6 files changed, 356 insertions, 14070 deletions

diff --git a/42314-8.txt b/42314-0.txt
index 1c5acdf..456be5d 100644
--- a/42314-8.txt
+++ b/42314-0.txt
@@ -1,39 +1,4 @@
-The Project Gutenberg eBook, Mount Rainier, by Various, Edited by Edmond
-S. (Edmond Stephen) Meany
-
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-
-
-
-Title: Mount Rainier
-       A Record of Exploration
-
-
-Author: Various
-
-Editor: Edmond S. (Edmond Stephen) Meany
-
-Release Date: March 12, 2013  [eBook #42314]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-
-***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOUNT RAINIER***
-
-
-E-text prepared by Greg Bergquist, JoAnn Greenwood, and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images
-generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org)
-
-
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42314 ***
 
 Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
       file which includes the original illustrations.
@@ -74,11 +39,11 @@ MOUNT RAINIER
 [Illustration]
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
-NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS
-ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO
+NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS
+ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO
 
 MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
-LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA
+LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA
 MELBOURNE
 
 THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
@@ -312,7 +277,7 @@ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
 
     Professor Henry Landes                                   194
 
-    François Émile Matthes                                   201
+    François Émile Matthes                                   201
 
     George Otis Smith                                        241
 
@@ -378,7 +343,7 @@ distance.
 
 
 [Saturday, May 26, 1792.] Towards noon we landed on a point on the
-eastern shore, whose latitude I observed to be 47° 21', round which
+eastern shore, whose latitude I observed to be 47° 21', round which
 we flattered ourselves we should find the inlet take an extensive
 eastwardly course. This conjecture was supported by the appearance of
 a very abrupt division in the snowy range of mountains immediately to
@@ -809,12 +774,12 @@ Puyallup, a stream about seventy feet wide; along which is a fine
 meadow of some extent, with clumps of alder and willow: the soil was
 of a black turfy nature. After leaving the meadow-land, they began to
 ascend along a path that was scarcely visible from being overgrown
-with Gaultheria, Hazel, Spiræa, Vaccinium, and Cornus.
+with Gaultheria, Hazel, Spiræa, Vaccinium, and Cornus.
 
 During the day, they crossed the Stehna.[4] In the evening, after
 making sixteen miles, they encamped at the junction of the Puyallup
 with the Upthascap.[5] Near by was a hut, built of the planks of the
-Arbor Vitæ (Thuja), which was remarkably well made; and the boards
+Arbor Vitæ (Thuja), which was remarkably well made; and the boards
 used in its structure, although split, had all the appearance of being
 sawn: many of them were three feet wide, and about fifteen feet long.
 The hut was perfectly water-tight. Its only inhabitants were two
@@ -842,7 +807,7 @@ is a much wider stream than the Puyallup. A short distance up, they
 came to a fish-weir, constructed as the one heretofore described, on
 the Chickeeles,[7] though much smaller.
 
-This part of the country abounds with arbor-vitæ trees, some of which
+This part of the country abounds with arbor-vitæ trees, some of which
 were found to be thirty feet in circumference at the height of four
 feet from the ground, and upwards of one hundred feet high.
 Notwithstanding the many difficulties encountered, they this day made
@@ -916,28 +881,28 @@ and elder, and some undergrowth of raspberry, the young shoots of
 which the natives eat with great relish.
 
 On the 25th, they set out at an early hour, and found the travelling
-less rough, so that they reached the foot of La Tête[10] before noon,
+less rough, so that they reached the foot of La Tête[10] before noon,
 having accomplished eleven miles. Lieutenant Johnson with the sergeant
-ascended La Tête, obtained the bearings, from its summit, of all the
+ascended La Tête, obtained the bearings, from its summit, of all the
 objects around, and made its height by barometer, two thousand seven
-hundred and ninety-eight feet: its latitude was fixed at 47° 08'
+hundred and ninety-eight feet: its latitude was fixed at 47° 08'
 54'' N. This mountain was entirely destitute of wood; but, having
 been burnt over, was found strewn with huge charred trunks, and the
 whole ground covered with ashes. The inclination of its sides was
 about fifty degrees.
 
 The country around seemed one continued series of hills, and like La
-Tête had suffered from the fire. According to the natives, although
+Tête had suffered from the fire. According to the natives, although
 the wood on the mountains was destroyed many years since, yet it was
 still observed to be on fire, in some places, about two years ago.
 Most of the tops of the distant peaks had snow on them. To the east
 was seen the appearance of two valleys, through which the two branches
 of the Smalocho[11] flow.
 
-On descending from La Tête, the river was to be crossed: this was
+On descending from La Tête, the river was to be crossed: this was
 found too deep to be forded, and it consequently became necessary to
 form a bridge to transport the baggage, by cutting down trees. The
-current was found to run 6·2 miles per hour. They had been in hopes of
+current was found to run 6·2 miles per hour. They had been in hopes of
 reaching the Little Prairie before night, but in consequence of this
 delay, were forced to encamp before arriving there.
 
@@ -960,8 +925,8 @@ about two and a half acres in extent, and another of the same size was
 found half a mile farther east.
 
 The 27th was employed by Lieutenant Johnson in determining the
-positions of this prairie, which proved to be in latitude 47° 05'
-51'' N., and longitude 120° 13' W.[12] The variation was 19° 39'
+positions of this prairie, which proved to be in latitude 47° 05'
+51'' N., and longitude 120° 13' W.[12] The variation was 19° 39'
 easterly. At sunset, messengers arrived from Mr. Waldron, who had
 reached the summit at noon, and was to proceed down to the snow-line
 to encamp. The snow was found to be about ten feet deep, and the party
@@ -995,11 +960,11 @@ the summit.
 Mount Rainier, from the top, bore south-southwest, apparently not more
 than ten miles distant. A profile of the mountain indicates that it
 has a terminal crater, as well as some on its flanks. The barometer
-stood at 24·950 in.: five thousand and ninety-two feet. There was
+stood at 24·950 in.: five thousand and ninety-two feet. There was
 another, to the north-northeast, covered with snow, and one to the
 west appeared about two hundred feet higher than the place where the
 observations were taken. This latter had suffered from fire in the
-same way as La Tête, and showed only a few patches of snow. To the
+same way as La Tête, and showed only a few patches of snow. To the
 eastward, a range of inferior height, running north and south, was in
 view, without snow.
 
@@ -1098,8 +1063,8 @@ about one hundred feet broad, and its course was east-southeast.
 The vegetation on the east side of the mountains was decidedly more
 advanced than that to the west, and several very interesting species
 of plants were met with by the botanists, on the banks of the streams:
-among them were Pæonia brownii, Cypripedium oregonium, Pentstemon,
-Ipomopsis elegans, and several Compositæ, and a very handsome
+among them were Pæonia brownii, Cypripedium oregonium, Pentstemon,
+Ipomopsis elegans, and several Compositæ, and a very handsome
 flowering shrub, Purshia tridentata.
 
 On the 31st, they continued their route over a rough country, in some
@@ -1217,12 +1182,12 @@ that the riding and tye system was not quite so often resorted to as
 before. On this plain was seen a number of curlews, some grouse, and a
 large species of hare. They encamped again near the snow, and found
 their altitude greater than any yet reached, the barometer standing at
-24·750 in.: five thousand two hundred and three feet. They had again
+24·750 in.: five thousand two hundred and three feet. They had again
 reached the spruces and lost the pine, which was only found on the
 hill-sides and plains.
 
 At 4 A.M. on the morning of the 4th of June, the thermometer stood at
-28°. They on that day continued their route up the mountain and across
+28°. They on that day continued their route up the mountain and across
 its summit, which was here and there covered with patches of snow. I
 regret to record another accident to the instruments. The sergeant, to
 whom the barometer was intrusted by Lieutenant Johnson, in putting up
@@ -1276,7 +1241,7 @@ months. The news of the murder of Mr. Black, in New Caledonia, was
 nearly a year in reaching some points on the coast.
 
