - which apply themselves (fig. 25, C) to the inner face of the vesicle, - thus forming the mesoblast. The outer single layer of cells which - constitutes the surface of the vesicle is the ectoderm or epiblast. - The little mass of hypoblast or enteric cell-mass now enlarges, but - remains connected with the cicatrix of the blastopore or orifice of - invagination by a stalk, the rectal peduncle. The enteron itself - becomes bilobed and is joined by a new invagination, that of the mouth - and stomodaeum. The mesoblast multiplies its cells, which become - partly muscular and partly skeleto-trophic. Centro-dorsally now - appears the embyronic shell-gland. The pharynx or stomodaeum is still - small, the foot not yet prominent. A later stage is seen in fig. 26, - where the pharynx is widely open and the foot prominent. No ciliated - velum or pre-oral (cephalic) lobe ever develops. The shell-gland - disappears, the mantle-skirt is raised as a ridge, the paired - shell-valves are secreted, the anus opens by a proctodaeal ingrowth - into the rectal peduncle, and the rudiments of the gills (br) and of - the renal organs (B) appear (fig. 26, lateral view), and thus the - chief organs and general form of the adult are acquired. Later changes - consist in the growth of the shell-valves over the whole area of the - mantle-flaps, and in the multiplication of the gill-filaments and - their consolidation to form gill-plates. It is important to note that - the gill-filaments are formed one by one _posteriorly_. The labial - tentacles are formed late. In the allied genus _Cyclas_, a byssus - gland is formed in the foot and subsequently disappears, but no such - gland occurs in _Pisidium_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Diagram of Embryo of _Pisidium_. The unshaded - area gives the position of the shell-valve. (After Lankester.) - - m, Mouth. - x, Anus. - f, Foot. - br, Branchial filaments. - mn, Margin of the mantle-skirt. - B, Organ of Bojanus.] - - [Illustration: After Drew, in Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. (A. & - C. Black.) - - FIG. 27.--Surface view of a forty-five hour embryo of _Yoldia - limatula_. a.c, Apical cilia. bl, Blastopore. x, Depression where the - cells that form the cerebral ganglia come to the surface.] - - An extraordinary modification of the veliger occurs in the development - of _Nucula_ and _Yoldia_ and probably other members of the same - families. After the formation of the gastrula by epibole the larva - becomes enclosed by an ectodermic test covering the whole of the - original surface of the body, including the shell-gland, and leaving - only a small opening at the posterior end in which the stomodaeum and - proctodaeum are formed. In _Yoldia_ and _Nucula proxima_ the test - consists of five rows of flattened cells, the three median rows - bearing circlets of long cilia. At the anterior end of the test is the - apical plate from the centre of which projects a long flagellum as in - many other Lamellibranch larvae. In _Nucula delphinodonta_ the test is - uniformly covered with short cilia, and there is no flagellum. When - the larval development is completed the test is cast off, its cells - breaking apart and falling to pieces leaving the young animal with a - well-developed shell exposed and the internal organs in an advanced - state. The test is really a ciliated velum developed in the normal - position at the apical pole but reflected backwards in such a way as - to cover the original ectoderm except at the posterior end. In - _Yoldia_ and _Nucula proxima_ the ova are set free in the water and - the test-larvae are free-swimming, but in _Nucula delphinodonta_ the - female forms a thin-walled egg-case of mucus attached to the posterior - end of the shell and in communication with the pallial chamber; in - this case the eggs develop and the test-larva is enclosed. A similar - modification of the velum occurs in _Dentalium_ and in _Myzomenia_ - among the Amphineura. - - -CLASSIFICATION OF LAMELLIBRANCHIA - -The classification originally based on the structure of the gills by P. -Pelseneer included five orders, viz.: the Protobranchia in which the -gill-filaments are flattened and not reflected; the Filibranchia in -which the filaments are long and reflected, with non-vascular junctions; -the Pseudolamellibranchia in which the gill-lamellae are vertically -folded, the inter-filamentar and interlamellar junctions being vascular -or non-vascular; the Eulamellibranchia in which the inter-filamentar and -interlamellar junctions are vascular; and lastly the Septibranchia in -which the gills are reduced to a horizontal partition. The -Pseudolamellibranchia included the oyster, scallop and their allies -which formerly constituted the order Monomyaria, having only a single -large adductor muscle or in addition a very small anterior adductor. The -researches of W. G. Ridewood have shown that in gill-structure the -Pectinacea agree with the Filibranchia and the Ostraeacea with the -Eulamellibranchia, and accordingly the order Pseudolamellibranchia is -now suppressed and its members divided between the two other orders -mentioned. The four orders now retained exhibit successive stages in the -modification of the ctenidia by reflection and concrescence of the -filament, but other organs, such as the heart, adductors, renal organs, -may not show corresponding stages. On the contrary considerable -differences in these organs may occur within any single order. The -Protobranchia, however, possess several primitive characters besides -that of the branchiae. In them the foot has a flat ventral surface used -for creeping, as in Gastropods, the byssus gland is but slightly -developed, the pleural ganglia are distinct, there is a relic of the -pharyngeal cavity, in some forms with a pair of glandular sacs, the -gonads retain their primitive connexion with the renal cavities, and the -otocysts are open. - - -Order I. PROTOBRANCHIA - -In addition to the characters given above, it may be noted that the -mantle is provided with a hypobranchial gland on the outer side of each -gill, the auricles are muscular, the kidneys are glandular through their -whole length, the sexes are separate. - - Fam. 1. _Solenomyidae._--One row of branchial filaments is directed - dorsally, the other ventrally; the mantle has a long postero-ventral - suture and a single posterior aperture; the labial palps of each side - are fused together; shell elongate; hinge without teeth; periostracum - thick. _Solenomya._ - - Fam. 2. _Nuculidae._--Labial palps free, very broad, and provided with - a posterior appendage; branchial filaments transverse; shell has an - angular dorsal border; mantle open along its whole border. _Nucula. - Acila. Pronucula._ - - Fam. 3. _Ledidae._--Like the _Nuculidae_, but mantle has two posterior - sutures and two united siphons. _Leda. Yoldia. Malletia._ - - Fam. 4. _Ctenodontidae._--Extinct; Silurian. - - The fossil group Palaeoconcha is connected with the Protobranchia - through the Solenomyidae. It contains the following extinct families. - - Fam. 1. _Praecardiidae._--Shell equivalve with hinge dentition as in - _Arca. Praecardium_; Silurian and Devonian. - - Fam. 2. _Antipleuridae._--Shell inequivalve. _Antipleura_; Silurian. - - Fam. 3. _Cardiolidae._--Shell equivalve and ventricose; hinge without - teeth. _Cardiola_; Silurian and Devonian. - - Fam. 4. _Grammysiidae._--Shell thin, equivalve, oval or elongate; - hinge without teeth. _Grammysia_; Silurian and Devonian. _Protomya_; - Devonian. _Cardiomorpha_; Silurian to Carboniferous. - - Fam. 5. _Vlastidae._--Shell very inequivalve; hinge without teeth. - _Vlasta_; Silurian. - - Fam. 6. _Solenopsidae._--Shell equivalve, greatly elongated, umbones - very far forward. _Solenopsis_; Devonian to Trias. - - -Order II. FILIBRANCHIA - -Gill-filament ventrally directed and reflected, connected by ciliated -junctions. Foot generally provided with a highly developed byssogenous -apparatus. - - Sub-order I.