 This was one of the warmest days they had experienced, and the
-thermometer under the shade of a canopy stood at 108°. At a short
+thermometer under the shade of a canopy stood at 108°. At a short
 distance from the place where they stopped was a small hut, composed
 of a few branches and reeds, which was thought to be barely sufficient
 to contain a sheep; yet under it were four generations of human
@@ -1420,7 +1385,7 @@ cloud, piled massive on the horizon, could cast an image so sharp in
 outline, so full of vigorous detail of surface? No cloud, as my
 stare, no longer dreamy, presently discovered,--no cloud, but a cloud
 compeller. It was a giant mountain dome of snow, swelling and seeming
-to fill the aërial spheres as its image displaced the blue deeps of
+to fill the aërial spheres as its image displaced the blue deeps of
 tranquil water. The smoky haze of an Oregon August hid all the length
 of its lesser ridges, and left this mighty summit based upon uplifting
 dimness. Only its splendid snows were visible, high in the unearthly
@@ -1474,7 +1439,7 @@ the range of Boston eyes than Loolowcan resumed his leadership and his
 control. I was very secondary now, and followed him humbly enough up
 the heights we had reached. Here were all the old difficulties
 increased, because they were no longer met on a level. We were to
-climb the main ridge,--the mountain of La Tête,--abandoning the
+climb the main ridge,--the mountain of La Tête,--abandoning the
 valley, assaulting the summits. And here, as Owhhigh had prophesied in
 his harangue at Nisqually, the horse's mane must be firmly grasped by
 the climber. Poor, panting, weary nags! may it be true, the promise of
@@ -1616,23 +1581,23 @@ and alone, that they may become seers, enchanters, magicians,
 diviners,--what in conventional lingo is called "big medicine." For
 though the Indians here have not peopled these thrones of their world
 with the creatures of an anthropomorphic mythology, they yet deem them
-the abode of Tamanoüs. Tamanoüs is a vague and half-personified type
+the abode of Tamanoüs. Tamanoüs is a vague and half-personified type
 of the unknown, of the mysterious forces of nature; and there is also
-an indefinite multitude of undefined emanations, each one a tamanoüs
+an indefinite multitude of undefined emanations, each one a tamanoüs
 with a small t, which are busy and impish in complicating existence,
 or equally active and spritely in unravelling it. Each Indian of this
-region patronizes his own personal tamanoüs, as men of the more
-eastern tribes keep a private manitto, and as Socrates kept a daimôn.
-To supply this want, Tamanoüs with a big T undergoes an avatar, and
+region patronizes his own personal tamanoüs, as men of the more
+eastern tribes keep a private manitto, and as Socrates kept a daimôn.
+To supply this want, Tamanoüs with a big T undergoes an avatar, and
 incarnates himself into a salmon, a beaver, a clam, or into some
 inanimate object, such as a canoe, a paddle, a fir-tree, a flint, or
-into some elemental essence, as fire, water, sun, mist; and tamanoüs
+into some elemental essence, as fire, water, sun, mist; and tamanoüs
 thus individualized becomes the "guide, philosopher, and friend" of
 every siwash, conscious that otherwise he might stray and be lost in
-the unknown realms of Tamanoüs.
+the unknown realms of Tamanoüs.
 
 Hamitchou, a frowzy ancient of the Squallyamish, told to Dr. Tolmie
-and me, at Nisqually, a legend of Tamanoüs and Tacoma, which, being
+and me, at Nisqually, a legend of Tamanoüs and Tacoma, which, being
 interpreted, runs as follows:--
 
     Hamitchou's Legend
@@ -1691,27 +1656,27 @@ to him for supplies, they were far too poor in hiaqua.
 
 "So the old man thought deeply, and communed with his wisdom, and,
 while he waited for fish or beast, he took advice within himself from
-his demon,--he talked with Tamanoüs. And always the question was, 'How
+his demon,--he talked with Tamanoüs. And always the question was, 'How
 may I put hiaqua in my purse?'
 
-"Tamanoüs never revealed to him that far to the north, beyond the
+"Tamanoüs never revealed to him that far to the north, beyond the
 waters of Whulge, are tribes with their under lip pierced with a
 fishbone, among whom hiaqua is plenty as salmonberries are in the
 woods what time in mid-summer salmon fin it along the reaches of
 Whulge.
 
-"But the more Tamanoüs did not reveal to him these mysteries of
+"But the more Tamanoüs did not reveal to him these mysteries of
 nature, the more he kept dreamily prying into his own mind,
 endeavoring to devise some scheme by which he might discover a
 treasure-trove of the beloved shell. His life seemed wasted in the
 patient, frugal industry, which only brought slow, meagre gains. He
 wanted the splendid elation of vast wealth and the excitement of
-sudden wealth. His own peculiar tamanoüs was the elk. Elk was also
+sudden wealth. His own peculiar tamanoüs was the elk. Elk was also
 his totem, the cognizance of his freemasonry with those of his own
 family, and their family friends in other tribes. Elk, therefore, were
 every way identified with his life; and he hunted them farther and
 farther up through the forests on the flanks of Tacoma, hoping that
-some day his tamanoüs would speak in the dying groan of one of them,
+some day his tamanoüs would speak in the dying groan of one of them,
 and gasp out the secret of the mines of hiaqua, his heart's desire.
 
 "Tacoma was so white and glittering, that it seemed to stare at him
@@ -1728,10 +1693,10 @@ went on stalking elk along the sides of Tacoma, ever dreaming of
 wealth. And at last, as he was hunting near the snows one day, one
 very clear and beautiful day of late summer, when sunlight was
 magically disclosing far distances, and making all nature
-supernaturally visible and proximate, Tamanoüs began to work in the
+supernaturally visible and proximate, Tamanoüs began to work in the
 soul of the miser.
 
-"'Are you brave,' whispered Tamanoüs in the strange, ringing, dull,
+"'Are you brave,' whispered Tamanoüs in the strange, ringing, dull,
 silent thunder-tones of a demon voice. 'Dare you go to the caves where
 my treasures are hid?'
 
@@ -1748,7 +1713,7 @@ ventured to shout, for the companionship of his own voice, there came
 across from the vast snow wall of Tacoma a tone like the muffled,
 threatening plunge of an avalanche into a chasm, 'I dare.'
 
-"'You dare,' said Tamanoüs, enveloping him with a dread sense of an
+"'You dare,' said Tamanoüs, enveloping him with a dread sense of an
 unseen, supernatural presence; 'you pray for wealth of hiaqua.
 Listen!'
 
@@ -1757,14 +1722,14 @@ eyes kindled and starting. He was listening with every rusty hair
 separating from its unkempt mattedness, and outstanding upright, a
 caricature of an aureole.
 
-"'Listen,' said Tamanoüs, in the noonday hush. And then Tamanoüs
+"'Listen,' said Tamanoüs, in the noonday hush. And then Tamanoüs
 vouchsafed at last the great secret of the hiaqua mines, while in
 terror near to death the miser heard, and every word of guidance
 toward the hidden treasure of the mountains seared itself into his
 soul ineffaceably.
 
 "Silence came again more terrible now than the voice of
-Tamanoüs,--silence under the shadow of the great cliff,--silence
+Tamanoüs,--silence under the shadow of the great cliff,--silence
 deepening down the forest vistas,--silence filling the void up to the
 snows of Tacoma. All life and motion seemed paralyzed. At last
 Skai-ki, the Blue-Jay, the wise bird, foe to magic, sang cheerily
@@ -1772,7 +1737,7 @@ overhead. Her song seemed to refresh again the honest laws of nature.
 The buzz of life stirred everywhere again, and the inspired miser rose
 and hastened home to prepare for his work.
 
-"When Tamanoüs has put a great thought in a man's brain, has whispered
+"When Tamanoüs has put a great thought in a man's brain, has whispered
 him a great discovery within his power, or hinted at a great crime,
 that spiteful demon does not likewise suggest the means of
 accomplishment.
@@ -1809,7 +1774,7 @@ hiaqua. So he drowsed chilly and fireless, awakened often by dread
 sounds of crashing and rumbling among the chasms of Tacoma. He
 desponded bitterly, almost ready to abandon his quest, almost doubting
 whether he had in truth received a revelation, whether his interview
-with Tamanoüs had not been a dream, and finally whether all the hiaqua
+with Tamanoüs had not been a dream, and finally whether all the hiaqua
 in the world was worth this toil and anxiety. Fortunate is the sage
 who at such a point turns back and buys his experience without worse
 befalling him.
@@ -1817,7 +1782,7 @@ befalling him.
 "Past midnight he suddenly was startled from his drowse, and sat bolt
 upright in terror. A light. Was there another searcher in the forest,
 and a bolder than he? That flame just glimmering over the tree-tops,
-was it a camp-fire of friend or foe? Had Tamanoüs been revealing to
+was it a camp-fire of friend or foe? Had Tamanoüs been revealing to
 another the great secret? No, smiled the miser, his eyes fairly open,
 and discovering that the new light was the moon. He had been waiting
 for her illumination of paths heretofore untrodden by mortal. She did
@@ -1843,8 +1808,8 @@ Alpine forest whence he had come.
 
 "But he troubled himself little with staring about; up he looked, for
 the summit was at hand. To win that summit was wellnigh the attainment
-of his hopes, if Tamanoüs were true; and that, with the flush of
-morning ardor upon him, he could not doubt. There, in a spot Tamanoüs
+of his hopes, if Tamanoüs were true; and that, with the flush of
+morning ardor upon him, he could not doubt. There, in a spot Tamanoüs
 had revealed to him, was hiaqua,--hiaqua that should make him the
 richest and greatest of all the Squallyamish.
 