--_Anomiacea._ - - Very asymmetrical, with a single large posterior adductor. The heart - is not contained in the pericardium, lies dorsad of the rectum and - gives off a single aorta anteriorly. The reflected borders of the - inner gill-plates of either side are fused together in the middle - line. The gonads open into the kidneys and the right gonad extends - into the mantle. Shell thin; animal fixed. - - Fam. 1. _Anomiidae._--Foot small; inferior (right) valve of adult - perforated to allow passage of the byssus. _Anomia_; byssus large - and calcified; British. _Placuna_; byssus atrophied in adult. - _Hypotrema_. _Carolia_. _Ephippium_. _Placunanomia_. - - Sub-order II.--_Arcacea._ - - Symmetrical; mantle open throughout its extent; generally with well - developed anterior and posterior adductors. The heart lies in the - pericardium and gives off two aortae. Gills without interlamellar - junctions. Renal and genital apertures separate. - - Fam. 1. _Arcidae._--Borders of the mantle bear compound pallial - eyes. The labial palps are direct continuations of the lips. Hinge - pliodont, that is to say, it has numerous teeth on either side of - the umbones and the teeth are perpendicular to the edge. _Arca_; - foot byssiferous; British. _Pectunculus_; foot without byssus; - British. _Scaphula_; freshwater; India. _Argina. Bathyarca. - Barbatia. Senilia. Anadara. Adacnarca._ - - Fam. 2. _Parallelodontidae._--Shell as in _Arca_, but the posterior - hinge teeth elongated and parallel to the cardinal border. - _Cucullaea_; recent and fossil from the Jurassic. All the other - genera are fossil: _Parallelodon_; Devonian to Tertiary. - _Carbonaria_; Carboniferous, &c. - - Fam. 3. _Limopsidae._--Shell orbicular, hinge curved, ligament - longer transversely than antero-posteriorly; foot elongate, pointed - anteriorly and posteriorly. _Limopsis. Trinacria_; Tertiary. - - Fam. 4. _Philobryidae._--Shell thin, very inequilateral, anterior - part atrophied, umbones projecting. _Philobrya._ - - Fam. 5. _Cyrtodontidae._--Extinct; shell equivalve and - inequilateral, short, convex. _Cyrtodonta_; Silurian and Devonian. - _Cypricardites_, Silurian. _Vanuxemia_; Silurian. - - Fam. 6. _Trigoniidae._--Shell thick; foot elongated, pointed in - front and behind, ventral border sharp; byssus absent. _Trigonia_; - shell sub-triangular, umbones directed backwards. This genus was - very abundant in the Secondary epoch, especially in Jurassic seas. - There are six living species, all in Australian seas. Living - specimens were first discovered in 1827. _Schizodus_; Permian. - _Myophoria_; Trias. - - Fam. 7. _Lyrodesmidae._--Extinct; shell inequilateral, posterior - side shorter; hinge short, teeth in form of a fan. _Lyrodesma_; - Silurian. - - Sub-order III.--_Mytilacea._ - - Symmetrical, the anterior adductor small or absent. Heart gives off - only an anterior aorta. Surface of gills smooth, gill-filaments all - similar, with interlamellar junctions. Gonads generally extend into - mantle and open at sides of kidneys. Foot linguiform and byssiferous. - - Fam. 1. _Mytilidae._--Shell inequilateral, anterior end short; hinge - without teeth; ligament external. Mantle has a posterior suture. - Cephalic eyes present. _Mytilus_; British. _Modiola_; British. - _Lithodomus. Modiolaria_; British. _Crenella. Stavelia. Dacrydium. - Myrina. Idas. Septifer._ - - Fam. 2. _Modiolopsidae._--Extinct; Silurian to Cretaceous; adductor - muscles sub-equal. _Modiolopsis.--Modiomorpha. Myoconcha._ - - Fam. 3. _Pernidae._--Shell very inequilateral; ligament subdivided; - mantle open throughout; anterior adductor absent. _Perna. - Crenatula_; inhabits sponges. _Bakewellia. Gervilleia_; Trias to - Eocene. _Odontoperna_; Trias. _Inoceramus_; Jurassic to Cretaceous. - - Sub-order IV.