@@ -1868,16 +1833,16 @@ semblances of prime necessities of Indian life delayed him but an
 instant, and he hastened on to the third monument, which stood apart
 on a perfect level. The third stone was capped by something he almost
 feared to behold, lest it should prove other than his hopes. Every
-word of Tamanoüs had thus far proved veritable; but might there not be
+word of Tamanoüs had thus far proved veritable; but might there not be
 a bitter deceit at the last? The miser trembled.
 
-"Yes, Tamanoüs was trustworthy. The third monument was as the old man
+"Yes, Tamanoüs was trustworthy. The third monument was as the old man
 anticipated. It was a stone elk's head, such as it appears in earliest
 summer, when the antlers are sprouting lustily under their rough
 jacket of velvet.
 
 "You remember, Boston tyee," continued Hamitchou, "that Elk was the
-old man's tamanoüs, the incarnation for him of the universal Tamanoüs.
+old man's tamanoüs, the incarnation for him of the universal Tamanoüs.
 He therefore was right joyous at this good omen of protection; and his
 heart grew big and swollen with hope, as the black salmon-berry swells
 in a swamp in June. He threw down his 'ikta'; every impediment he laid
@@ -1902,7 +1867,7 @@ horns. Then the whole thirteen gave a mighty puff in chorus.
 "The hunter of hiaqua was for a moment abashed at his uninvited ring
 of spectators. But he had seen otter before, and bagged them. These he
 could not waste time to shoot, even if a phalanx so numerous were not
-formidable. Besides, they might be tamanoüs. He took to his pick and
+formidable. Besides, they might be tamanoüs. He took to his pick and
 began digging stoutly.
 
 "He soon made way in the snow, and came to solid rock beneath. At
@@ -1944,14 +1909,14 @@ Beneath was a large square cavity.
 
 "He was a millionnaire.
 
-"The otters recognized him as the favorite of Tamanoüs, and retired to
+"The otters recognized him as the favorite of Tamanoüs, and retired to
 a respectful distance.
 
 "For some moments he gazed on his treasure, taking thought of his
 future proud grandeur among the dwellers by Whulge. He plunged his arm
 deep as he could go; there was still nothing but the precious shells.
 He smiled to himself in triumph; he had wrung the secret from
-Tamanoüs. Then, as he withdrew his arm, the rattle of the hiaqua
+Tamanoüs. Then, as he withdrew his arm, the rattle of the hiaqua
 recalled him to the present. He saw that noon was long past, and he
 must proceed to reduce his property to possession.
 
@@ -1965,7 +1930,7 @@ up the seemingly untouched wealth of the deposit carefully with the
 scale stones, and brushed snow over the whole.
 
 "The miser never dreamed of gratitude, never thought to hang a string
-from the buried treasure about the salmon and kamas tamanoüs stones,
+from the buried treasure about the salmon and kamas tamanoüs stones,
 and two strings around the elk's head; no, all must be his own, all he
 could carry now, and the rest for the future.
 
@@ -1985,7 +1950,7 @@ cloud, utterly hiding the water.
 
 "Terrible are storms in the mountains; but in this looming mass was a
 terror more dread than any hurricane of ruin ever bore within its wild
-vortexes. Tamanoüs was in that black cylinder, and as it strode
+vortexes. Tamanoüs was in that black cylinder, and as it strode
 forward, chasing in the very path of the miser, he shuddered, for his
 wealth and his life were in danger.
 
@@ -2005,12 +1970,12 @@ into being from chaos. The roaring of the storm had also deafened and
 bewildered him with its wild uproar.
 
 "Present in every crash and thunder of the gale was a growing
-undertone, which the miser well knew to be the voice of Tamanoüs. A
+undertone, which the miser well knew to be the voice of Tamanoüs. A
 deadly shuddering shook him. Heretofore that potent Unseen had been
 his friend and guide; there had been awe, but no terror, in his words.
-Now the voice of Tamanoüs was inarticulate, but the miser could divine
+Now the voice of Tamanoüs was inarticulate, but the miser could divine
 in that sound an unspeakable threat of wrath and vengeance. Floating
-upon this undertone were sharper tamanoüs voices, shouting and
+upon this undertone were sharper tamanoüs voices, shouting and
 screaming always sneeringly, 'Ha, ha, hiaqua!--ha, ha, ha!'
 
 "Whenever the miser essayed to move and continue his descent, a
@@ -2023,7 +1988,7 @@ was encountering, but he held fast to his hiaqua.
 "The blackness grew ever deeper and more crowded with perdition; the
 din more impish, demoniac, and devilish; the laughter more appalling;
 and the miser more and more exhausted with vain buffeting. He
-determined to propitiate exasperated Tamanoüs with a sacrifice. He
+determined to propitiate exasperated Tamanoüs with a sacrifice. He
 threw into the black cylinder storm his left-handful, five strings of
 precious hiaqua."
 
@@ -2035,8 +2000,8 @@ wampum,--shell out, as one might say,--and make tracks?"
 first handful of hiaqua, there was a momentary lull in elemental war,
 and he heard the otters puffing around him invisible. Then the storm
 renewed, blacker, louder, harsher, crueller than before, and over the
-dread undertone of the voice of Tamanoüs, tamanoüs voices again
-screamed, 'Ha, ha, ha, hiaqua!' and it seemed as if tamanoüs hands, or
+dread undertone of the voice of Tamanoüs, tamanoüs voices again
+screamed, 'Ha, ha, ha, hiaqua!' and it seemed as if tamanoüs hands, or
 the paws of the demon otters, clutched at the miser's right-handful
 and tore at his shoulder and waist belts.
 
@@ -2053,7 +2018,7 @@ and whirled after its fellows, he tore off a single bunch of fifty
 shells. But upon this, too, the storm laid its clutches. In the final
 desperate struggle the old man was wounded so sternly that when he
 had given up his last relic of the mighty treasure, when he had thrown
-into the formless chaos, instinct with Tamanoüs, his last propitiatory
+into the formless chaos, instinct with Tamanoüs, his last propitiatory
 offering, he sank and became insensible.
 
 "It seemed a long slumber to him, but at last he awoke. The jagged
@@ -2082,7 +2047,7 @@ Blue-Jay, was singularly familiar with him, hopping from her perch in
 the arbutus, and alighting on his head. As he put his hand to dislodge
 her, he touched his scratching-stick of bone, and attempted to pass
 it, as usual, through his hair. The hair was matted and interlaced
-into a network reaching fully two ells down his back. 'Tamanoüs,'
+into a network reaching fully two ells down his back. 'Tamanoüs,'
 thought the old man.
 
 "Chiefly he was conscious of a mental change. He was calm and
@@ -2092,7 +2057,7 @@ lustre, seemed a benign comrade and friend. All the outer world was
 cheerful and satisfying. He thought he had never awakened to a fresher
 morning. He was a young man again, except for that unusual stiffness
 and unmelodious creaking joints. He felt no apprehension of any
-presence of a deputy tamanoüs, sent by Tamanoüs to do malignities upon
+presence of a deputy tamanoüs, sent by Tamanoüs to do malignities upon
 him in the lonely wood. Great Nature had a kindly aspect, and made its
 divinity perceived only by the sweet notes of birds and the hum of
 forest life, and by a joy that clothed his being. And now he found in
@@ -2109,7 +2074,7 @@ behind which he had hidden when on the hunt, cedars under whose
 drooping shade he had lurked, were down, and lay athwart his path,
 transformed into immense mossy mounds, like barrows of giants, over
 which he must clamber warily, lest he sink and be half stifled in the
-dust of rotten wood. Had Tamanoüs been widely at work in that eventful
+dust of rotten wood. Had Tamanoüs been widely at work in that eventful
 night?--or had the spiritual change the old man felt affected his
 views of the outer world?
 
@@ -2167,7 +2132,7 @@ no longer over-esteemed and hoarded. He imparted whatever he
 possessed, material treasures or stores of wisdom and experience,
 freely to all the land. Every dweller by Whulge came to him for advice
 how to chase the elk, how to troll or spear the salmon, and how to
-propitiate Tamanoüs. He became the Great Medicine Man of the siwashes,
+propitiate Tamanoüs. He became the Great Medicine Man of the siwashes,
 a benefactor to his tribe and his race.
 