--_Pectinacea._ - - Monomyarian, with open mantle. Gills folded and the filaments at - summits and bases of the folds are different from the others. Gonads - contained in the visceral mass and generally open into renal cavities. - Foot usually rudimentary. - - Fam. 1. _Vulsellidae._--Shell high; hinge toothless; foot without - byssus. _Vulsella._ - - Fam. 2. _Aviculidae._--Shell very inequilateral; cardinal border - straight with two auriculae, the posterior the longer. Foot with a - very stout byssus. Gills fused to the mantle. _Avicula_; British. - _Meleagrina._ Pearls are obtained from a species of this genus in - the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, &c. _Malleus._ Several extinct - genera. - - Fam. 3. _Prasinidae._--Shell inequilateral, with anterior umbones - and prominent anterior auricula; cardinal border arched. _Prasina._ - - Fam. 4. _Pterineidae._--Extinct; Palaeozoic. - - Fam. 5. _Lunulicardiidae._--Extinct; Silurian and Devonian. - - Fam. 6. _Conocardiidae._--Extinct; Silurian to Carboniferous. - - Fam. 7. _Ambonychiidae._--Extinct; Silurian and Devonian. The last - two families are dimyarian, with small anterior adductor. - - Fam. 8. _Myalinidae._--Extinct; Silurian to Cretaceous; adductors - sub-equal. - - Fam. 9. _Amussiidae._--Shell orbicular, smooth externally with - radiating costae internally. Gills without interlamellar junctions. - _Amussium._ - - Fam. 10. _Spondylidae._--Shell very inequivalve, fixed by the right - valve which is the larger. No byssus. _Spondylus_; shell with spiny - ribs, adherent by the spines. _Plicatula._ - - Fam. 11. _Pectinidae._--Shell with radiating ribs; dorsal border - with two auriculae. Foot byssiferous. Mantle borders with well - developed eyes. _Pecten_; shell orbicular, with equal auriculae; - without a byssal sinus; British. _Chlamys_; anterior auricula the - larger and with a byssal sinus; British. _Pedum. Hinnites. - Pseudamussium. Camptonectes. Hyalopecten_; abyssal. - - Sub-order V.--_Dimyacea._ - - Dimyarian, with orbicular and almost equilateral shell; adherent; - hinge without teeth and ligament internal. Gills with free - non-reflected filaments. - - Fam. _Dimyidae._--Characters of the sub-order. _Dimya_; recent in - abyssal depths and fossil since the Jurassic. - - -Order III. EULAMELLIBRANCHIA - -Edges of the mantle generally united by one or two sutures. Two -adductors usually present. Branchial filaments united by vascular -inter-filamentar junctions and vascular interlamellar junctions; the -latter contain the afferent vessels. The gonads always have their own -proper external apertures. - - Sub-order I.--_Ostraeacea._ - - Monomyarian or with a very small anterior adductor. Mantle open; foot - rather small; branchiae folded; shell inequivalve. - - Fam. 1. _Limidae._--Shell with auriculae. Foot digitiform, with - byssus. Borders of mantle with long and numerous tentacles. Gills - not united with mantle. _Lima_; members of this genus form a nest by - means of the byssus, or swim by clapping the valves of the shell - together. _Limaea._ - - Fam. 2. _Ostraeidae._--Foot much reduced and without byssus. Heart - usually on the ventral side of the rectum. Gills fused to the - mantle. Shell irregular, fixed in the young by the left and larger - valve. _Ostraea_; foot absent in the adult; edible and cultivated; - some species, as the British _O. edulis_, are hermaphrodite. - - Fam. 3. _Eligmidae._--Extinct; Jurassic. - - Fam. 4. _Pinnidae._--Shell elongated, truncated and gaping - posteriorly. Dimyarian, with a very small anterior adductor. Foot - with byssus. _Pinna_; British. _Cyrtopinna. Aviculopinna_; fossil, - Carboniferous and Permian. _Pinnigena_; Jurassic and Cretaceous. - _Atrina_; fossil and recent, from Carboniferous to present day. - - Sub-order II.--_Submytilacea._ - - Mantle only slightly closed; usually there is only a single suture. - Siphons absent or very short. Gills smooth. Nearly always dimyarian. - Shell equivalve, with an external ligament. - - Fam. 1. _Dreissensiidae._--Shell elongated; hinge without teeth; - summits of valves with an internal septum. Siphons short. - _Dreissensia_; lives in fresh water, but originated from the Caspian - Sea; introduced into England about 1824. - - Fam. 2. _Modiolarcidae._--Foot with a plantar surface; the two - branchial plates serve as incubatory pouches. _Modiolarca._ - - Fam. 3. _Astartidae._--Shell concentrically striated; foot elongate, - without byssus. _Astarte_; British. _Woodia. Opis_; Secondary. - _Prosocoelus_; Devonian. - - Fam. 4. _Crassatellidae._--Shell thick, with concentric striae, - ligament external; foot short. _Crassatella. Cuna._ - - Fam. 5. _Carditidae._--Shell thick, with radiating costae; foot - carinated, often byssiferous. _Cardita. Thecalia. Milneria._ - _Venericardia._ - - Fam. 6. _Condylocardiidae._--Like _Carditidae_, but with an external - ligament. _Condylocardia. Carditella. Carditopsis._ - - Fam. 7. _Cyprinidae._--Mantle open in front, with two pallial - sutures; external gill-plates smaller than the internal. _Cyprina_; - British. _Cypricardia. Pleurophorus_; Devonian to Trias. - _Anisocardia_; Jurassic to Tertiary. _Veniella_; Cretaceous to - Tertiary. - - Fam. 8. _Isocardiidae._--Mantle largely closed, pedal orifice small; - gill-plates of equal size; shell globular, with prominent and coiled - umbones. _Isocardia_; British. - - Fam. 9. _Callocardiidae._--Siphons present; external gill-plate - smaller than the internal; umbones not prominent. _Callocardia_; - abyssal. - - Fam. 10. _Lucinidae._--Labial palps very small; gills without an - external plate. _Lucina_; British. _Montacuta_; British. - _Cryptodon._ - - Fam. 11. _Corbidae._--Shell thick, with denticulated borders; anal - aperture with valve but no siphon; foot elongated and pointed. - _Corbis. Gonodon_; Trias and Jurassic. _Mutiella_; Upper Cretaceous. - - Fam. 12. _Ungulinidae._--Foot greatly elongated, vermiform, ending - in a glandular enlargement. _Ungulina. Diplodonta_; British. - _Axinus_; British. - - Fam. 13. _Cyrenellidae._--Two elongated, united, non-retractile - siphons; freshwater. _Cyrenella. Joanisiella._ - - Fam. 14. _Tancrediidae._--Shell elongate, sub-triangular. Extinct. - _Tancredia_; Trias to Cretaceous. _Meekia_; Cretaceous. - - Fam. 15. _Unicardiidae._--Shell sub-orbicular, nearly equilateral, - with concentric striae. Extinct, Carboniferous to Cretaceous. - _Unicardium. Scaldia. Pseudedmondia._ - - Fam. 16. _Leptonidae._--Shell thin; no siphons; foot long and - byssiferous; marine; hermaphrodite and incubatory. _Kellya_; - British. _Lepton_; commensal with the Crustacean _Gebia_; British. - _Erycina_; Tertiary. _Pythina. Scacchia. Sportella. Cyamium._ - - Fam. 17. _Galeommidae._--Mantle reflected over shell; shell thin, - gaping; adductors much reduced. _Galeomma_; British. _Scintilla. - Hindsiella. Ephippodonta_; commensal with shrimp _Axius_. The three - following genera with an internal shell probably belong to this - family:--_Chlamydoconcha_. _Scioberetia_; commensal with a - Spatangid. _Entovalva_; parasitic in _Synapta_. - - Fam. 18. _Kellyellidae._--Shell ovoid; anal aperture with very short - siphon; foot elongated. _Kellyella. Turtonia_; British. _Allopagus_; - Eocene. _Lutetia_; Eocene. - - [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Lateral view of a _Mactra_, the right valve - of the shell and right mantle-flap removed, and the siphons retracted. - (From Gegenbaur.) - - br, br', Outer and inner gill-plates. - t, Labial tentacle. - ta, tr, Upper and lower siphons. - ms, Siphonal muscle of the mantle-flap. - ma, Anterior adductor muscle. - mp, Posterior adductor muscle. - p, Foot. - c, Umbo.] - - Fam. 19. _Cyrenidae._--Two siphons, more or less united, with - papillose orifices; pallial line with a sinus; freshwater. _Cyrena. - Corbicula. Batissa. Velorita. Galatea. Fischeria._ - - Fam. 20. _Cycladidae._--One siphon or two free siphons with simple - orifices; pallial line simple; hermaphrodite, embryos incubated in - external gill-plate; freshwater, _Cyclas_; British. _Pisidium_; - British. - - Fam. 21. _Rangiidae._--Two short siphons, shell with prominent - umbones and internal ligament. _Rangia_; brackish water, Florida. - - Fam. 22. _Cardiniidae._--Shell elongated, inequilateral. Extinct. - _Cardinia_; Trias and Jurassic. _Anthracosia_; Carboniferous and - Permian. _Anoplophora_; Trias. _Pachycardia_; Trias. - - Fam. 