 "Within a year after he came down from his long nap on the side of
@@ -2176,7 +2141,7 @@ years, beloved and revered, and on his deathbed, long before the
 Boston tilicum or any blanketeers were seen in the regions of Whulge,
 he told this history to my father, as a lesson and a warning. My
 father, dying, told it to me. But I, alas! have no son; I grow old,
-and lest this wisdom perish from the earth, and Tamanoüs be again
+and lest this wisdom perish from the earth, and Tamanoüs be again
 obliged to interpose against avarice, I tell the tale to thee, O
 Boston tyee. Mayest thou and thy nation not disdain this lesson of an
 earlier age, but profit by it and be wise."
@@ -2188,7 +2153,7 @@ he was dry with big talk, and would gladly wet his whistle.
      [Chapter VIII, beginning at page 155 of the original
      publication, is entitled: "Sowee House--Loolowcan."]
 
-I had not long, that noon of August, from the top of La Tête, to study
+I had not long, that noon of August, from the top of La Tête, to study
 Tacoma, scene of Hamitchou's wild legend. Humanity forbade dalliance.
 While I fed my soul with sublimity, Klale and his comrades were
 wretched with starvation. But the summit of the pass is near. A few
@@ -2230,7 +2195,7 @@ a spring, at the edge of a clump of evergreens. I took my luncheon of
 cold salt pork and doughy biscuit by a well of brightest water. I
 called in no proxy of tin cup to aid me in saluting this sparkling
 creature, but stooped and kissed the spring. When I had rendered my
-first homage thus to the goddess of the fountain, Ægle herself,
+first homage thus to the goddess of the fountain, Ægle herself,
 perhaps, fairest of Naiads, I drank thirstily of the medium in which
 she dwelt. A bubbling dash of water leaped up and splashed my visage
 as I withdrew. Why so, sweet fountain, which I may name Hippocrene,
@@ -2276,7 +2241,7 @@ twice a day one bitter pill confectioned of all disgust. Nature doses
 us, by no means against our will, with many sweet boluses of delight,
 berries compacted of acidulated, sugary spiciness. Nature, tenderest
 of leeches,--no bolus of hers is pleasanter medicament than her ruddy
-strawberries. She shaped them like Minié-balls, that they might
+strawberries. She shaped them like Minié-balls, that they might
 traverse unerringly to the cell of most dulcet digestion. Over their
 glistening surfaces she peppered little golden dots to act as
 obstacles lest they should glide too fleetly over the surfaces of
@@ -2381,7 +2346,7 @@ They flew no farther than a dwarf tree hard by. I drew my revolver,
 thinking that there might not be time to load, and fired in a hurry at
 the lowermost.
 
-"Hyas tamanoüs!" whispered Loolowcan, when no bird fell or flew,--"big
+"Hyas tamanoüs!" whispered Loolowcan, when no bird fell or flew,--"big
 magic," it seemed to the superstitious youth. Often when sportsmen
 miss, they claim that their gun is bewitched, and avail themselves of
 the sure silver bullet.
@@ -2413,7 +2378,7 @@ monstrous trunk lay across the trail. Loolowcan, reckless
 steeplechaser, put his horse at it, full speed. Gubbins, instead of
 going over neatly, or scrambling over cat-like, reared rampant and
 shied back, volte face. I rode forward to see what fresh interference
-of Tamanoüs was here,--nothing tamanoüs but an unexpected sorry
+of Tamanoüs was here,--nothing tamanoüs but an unexpected sorry
 object of a horse. A wretched castaway, probably abandoned by the
 exploring party, or astray from them, essaying to leap the tree, had
 fallen back beneath the trunk and branches, and lay there entangled
@@ -2459,7 +2424,7 @@ proved his intelligent right to suffrage and seizure. Here in
 admirable quality were the three first requisites of a home in the
 wilderness, water, wood, and grass. A musical rustle, as we galloped
 through, proved the long grass. All around was the unshorn forest.
-There were columnar firs making the Sowee house a hypæthral temple on
+There were columnar firs making the Sowee house a hypæthral temple on
 a grand scale.
 
 There had been here a lodge. A few saplings of its framework still
@@ -2598,19 +2563,19 @@ term; their nomad life and tough struggle with instructive Nature in
 her roughness save them from such elaborate fetichism as may exist in
 more indolent climes and countries.
 
-Loolowcan has his tamanoüs. It is Talipus, the Wolf, a "hyas skookoom
-tamanoüs, a very mighty demon," he informs me. He does not worship it;
+Loolowcan has his tamanoüs. It is Talipus, the Wolf, a "hyas skookoom
+tamanoüs, a very mighty demon," he informs me. He does not worship it;
 that would interfere with his devotions to his real deity, Number One.
 It, in return, does him little service. If he met Talipus, object of
 his superstition, on a fair morning, he would think it a good omen;
 if on a sulky morning, he might be somewhat depressed, but would not
 on that account turn back, as a Roman brave would have done on meeting
-the matinal wolf. In fact, he keeps Talipus, his tamanoüs, as a kind
+the matinal wolf. In fact, he keeps Talipus, his tamanoüs, as a kind
 of ideal hobby, very much as a savage civilized man entertains a pet
 bulldog or a tame bear, a link between himself and the rude, dangerous
 forces of nature. Loolowcan has either chosen his protector according
 to the law of likeness, or, choosing it by chance, has become
-assimilated to its characteristics. A wolfish youth is the _protégé_
+assimilated to its characteristics. A wolfish youth is the _protégé_
 of Talipus,--an unfaithful, sinister, cannibal-looking son of a
 horse-thief. Wolfish likewise is his appetite; when he asks me for
 more dinner, and this without stint or decorum he does, he glares as
@@ -2675,7 +2640,7 @@ Creek.
 
 [10] Lieutenant Richard Arnold, in Pacific Railway Reports, Volume
 XII, Part I, page 191, says: "Near the junction of Whitewater and
-Green rivers there is a remarkable peak called La Tête, from a large
+Green rivers there is a remarkable peak called La Tête, from a large
 rock on its slope resembling the head and neck of a man. This is an
 important point, as it forms the gate of the mountains on the west."
 Modern maps shift the "water" part of the names. They are now White
@@ -2683,8 +2648,8 @@ and Greenwater rivers.
 
 [11] White and Greenwater rivers.
 
-[12] This is an error and should read 121° 25' W. as Naches Pass is
-known to be 121° 21' and Lieutenant Johnson's "Little Prairie" was a
+[12] This is an error and should read 121° 25' W. as Naches Pass is
+known to be 121° 21' and Lieutenant Johnson's "Little Prairie" was a
 little west of the Pass.
 
 [13] Greenwater branch of White River.
@@ -2863,7 +2828,7 @@ although it does not rain, but drizzles, yet it is very wet and cold,
 and penetrates every thread of clothing to the skin. The summers of
 this region are in extraordinary contrast with the winters. Clear,
 beautiful, and dry, they begin in May and last till November; while in
-the winter, although in latitude 47° and 48°, it rarely freezes or
+the winter, although in latitude 47° and 48°, it rarely freezes or
 snows--often, however, raining two weeks without stopping a permeating
 drizzle.
 
@@ -3032,7 +2997,7 @@ color from the disintegration of this granite.[18]
 
 We made our camp under a pine of dense foliage, whose limbs at the
 outer end drooped near the ground. We made our cup of tea, and found
-the water boil at 202° Fahrenheit. Night set in with a drizzling rain,
+the water boil at 202° Fahrenheit. Night set in with a drizzling rain,
 and a more solitary, gloomy picture than we presented at that camp it
 is impossible to conceive. Tired, hungry, dirty, clothes all in
 rags--the effects of our struggles with the brush--we were not the
@@ -3207,7 +3172,7 @@ a free fight and got the worst of it. He could not have told a deer
 from a stump the length of his little old rifle.
 
 Our camp was about 1,000 or 1,500 feet below the last visible shrub;
-water boiled at 199°, and, according to an approximate scale we had
+water boiled at 199°, and, according to an approximate scale we had
 with us, this indicated an elevation of 7,000 feet. We estimated the
 highest peak to be over 12,000 feet high. I greatly regretted not
 being able to get the boiling-point on the top, but it was impossible
@@ -3422,7 +3387,7 @@ BY GENERAL HAZARD STEVENS
      State.
 
      The names of both Stevens and Van Trump have been generously
-     bestowed upon glaciers, creeks, ridges, and cañons within the
+     bestowed upon glaciers, creeks, ridges, and cañons within the
      Mount Rainier National Park.
 
      General Stevens prefers to call the mountain Takhoma. The
@@ -4109,7 +4074,7 @@ highest point of the preceding day's trip, and commenced the ascent by
 the steep, rocky ridge already described as reaching up to the snowy
 dome. We found it to be a very narrow, steep, irregular backbone,
 being solid rock, while the sides were composed of loose broken rocks
-and débris. Up this ridge, keeping upon the spine when possible, and
+and débris. Up this ridge, keeping upon the spine when possible, and
 sometimes forced to pick our way over the loose and broken rocks at
 the sides, around columnar masses which we could not directly climb
 over, we toiled for five hundred yards, ascending at an angle of
@@ -4135,7 +4100,7 @@ fell sheer off, two thousand feet, into a vast abyss. A great glacier
 filled its bed and stretched away for several miles, all seamed or
 wrinkled across with countless crevasses. We crept up and along a
 ledge, not of solid, sure rock, but one obstructed with the loose
-stones and débris which were continually falling from above, and we
+stones and débris which were continually falling from above, and we
 trod on the upper edge of a steep slope of this rubbish, sending the
 stones at every step rolling and bounding into the depth below.
 Several times during our progress showers of rocks fell from the
@@ -4143,7 +4108,7 @@ precipice above across our path, and rolled into the abyss, but
 fortunately none struck us.
 