23. _Megalodontidae._--Shell inequilateral, thick; posterior - adductor impression on a myophorous apophysis. Extinct. _Megalodon_; - Devonian to Jurassic. _Pachyrisma_; Trias and Jurassic. _Durga_; - Jurassic. _Dicerocardium_; Jurassic. - - Fam. 24. _Unionidae._--Shell equilateral; mantle with a single - pallial suture and no siphons; freshwater; larva a glochidium. - _Unio_; British. _Anodonta_; British. _Pseudodon. Quadrula. - Arconaia. Monocondylea. Solenaia. Mycetopus._ - - Fam. 25. _Mutelidae._--Differs from _Unionidae_ in having two - pallial sutures; freshwater. _Muleta. Pliodon. Spatha. Iridina. - Hyria. Castalia. Aplodon. Plagiodon._ - - Fam. 26. _Aetheriidae._--Shell irregular, generally fixed in the - adult; foot absent; freshwater. _Aetheria. Mulleria. Bartlettia._ - - Sub-order III.--_Tellinacea._ - - Mantle not extensively closed; two pallial sutures and two - well-developed siphons. Gills smooth. Foot compressed and elongated. - Labial palps very large. Dimyarian; pallial line with a deep sinus. - - Fam. 1. _Tellinidae._--External gill-plate directed upwards; siphons - separate and elongated; foot with byssus; palps very large; ligament - external. _Tellina_; British. _Gastrana_; British. _Capsa. Macoma._ - - Fam. 2. _Scrobiculariidae._--External gill-plates directed upwards; - siphons separate and excessively long; foot without byssus. - _Scrobicularia_; estuarine; British. _Syndosmya_; British. - _Cumingia_. - - Fam. 3. _Donacidae._--External gill-plate directed ventrally; - siphons separate, of moderate length, anal siphon the longer. - _Donax_; British. _Iphigeneia._ - - Fam. 4. _Mesodesmatidae._--External gill-plate directed ventrally; - siphons separate and equal. _Mesodesma. Ervilia_; British. - - [Illustration: FIG. 29.--The same animal as fig. 28, with its foot - and siphons expanded. Letters as in fig. 28. (From Gegenbaur.)] - - Fam. 5. _Cardiliidae._--Shell very high and short; dimyarian; - posterior adductor impression on a prominent apophysis. _Cardilia._ - - Fam. 6. _Mactridae._--External gill-plate directed ventrally; - siphons united, invested by a chitinous sheath; foot long, bent at - an angle, without byssus. _Mactra_; British (figs. 28, 29). - _Mulinia. Harvella. Raeta. Eastonia. Heterocardia. Vanganella._ - - Sub-order IV.--_Veneracea._ - - Two pallial sutures, siphons somewhat elongated and partially or - wholly united. Gills slightly folded. A bulb on the posterior aorta. - Ligament external. - - Fam. 1. _Veneridae._--Foot well developed; pallial sinus shallow or - absent. _Venus_; British. _Dosinia_; British. _Tapes_; British. - _Cyclina. Lucinopsis_; British. _Meretrix. Circe_; British. - _Venerupis._ - - Fam. 2. _Petricolidae._--Boring forms with a reduced foot; shell - elongated, with deep pallial sinus. _Petricola. P. pholadiformis_, - originally an inhabitant of the coast of the United States, has been - acclimatized for some years in the North Sea. - - Fam. 3. _Glaucomyidae._--Siphons very long and united; foot small; - shell thin, with deep pallial sinus; fresh or brackish water. - _Glaucomya. Tanysiphon._ - - Sub-order V.--_Cardiacea._ - - Two pallial sutures. Siphons generally short. Foot cylindrical, more - or less elongated, byssogenous. Gills much folded. Shell equivalve, - with radiating costae and external ligament. - - Fam. 1. _Cardiidae._--Mantle slightly closed; siphons very short, - surrounded by papillae which often bear eyes; foot very long, - geniculated; pallial line without sinus; two adductors, _Cardium_; - British. _Pseudo-kellya. Byssocardium_; Eocene. _Lithocardium_; - Eocene. - - Fam. 2. _Limnocardiidae._--Siphons very long, united throughout; - shell gaping; two adductors; brackish waters. _Limnocardium_; - Caspian Sea and fossil from the Tertiary. _Archicardium_; Tertiary. - - Fam. 3. _Tridacnidae._--Mantle closed to a considerable extent; - apertures distant from each other; no siphons; a single adductor; - shell thick. _Tridacna. Hippopus._ - - Sub-order VI.