 Four hundred yards of this progress brought us to where the rock
-joined the overhanging edge of the vast névé or snow-field that
+joined the overhanging edge of the vast névé or snow-field that
 descended from the dome of the mountain and was from time to time, as
 pressed forward and downward, breaking off in immense masses, which
 fell with a noise as of thunder into the great canyon on our left. The
@@ -4166,7 +4131,7 @@ the ice waves smaller and more regular, and, after ascending about
 three hundred yards, stood fairly upon the broad dome of mighty
 Takhoma. It rose before us like a broad, gently swelling headland of
 dazzling white, topped with black, where the rocky summit projected
-above the névé. Ascending diagonally towards the left, we continued
+above the névé. Ascending diagonally towards the left, we continued
 our course. The snow was hard and firm under foot, crisp and light for
 an inch or two, but solidified into ice a foot or less beneath the
 surface. The whole field was covered with the ice-waves already
@@ -4231,7 +4196,7 @@ without shelter or food, except our meagre lunch. It would have been
 impossible to descend the mountain before nightfall, and sure
 destruction to attempt it in darkness. We concluded to return to a
 mass of rocks not far below, and there pass the night as best we
-could, burrowing in the loose débris.
+could, burrowing in the loose débris.
 
 The middle peak of the mountain, however, was evidently the highest,
 and we determined to first visit it. Retracing our steps along the
@@ -4259,7 +4224,7 @@ would abate for a time.
 A deep cavern, extending into and under the ice, and formed by the
 action of heat, was found. Its roof was a dome of brilliant green ice
 with long icicles pendent from it, while its floor, composed of the
-rocks and débris which formed the side of the crater, descended at an
+rocks and débris which formed the side of the crater, descended at an
 angle of thirty degrees. Forty feet within its mouth we built a wall
 of stones, inclosing a space five by six feet around a strong jet of
 steam and heat. Unlike the angular, broken rocks met with elsewhere,
@@ -4761,7 +4726,7 @@ separated by deep valleys. The eastern peak, which would seem to have
 formed originally the middle of the mountain mass, is a crater about a
 quarter of a mile in diameter of very perfect circular form. Its sides
 are bare for about 60 feet from the rim, below which they are covered
-by a _névé_ having a slope of from 28° to 31°. This _névé_ extending
+by a _névé_ having a slope of from 28° to 31°. This _névé_ extending
 from the shoulders of the southwestern peak to those of the northern,
 a width of several miles, descends to a vertical distance of about
 2000 feet below the crater rim, an immense sheet of white granular
@@ -4974,12 +4939,12 @@ portion takes the name of Carbon River; the southern was formerly
 called the South Fork, but it should retain the name of Puyallup to
 its next division far up in the mountains. A short distance above
 their junction both Carbon River and the Puyallup escape from narrow,
-crooked cañons, whose vertical sides, one hundred to three hundred
+crooked cañons, whose vertical sides, one hundred to three hundred
 feet high, are often but fifty feet apart. From these walls steep,
 heavily timbered slopes rise two hundred to eight hundred feet to the
-summits of the foot-hills. These cañons link the buried river basin of
+summits of the foot-hills. These cañons link the buried river basin of
 the lower stream with the upper river valleys. The latter extend from
-the heads of the cañons to the glaciers. They are apparently the
+the heads of the cañons to the glaciers. They are apparently the
 deserted beds of mightier ice rivers, now shrunk to the very foot of
 Mount Tacoma.
 
@@ -4988,14 +4953,14 @@ River are in view. Across Commencement Bay are the tide marshes of the
 delta; back from these salt meadows the light green of the
 cottonwoods, alder and vine-maple mark the river's course, till it is
 lost in the dark monotone of the fir forest. No break in the evergreen
-surface indicates the place of the river cañons; but far out among the
+surface indicates the place of the river cañons; but far out among the
 foot-hills a line of mist hangs over the upper valley of Carbon River,
 which winds away eastward, behind the rising ground, to the northern
 side of Mount Tacoma. Milk Creek, one of its branches, drains the
 northwest spur, and on the western slope the snows accumulate in two
 glaciers, from which flow the North and South Forks of the Puyallup.
 These streams meet in a level valley at the base of three singular
-peaks, and plunge united into the dark gateway of the cañon.
+peaks, and plunge united into the dark gateway of the cañon.
 
 A trip to the grand snow peak from which these rivers spring was
 within a year a very difficult undertaking. There was no trail through
@@ -5004,7 +4969,7 @@ could accompany the explorer, who took his blankets and provisions on
 his back, and worked his way slowly among the towering tree trunks,
 through underbrush luxuriant as a tropic jungle. But last summer a
 good horse trail was built from Wilkeson to Carbon River, crossing it
-above the cañon, sixteen miles below the glacier, and during the
+above the cañon, sixteen miles below the glacier, and during the
 autumn it was extended to the head of the Puyallup. Wilkeson is
 reached by a branch railroad from New Tacoma. It is on a small
 tributary of Carbon River, called Fletts Creek, at a point where the
@@ -5017,9 +4982,9 @@ third. Hidden here beneath the thick covering of moss and undergrowth
 of the primeval forest, fourteen hundred feet above the present ocean
 level, are ancient shore lines of the sea, which has left its trace in
 similar terraces in all the valleys about the Sound.[23] Thence the
-trail extends southward over a level plateau. Carbon River Cañon is
+trail extends southward over a level plateau. Carbon River Cañon is
 but half a mile away on the west, and five miles from Wilkeson the
-valley above the cañon is reached. The descent to the river is over
+valley above the cañon is reached. The descent to the river is over
 three miles along the hillside eastward.
 
 From Wilkeson to the river the way is all through a belt of forest,
@@ -5078,7 +5043,7 @@ peak of Mount Tacoma, framed in dark evergreen spires. Its snow fields
 are only three miles distant, but Carbon River has come a long way
 round. For six miles eastward the undulating lines of the mountains
 converge, then those on the north suddenly cross the view, where the
-river cañon turns sharply southward.
+river cañon turns sharply southward.
 
 Three miles from this turn is Crescent Mountain, its summit a
 semi-circular gray wall a thousand feet high.[24] At sunset the light
@@ -5117,7 +5082,7 @@ badger-like animal, sitting erect on his hind legs, greets one with a
 long shrill whistle that would make a schoolboy envious, but trots
 quickly away on nearer approach. The crest of the southwest rim of the
 amphitheater is easily gained, and the grandeur of the view bursts
-upon you suddenly. Eastward are the cliffs and cañons of the Cascade
+upon you suddenly. Eastward are the cliffs and cañons of the Cascade
 Range. Northward forest-covered hill and valley reach to Mount Baker
 and the snow peaks that break the horizon line. Westward are the blue
 waters of the Sound, the snow-clad Olympics and a faint soft line
@@ -5135,7 +5100,7 @@ This northern slope of the mountain is very steep, and the
 consolidated snow begins its downward movement from near the top.
 Little pinnacles of rock project through the mass and form eddies in
 the current. A jagged ridge divides it, and part descends into the
-deep unexplored cañon of White River, probably the deepest chasm in
+deep unexplored cañon of White River, probably the deepest chasm in
 the flanks of Mount Tacoma. The other part comes straight on toward
 the southern side of Crescent Mountain, a precipice 2,000 feet high;
 diverted, it turns in graceful flowing curves, breaks into a thousand
@@ -5152,7 +5117,7 @@ into the clear water, passes from purest white to deepest blue as it
 passes out of sight in the depths of the basin.
 
 A two days' visit to this trackless region sufficed only to see a
-small part of the magnificent scenery. White River Cañon, the cliffs
+small part of the magnificent scenery. White River Cañon, the cliffs
 of Ragged Spur, the northern slope of Mount Tacoma, where the climber
 is always tempted upward, might occupy him for weeks. Across the snow
 fields, where Milk Creek rises, is the glacier of the North Fork of
@@ -5310,7 +5275,7 @@ water a very pleasant drink as well as a health-giving beverage.
 Around each spring is an incrustation of soda compounds deposited by
 the water. One spring, over which a rude bath-house has been
 constructed, pours forth a large quantity of water at a temperature of
-85° Fahr. A bath in this water is pleasant and invigorating. The view
+85° Fahr. A bath in this water is pleasant and invigorating. The view
 from the springs is very beautiful. On the right is the swift flowing
 Nisqually; on the left, a solid white wall of basaltic rock rises to a
 height of nearly one thousand feet; while in front, seeming only a
@@ -5360,7 +5325,7 @@ begin the final ascent. Our course takes us along the crest of a rocky
 ridge and beneath a perpendicular wall of basalt over a thousand feet
 in height. Here the courage of one of the party failed him, and he
 concluded to go no farther. The most dangerous part of the ascent is
-along the base of this cliff. The earth pitches at an angle of 35°
+along the base of this cliff. The earth pitches at an angle of 35°
 from its base, and at three particular places this incline is not over
 six feet wide, ending in a perpendicular jump-off of fifteen hundred
 feet to the Nisqually glacier below. After a half hour's crouching and
@@ -5582,7 +5547,7 @@ flood. Many of the stream channels leading away from Mount Rainier are
 known to have the characteristics of the one we ascended, and show
 that the canyons were carved under different conditions from those now
 prevailing. The principal amount of canyon cutting must have been done
-before the streams were overloaded with débris contributed by
+before the streams were overloaded with débris contributed by
 glaciers--that is, the deep dissection of the lower slope of Mount
 Rainier and of the platform on which it stands must have preceded the
 Glacial epoch.
@@ -5600,7 +5565,7 @@ canyon.
 I will ask the reader to defer the study of the glaciers until we have
 made a reconnaissance of the mountain and climbed to its summit, as he
 will then be better prepared to understand the relation of the
-glaciers, névés, and other features with which it will be necessary to
+glaciers, névés, and other features with which it will be necessary to
 deal. In this portion of our fireside explorations let us enjoy a
 summer outing, deferring until later the more serious task of
 questioning the glaciers.
@@ -5707,7 +5672,7 @@ Pluto's sally ports; but that the great depression now water-filled is
 a volcanic crater is not so apparent as we might expect. The basin is
 in volcanic rock, but none of the characteristics of a crater due to
 volcanic explosions can be recognized. The rocks, so far as I saw
-them, are massive lavas, and not fragmental scoriæ or other products
+them, are massive lavas, and not fragmental scoriæ or other products
 of explosive eruptions. On the bold, rounded rock ledges down which we
 climbed in order to reach the shore, there were deep glacial scorings,
 showing that the basin was once deeply filled with moving ice. My
@@ -5743,7 +5708,7 @@ thousand feet above our station rose the pure white Liberty Cap, the
 crowning glory of the mountain as seen from the northward. The snow
 descending the northwest side of the great central dome is gathered
 between the ridges forming the sides of the valley, and forms a white
-névé from which flows Willis Glacier. In looking up the valley from
+névé from which flows Willis Glacier. In looking up the valley from
 Eagle Cliff the entire extent of the snow fields and of the
 river-like stream of ice flowing from them is in full view. The ice
 ends in a dirt-covered and rock-strewn terminus, just above a huge
@@ -5772,9 +5737,9 @@ blue ice below. Our course led us directly across the glacier, along
 the lower border of the rapidly melting covering of winter snow. The
 glacier is there about a mile across. Its central part is higher than
 its border, and for the most part the ice is concealed by dirt and
-stones. Just below the névé, however, we found a space about half a
+stones. Just below the névé, however, we found a space about half a
 mile long in which melting had not led to the concentration of
-sufficient débris to make traveling difficult. Farther down the
+sufficient débris to make traveling difficult. Farther down the
 glacier, where surface melting was more advanced, the entire glacier,
 with the exception of a few lanes of clear ice between the
 ill-defined medial moraines, was completely concealed beneath a
@@ -5822,7 +5787,7 @@ light-colored granite. Later we found that much of the area between
 the Carbon and Winthrop glaciers is composed of this same kind of
 rock. Granite forms a portion of the border of the valley through
 which flow the glaciers just named, and furnished them with much
-granitic débris, which is carried away as moraines and later worked
+granitic débris, which is carried away as moraines and later worked
 over into well-rounded bowlders by the streams flowing from the ice.
 The presence of granite pebbles in the course of Carbon and White
 rivers, far below the glaciers, is thus accounted for.
@@ -5870,7 +5835,7 @@ line, we began the ascent of Winthrop Glacier early on the morning of
 July 23. Our route was comparatively easy at the start, but became
 steeper and steeper as we advanced. The snow was firm and, except for
 the numerous crevasses, presented no great difficulties to be
-overcome. In several places the névé rises in domes as if forced up
+overcome. In several places the névé rises in domes as if forced up
 from beneath, but caused in reality by bosses of rock over which the
 glacier flows. These domes are broken by radiating crevasses which
 intersect in their central portions, leaving pillars and castle-like
@@ -5880,7 +5845,7 @@ an impassable crevasse. Considerable time was lost in searching for a
 practicable upward route, but at length, by making a detour to the
 right, we found a way which, although steep, allowed us to pass the
 much crevassed area and gain the sharp ridge of rock which divides the
-névé snow flowing from the central dome of the mountain, and marks the
+névé snow flowing from the central dome of the mountain, and marks the
 separation between Winthrop and Emmons glaciers. This prow-like
 promontory, rising some 500 feet above the glaciers on either hand, we
 named The Wedge. This is the upward pointing, acute angle of a great
@@ -5930,7 +5895,7 @@ the rarefied air, and as we lacked experience in true alpine work our
 progress was slow and laborious. Many of the crevasses that our course
 crossed were of the nature of faults. Their upper rims stood several
 feet above their lower margins, and thus added to the difficulty of
-passing them. Our aim at first was to traverse the névé of Emmons
+passing them. Our aim at first was to traverse the névé of Emmons
 Glacier and gain the less rugged slope bordering it on the south, but
 the intervening region was greatly broken and, as we found after
 several approaches to it, utterly impassable. The climb presented no
@@ -6122,7 +6087,7 @@ Gibraltar is a portion of the cone of Rainier built before the
 explosion which truncated the mountain. It is an outstanding and very
 prominent rock mass, left in bold relief by the ice excavation which
 has carved deep valleys on each side. The rock divides the descending
-névé in the same manner as does The Wedge, and causes a part of the
+névé in the same manner as does The Wedge, and causes a part of the
 snow drainage to flow to the Cowlitz and the other part to be
 tributary to the Nisqually Glacier. The rocks forming Gibraltar
 consist largely of fragments ejected from the crater above, but
@@ -6803,14 +6768,14 @@ may be accurately measured from year to year.
 
 
 
-  [Illustration: FRANÇOIS ÉMILE MATTHES.]
+  [Illustration: FRANÇOIS ÉMILE MATTHES.]
 
 XIV. GLACIERS OF MOUNT RAINIER
 
 BY F. E. MATTHES
 
 
-     François Émile Matthes was born at Amsterdam, Holland, on
+     François Émile Matthes was born at Amsterdam, Holland, on
      March 16, 1874. After pursuing studies in Holland,
      Switzerland and Germany, he came to the United States in 1891
      and graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
@@ -7051,7 +7016,7 @@ ventures out upon the rough bowlder bed of the Nisqually River and
 crosses the foaming torrent on a picturesque wooden bridge. A scant
 thousand feet above this structure, blocking the valley to a height of
 some 400 feet, looms a huge shapeless pile of what seems at first
-sight only rock débris, gray and chocolate in color. It is the
+sight only rock débris, gray and chocolate in color. It is the
 dirt-stained end of one of the largest glaciers--the Nisqually. From a
 yawning cave in its front issues the Nisqually stream, a river full
 fledged from the start.
@@ -7133,20 +7098,20 @@ producing square-cut prisms. Farther down the ice stream's current is
 more sluggish and the crevasses heal up by degrees, providing a united
 surface, over which one may travel freely.
 
-Gradually, also, the glacier covers itself with débris. Angular rock
+Gradually, also, the glacier covers itself with débris. Angular rock
 fragments, large and small, and quantities of dust, derived from the
 rock walls bordering the ice stream higher up, litter its surface and
 hide the color of the ice. At first only a narrow ridge of such
 material--a moraine, as it is called--accompanies the ice river on
 each side, resembling a sharp-crested embankment built by human hands
 to restrain its floods; but toward the lower end of the glacier, as
-the ice wastes away, the débris contained in it is released in masses,
+the ice wastes away, the débris contained in it is released in masses,
 and forms brown marginal bands, fringing the moraines. In fact, from
 here on down it becomes difficult to tell where the ice of the glacier
 ends at the sides and where the moraines begin.
 