--_Chamacea._ - - Asymmetrical, inequivalve, fixed, with extensive pallial sutures; no - siphons. Two adductors. Foot reduced and without byssus. Shell thick, - without pallial sinus. - - Fam. 1. _Chamidae._--Shell with sub-equal valves and prominent - umbones more or less spirally coiled; ligament external. _Chama. - Diceras_; Jurassic. _Requienia_; Cretaceous. _Matheronia_; - Cretaceous. - - Fam. 2. _Caprinidae._--Shell inequivalve; fixed valve spiral or - conical; free valve coiled or spiral; Cretaceous. _Caprina._ - _Caprotina. Caprinula_, &c. - - Fam. 3. _Monopleuridae._--Shell very inequivalve; fixed valve - conical or spiral; free valve operculiform; Cretaceous. - _Monopleuron. Baylea._ The two following families, together known - as Rudistae, are closely allied to the preceding; they are extinct - marine forms from Secondary deposits. They were fixed by the conical - elongated right valve; the free left valve is not spiral, and is - furnished with prominent apophyses to which the adductors were - attached. - - Fam. 4. _Radiolitidae._--Shell conical or biconvex, without canals - in the external layer. _Radiolites. Biradiolites._ - - Fam. 5. _Hippuritidae._--Fixed valve long, cylindro-conical, with - three longitudinal furrows which correspond internally to two - pillars for support of the siphons. _Hippurites. Arnaudia._ - - Sub-order VII.--_Myacea._ - - Mantle closed to a considerable extent; siphons well developed; gills - much folded and frequently prolonged into the branchial siphon. Foot - compressed and generally byssiferous. Shell gaping, with a pallial - sinus. - - Fam. 1. _Psammobiidae._--Siphons very long and quite separate; foot - large; shell oval, elongated, ligament external. _Psammobia_; - British. _Sanguinolaria. Asaphis. Elizia. Solenotellina._ - - Fam. 2. _Myidae._--Siphons united for the greater part of their - length, and with a circlet of tentacles near their extremities; foot - reduced; shell gaping; ligament internal. _Mya_; British. _Sphenia_; - British. _Tugonia. Platyodon. Cryptomya._ - - Fam. 3. _Corbulidae._--Shell sub-trigonal, inequivalve; pallial - sinus shallow; siphons short, united, completely retractile; foot - large, pointed, often byssiferous. _Corbulomya. Paramya. Erodona_ - and _Himella_ are fluviatile forms from South America. - - Fam. 4. _Lutrariidae._--Mantle extensively closed; a fourth pallial - aperture behind the foot; siphons long and united; shell elongated, - a spoon-shaped projection for the ligament on each valve. - _Lutraria_; British. _Tresus. Standella._ - - Fam. 5. _Solenidae._--Elongated burrowing forms; foot cylindrical, - powerful, without byssus; shell long, truncated and gaping at each - end. _Solenocurtus_; British. _Tagelus_; estuarine. _Ceratisolen_; - British. _Cultellus_; British. _Siliqua. Solen_; British. _Ensis_; - British. - - Fam. 6. _Saxicavidae._--Mantle extensively closed, with a small - pedal orifice; siphons long, united, covered by a chitinous sheath; - gills prolonged into the branchial siphon; foot small; shell gaping. - _Saxicava_; British. _Glycimeris. Cyrtodaria._ - - Fam. 7. _Gastrochaenidae._--Shell thin, gaping widely at the - posterior end; anterior adductor much reduced; mantle extensively - closed; siphons long, united. _Gastrochaena_; British. _Fistulana._ - - Sub-order VIII.--_Adesmacea._ - - Ligament wanting; shell gaping, with a styloid apophysis in the - umbonal cavities. Gills prolonged into the branchial siphon. Mantle - largely closed, siphons long, united. Foot short, truncated, discoid, - without byssus. - - Fam. 1. _Pholadidae._--Shell containing all the organs; heart - traversed by the rectum; two aortae. Shell with a pallial sinus; - dorsal region protected by accessory plates. _Pholas_; British. - _Pholadidea_; British. _Jouannetia. Xylophaga_; British. _Martesia._ - - Fam. 2. _Teredinidae._--Shell globular, covering only a small - portion of the vermiform body; heart on ventral side of rectum; a - single aorta; siphons long, united and furnished with two posterior - calcareous "pallets." _Teredo_; British. _Xylotrya._ - - Sub-order IX.