 The lower part of the glacier also possesses a peculiar feature in the
-form of a débris ridge about midway on its back--a medial moraine.
+form of a débris ridge about midway on its back--a medial moraine.
 Most of the way it stretches like a slender, dark ribbon, gradually
 narrowing upstream. One may trace it with the eye up to its point of
 origin, the junction of the two main branches of the glacier, at the
@@ -7155,15 +7120,15 @@ foot of a sharp rock spur on the mountain's flank.
 In the last mile of the Nisqually's course, this medial moraine
 develops from a mere dirt band to a conspicuous embankment, projecting
 40 feet above the ice. Not the entire body of the ridge, however, is
-made up of rock débris. The feature owes its elevation chiefly to the
-protective influence of the débris layer on its surface, which is
+made up of rock débris. The feature owes its elevation chiefly to the
+protective influence of the débris layer on its surface, which is
 thick enough to shield the ice beneath from the hot rays of the sun,
 and greatly retards melting, while the adjoining unprotected ice
 surfaces are rapidly reduced.
 
 A short distance above the glacier's terminus the medial moraine and
 the ever-broadening marginal bands come together. No more clear ice
-remains exposed, irregular mounds and ridges of débris cover the
+remains exposed, irregular mounds and ridges of débris cover the
 entire surface of the glacier, and the moraine-smothered mass assumes
 the peculiar inchoate appearance that is so striking upon first view.
 
@@ -7184,7 +7149,7 @@ indigo hue characteristic of the partings in the lower course of the
 glacier. There the material is a dense ice, more or less crystalline
 in texture; here it is scarcely more than snow, but slightly compacted
 and loosely granular--what is generally designated by the Swiss term
-"névé."
+"névé."
 
 For several thousand feet down, as far as the 10,000-foot level, in
 fact, does the snow retain this granular consistency. One reason for
@@ -7237,7 +7202,7 @@ represent but a small fraction of the total microflora thriving on
 the snow, the other species remaining invisible for lack of a
 conspicuous color.
 
-To return to the frigid upper névés, it is not to be supposed that
+To return to the frigid upper névés, it is not to be supposed that
 they suffer no loss whatever by melting. The heat radiated directly to
 them by the sun is alone capable of doing considerable damage, even
 while the air remains below the freezing point. At these high
@@ -7281,15 +7246,15 @@ The snow cliff west of Gibraltar Rock is of interest also for other
 reasons. It is the end of a great snow cascade that descends from the
 rim of the old crater. Several such cascades may be seen on the south
 side of the mountain, separated by craggy remnants of the crater rim.
-Above them the summit névés stretch in continuous fields, but from the
+Above them the summit névés stretch in continuous fields, but from the
 rim on down, the volcano's slopes are too precipitous to permit a
-gradual descent, and the névés break into wild cascades and falls.
+gradual descent, and the névés break into wild cascades and falls.
 Fully two to three thousand feet they tumble, assembling again in
 compact, sluggish ice fields on the gentler slopes below.
 
 Of the three cascades that feed the Nisqually Glacier only the central
 one, it is to be observed, forms a continuous connection between the
-summit névés and the lower ice fields. The two others, viz. the one
+summit névés and the lower ice fields. The two others, viz. the one
 next to Gibraltar and the westernmost of the three, terminate in
 vertical cliffs, over great precipices of rock. From them snow masses
 detach at intervals and produce thundering avalanches that bound far
@@ -7314,7 +7279,7 @@ independent ice body, nourished chiefly by direct snow precipitation
 from the clouds. And this is true, in large measure, of all the ice
 fields lying under the ice cascades. The Nisqually Glacier,
 accordingly, is not to be regarded as composed merely of the cascading
-névés, reunited and cemented together, but as taking a fresh start at
+névés, reunited and cemented together, but as taking a fresh start at
 these lower levels. Improbable though this may seem at first, it is
 nevertheless a fact that is readily explained.
 
@@ -7378,7 +7343,7 @@ Nisqually, are in a sense reborn some 4,000 feet lower down.
 
 A striking example of an ice body nourished wholly by the snows
 falling on the lower slope of Mount Rainier is the Paradise Glacier.
-In no wise connected with the summit névés, it makes its start at an
+In no wise connected with the summit névés, it makes its start at an
 elevation of less than 9,000 feet. Situated on the spreading slope
 between the diverging canyons of the Nisqually on the west and of the
 Cowlitz on the northeast, it constitutes a typical "interglacier," as
@@ -7386,7 +7351,7 @@ intermediate ice bodies of this kind are termed.
 
 Its appearance is that of a gently undulating ice field, crevassed
 only toward its lower edge and remarkably clean throughout. No
-débris-shedding cliffs rise anywhere along its borders, and this fact,
+débris-shedding cliffs rise anywhere along its borders, and this fact,
 no doubt, largely explains its freedom from morainal accumulations.
 
 The absence of cliffs also implies a lack of protecting shade.
@@ -7499,7 +7464,7 @@ back, the two tributaries must be very nearly equal in strength, yet,
 when traced to their sources, they are found to originate in widely
 different ways. The north branch, named Ingraham Glacier (after Maj.
 E. S. Ingraham, one of Rainier's foremost pioneers), comes from the
-névés on the summit; while the south branch heads in a pocket
+névés on the summit; while the south branch heads in a pocket
 immediately under Gibraltar. No snow comes to it from the summit;
 hence we can not escape the conclusion that it receives through direct
 precipitation and through wind drifting about as much snow as its
@@ -7519,7 +7484,7 @@ fairly uneventful course. Like the lower Nisqually, it is bordered by
 long morainal ridges, and toward its end acquires broad marginal dirt
 bands. For nearly a mile these continue, leaving a gradually narrowing
 lane of clear ice between them. Then they coalesce and the whole ice
-body becomes strewn with rock débris.
+body becomes strewn with rock débris.
 
 The Cowlitz Glacier, including its north branch, the Ingraham Glacier,
 measures slightly over 6 miles in length. Throughout that distance the
@@ -7537,7 +7502,7 @@ emptying in the Columbia River a short distance below Portland,
 Oregon.
 
 The name Muddy Fork is a most apt one, for the stream leaves the
-glacier heavily charged with débris and mud, and while it gradually
+glacier heavily charged with débris and mud, and while it gradually
 clears itself as it proceeds over its gravelly bed, it is still turbid
 when it reaches the Ohanapecosh. That stream is relatively clear, for
 it heads in a glacier of small extent and little eroding power, and
@@ -7550,13 +7515,13 @@ every one of the streams flowing from the ice fields of Mount Rainier.
 So easily disintegrated are the volcanic materials of which that peak
 is composed, that the glaciers are enabled to erode with great
 rapidity, even in their present shrunken state. They consequently
-deliver to the streams vast quantities of débris, much of it in the
+deliver to the streams vast quantities of débris, much of it in the
 form of cobbles and bowlders, but much of it also in the form of "rock
 flour."
 
 A considerable proportion of a glacier's erosional work is performed
 by abrasion or grinding, its bed being scoured and grooved by the rock
-blocks and smaller débris held by the passing ice. As a result glacier
+blocks and smaller débris held by the passing ice. As a result glacier
 streams ordinarily carry much finely comminuted rock, or rock flour,
 and this, because of its fineness, remains long in suspension and
 imparts to the water a distinctive color. In regions of light-colored
@@ -7642,7 +7607,7 @@ F. Emmons, the geologist and mountaineer who was the second to conquer
 the peak in 1870). About 5-1/2 miles long and 1-3/4 miles wide in its
 upper half, it covers almost 8 square miles of territory. It makes a
 continuous descent from the summit to the base, the rim of the old
-crater having almost completely broken down under its heavy névé
+crater having almost completely broken down under its heavy névé
 cascades. But two small remnants of the rim still protrude through the
 ice and divide it into three cascades. From each of these dark rock
 islands trails a long medial moraine that extends in an
@@ -7658,7 +7623,7 @@ from its edge; the older ridges, subdued in outline, and already
 tinged with verdure, lie several hundred feet higher on the slope.
 
 The Emmons Glacier, like the Nisqually and the Cowlitz, becomes
-densely littered with morainal débris at its lower end, maintaining,
+densely littered with morainal débris at its lower end, maintaining,
 however, for a considerable distance a central lane of clear ice. The
 stream which it sends forth, White River, is the largest of all the
 ice-fed streams radiating from the peak. It flows northward and then
@@ -7666,11 +7631,11 @@ turns in a northwesterly direction, emptying finally in Puget Sound
 at the city of Seattle.
 