--_Anatinacea._ - - Hermaphrodite, the ovaries and testes distinct, with separate - apertures. Foot rather small. Mantle frequently presents a fourth - orifice. External gill-plate directed dorsally and without reflected - lamella. Hinge without teeth. - - Fam. 1. _Thracidae._--Mantle with a fourth aperture; siphons long, - quite separate, completely retractile and invertible. _Thracia_; - British. _Asthenothaerus._ - - Fam. 2. _Periplomidae._--Siphons separate, naked, completely - retractile but not invertible. _Periploma. Cochlodesma. Tyleria._ - - Fam. 3. _Anatinidae._--Siphons long, united, covered by a chitinous - sheath, not completely retractile. _Anatina. Plectomya_; Jurassic - and Cretaceous. - - Fam. 4. _Pholadomyidae._--Mantle with fourth aperture; siphons very - long, completely united, naked, incompletely retractile; foot small, - with posterior appendage. _Pholadomya._ - - Fam. 5. _Arcomyidae._--Extinct; Secondary and Tertiary. _Arcomya._ - _Goniomya._ - - Fam. 6. _Pholadellidae._--Extinct; Palaeozoic. _Pholadella. - Phytimya. Allorisma._ - - Fam. 7. _Pleuromyidae._--Extinct; Secondary. _Pleuromya. Gresslya._ - _Ceromya._ - - Fam. 8. _Pandoridae._--Shell thin, inequivalve, free; ligament - internal; siphons very short. _Pandora_; British. _Coelodon._ - _Clidiophora._ - - Fam. 9. _Myochamidae._--Shell very inequivalve, solid, with a - pallial sinus; siphons short; foot small. _Myochama. Myodora._ - - Fam. 10. _Chamostraeidae._--A fourth pallial aperture present; pedal - aperture small; siphons very short and separate; shell fixed by the - right valve, irregular. _Chamostraea._ - - Fam. 11. _Clavagellidae._--Pedal aperture very small, foot - rudimentary; valves continued backwards into a calcareous tube - secreted by the siphons. _Clavagella. Brechites (Aspergillum)._ - - Fam. 12. _Lyonsiidae._--Foot byssiferous; siphons short, invertible. - _Lyonsia_; British. _Entodesma. Mytilimeria._ - - Fam. 13. _Verticordiidae._--Siphons short, gills papillose; foot - small; shell globular. Many species abyssal. _Verlicordia._ - _Euciroa. Lyonsiella. Halicardia._ - - -Order IV. SEPTIBRANCHIA - -Gills have lost their respiratory function, and are transformed into a -muscular septum on each side between mantle and foot. All marine, live -at considerable depths, and are carnivorous. - - Fam. 1. _Poromyidae._--Siphons short and separate; branchial siphon - with a large valve; branchial septum bears two groups of orifices on - either side; hermaphrodite. _Poromya_; British. _Dermatomya. - Liopistha_; Cretaceous. - - Fam. 2. _Cetoconchidae._--Branchial septum with three groups of - orifices on each side; siphons short, separate, branchial siphon with - a valve. _Cetoconcha (Silenia)._ - - Fam. 3. _Cuspidariidae._--Branchial septum with four or five pairs of - very narrow symmetrical orifices; siphons long, united, their - extremities surrounded by tentacles; sexes separate. _Cuspidaria_; - British. - - AUTHORITIES.--T. Barrois, "Le Stylet crystallin des Lamellibranches," - _Revue biol. Nord France_, i. (1890); Jameson, "On the Origin of - Pearls," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London, 1902); R. H. Peck, "The Minute - Structure of the Gills of Lamellibranch Mollusca," _Quart. Journ. - Micr. Sci._ xvii. (1877); W. G. Ridewood, "On the Structure of the - Gills of the Lamellibranchia," _Phil. Trans. B._ cxcv. (1903); K. - Mitsukuri, "On the Structure and Significance of some aberrant forms - of Lamellibranchiate Gills," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xxi. (1881); - A. H. Cooke, "Molluscs," _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. iii.; Paul - Pelseneer, "Mollusca," _Treatise on Zoology_, edited by E. Ray - Lankester, pt. v. (E. R. L.; J. T. C.) - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 1, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 41902.txt or 41902.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/9/0/41902/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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