 On the northeast side of the mountain, descending from the same high
-névés as the Emmons Glacier, is the Winthrop Glacier. Not until
+névés as the Emmons Glacier, is the Winthrop Glacier. Not until
 halfway down, at an elevation of about 10,000 feet, does it detach
 itself as a separate ice stream. The division takes place at the apex
 of that great triangular interspace so aptly named "the Wedge." Upon
-its sharp cliff edge, Steamboat Prow, the descending névés part, it
+its sharp cliff edge, Steamboat Prow, the descending névés part, it
 has been said, like swift-flowing waters upon the dividing bow of a
 ship at anchor. The simile is an excellent one; even the long foam
 crest, rising along the ship's side, is represented by a wave of ice.
@@ -7769,14 +7734,14 @@ as they deepen, the rock fragment at the bottom receives the sun heat
 each day for a progressively shorter period, until at last it receives
 so little that its rate of sinking becomes less than that of the
 melting glacier surface. Nevertheless it will be clear that the
-presence of scattered rock débris on a glacier must greatly augment
+presence of scattered rock débris on a glacier must greatly augment
 the rate of melting, as it fairly honeycombs the ice and increases the
-number of melting surfaces. Wherever the débris is dense, on the other
+number of melting surfaces. Wherever the débris is dense, on the other
 hand, and accumulates on the glacier in a heavy layer, its effect
 becomes a protective one and surface melting is retarded instead of
 accelerated. The dirt-covered lower ends of the glaciers of Mount
 Rainier are thus to be regarded as in a measure preserved by the
-débris that cloaks them; their life is greatly prolonged by the
+débris that cloaks them; their life is greatly prolonged by the
 unsightly garment.
 
 In many ways the most interesting of all the ice streams on Mount
@@ -7793,7 +7758,7 @@ grandest in the world. It measures more than a mile and a half in
 diameter, while its head wall towers a sheer 3,600 feet. So well
 proportioned is the great hollow, however, and so simple are its
 outlines that the eye finds difficulty in correctly estimating the
-dimensions. Not until an avalanche breaks from the 300-foot névé cliff
+dimensions. Not until an avalanche breaks from the 300-foot névé cliff
 above and hurls itself over the precipice with crashing thunder, does
 one begin to realize the depth of the colossal recess. The falling
 snow mass is several seconds in descending, and though weighing
@@ -7806,7 +7771,7 @@ even as a waterfall causes the cliff under it to recede. But the real
 manner in which glacial cirques evolve is better understood to-day. It
 is now known that cirques are produced primarily by the eroding action
 of the ice masses embedded in them. Slowly creeping forward, these ice
-masses, shod as they are with débris derived from the encircling
+masses, shod as they are with débris derived from the encircling
 cliffs, scour and scoop out their hollow sites, and enlarge and deepen
 them by degrees. Seconding this work is the rock-splitting action of
 water freezing in the interstices of the rock walls. This process is
@@ -7834,27 +7799,27 @@ In its headward growth the Carbon Glacier, as one may readily observe
 on the map, has encroached considerably upon the summit platform of
 the mountain, the massive northwest portion of the crater rim of which
 Liberty Cap is the highest point. In so doing it has made great
-inroads upon the névé fields that send down the avalanches, and has
+inroads upon the névé fields that send down the avalanches, and has
 reduced this source of supply. On the other hand, by deploying
-laterally, the glacier has succeeded in capturing part of the névés
+laterally, the glacier has succeeded in capturing part of the névés
 formerly tributary to the ice fields to the west, and has made good
 some of the losses due to its headward cutting. But, after all, these
 are events of relatively slight importance in the glacier's career;
 for like the lower ice fields of the Nisqually, and like most glaciers
 on the lower slopes of the mountain, the Carbon Glacier is not wholly
-dependent upon the summit névés for its supply of ice. The avalanches,
+dependent upon the summit névés for its supply of ice. The avalanches,
 imposing though they are, contribute but a minor portion of its total
 bulk. Most of its mass is derived directly from the low hanging snow
 clouds, or is blown into the cirque by eddying winds. How abundantly
 capable these agents are to create large ice bodies at low altitudes
-is convincingly demonstrated by the extensive névé fields immediately
+is convincingly demonstrated by the extensive névé fields immediately
 west of the Carbon Glacier, for which the name Russell Glacier has
 recently been proposed. It is to be noted, however, that these ice
 fields lie spread out on shelves fairly exposed to sun and wind. How
 much better adapted for the accumulation of snow is the Carbon
 Glacier's amphitheater! Not only does it constitute an admirably
 designed catchment basin for wind-blown snow, but an effective
-conserver of the névés collecting in it. Opening to the north only,
+conserver of the névés collecting in it. Opening to the north only,
 its encircling cliffs thoroughly shield the contained ice mass from
 the sun. By its very form, moreover, it tends to prolong the
 glacier's life, for the latter lies compactly in the hollow with a
@@ -7945,7 +7910,7 @@ small and shallow, not as capacious even as either of the twin
 recesses in the Carbon Glacier's amphitheater. As a consequence the
 ice stream issuing from it is of only moderate volume; nevertheless it
 attains a length of 3-3/4 miles. This is due in part to the heavy
-snows that reënforce it throughout its middle course and in part to
+snows that reënforce it throughout its middle course and in part to
 overflows from the ice fields bordering it on the south. These ice
 fields, almost extensive enough to be considered a distinct glacier,
 are separated from the North Mowich Glacier only by a row of
@@ -7954,7 +7919,7 @@ pinnacles, the remnants evidently of a narrow rock partition or
 the rock spires bears the appropriate name of "The Needle" (7,587
 feet).
 
-The débris-covered lower end of the glacier splits into two short
+The débris-covered lower end of the glacier splits into two short
 lobes on a rounded boss in the middle of the channel. This boss, but a
 short time ago, was overridden by the glacier and then undoubtedly
 gave rise to an ice dome of the kind so numerous farther up on the
@@ -7965,7 +7930,7 @@ triangular ice field (named Edmunds Glacier) lies the South Mowich
 Glacier, also a cirque-born ice stream, heading against the base of
 the Liberty Cap massif. It is the shortest of the western glaciers,
 measuring only a scant 3 miles. Aside from the snows accumulating in
-its ill-shaped cirque it receives strong reënforcements from its
+its ill-shaped cirque it receives strong reënforcements from its
 neighbor to the south--the Puyallup Glacier.
 
 Toward its lower end it splits into two unequal lobes, the
@@ -7998,8 +7963,8 @@ lesser lobe splits off to the south on a wedge of rock.
 
 Immediately south of the elevated amphitheater of the Puyallup Glacier
 the crater rim of the volcano is breached for a distance of half a
-mile. Through this gap tumbles a voluminous cascade from the névé
-fields about the summit, and this cascade, reënforced by a flow from
+mile. Through this gap tumbles a voluminous cascade from the névé
+fields about the summit, and this cascade, reënforced by a flow from
 the Puyallup cirque, forms the great Tahoma Glacier, the most
 impressive ice stream on the southwest side. Separated from its
 northern neighbor by a rock cleaver of remarkable length and
@@ -8008,20 +7973,20 @@ Its surface, more than a mile broad in places, is diversified by
 countless ice falls and cataracts.
 
 A mere row of isolated pinnacles indicates its eastern border, and
-across the gaps in this row its névés coalesce with those of the South
+across the gaps in this row its névés coalesce with those of the South
 Tahoma Glacier. Farther down the two ice streams abruptly part company
 and flow in wide detours around a cliff-girt, castellated rock
 mass--Glacier Island it has been named. The Tahoma Glacier, about a
 mile above its terminus, spits upon a low, verdant wedge and sends a
 lobe southward which skirts the walls of this island rock, and at its
 base meets again the South Tahoma Glacier. From here on the two ice
-streams merge and form a single densely débris-laden mass, so chaotic
+streams merge and form a single densely débris-laden mass, so chaotic
 in appearance that one would scarcely take it for a glacier. Numerous
 rivulets course over its dark surface only to disappear in mysterious
 holes and clefts. Profound, circular kettles filled with muddy water
 often develop on it during the summer months, and after a brief
 existence empty themselves again by subglacial passages or by a newly
-formed crevasse. So abundant is the rock débris released by melting
+formed crevasse. So abundant is the rock débris released by melting
 that the wind at times whips it up into veritable dust storms.
 
 Beautifully regular moraines accompany the ice mass on both sides,
@@ -8056,7 +8021,7 @@ interglacier, named Pyramid Glacier. It covers a fairly smooth, gently
 sloping platform underlain by a heavy lava bed, and breaking off at
 its lower edge in precipitous, columnar cliffs. Into this platform a
 profound but narrow box canyon has been incised by an ice stream
-descending from the summit névés east of Peak Success. This is the
+descending from the summit névés east of Peak Success. This is the
 Kautz Glacier, an ice stream peculiar for its exceeding slenderness.
 On the map it presents almost a worm-like appearance, heightened
 perhaps by its strongly sinuous course. In spite of its meager width,
@@ -8118,7 +8083,7 @@ its crown. There is no ice cap, properly speaking, and there has
 perhaps never been one at any time in the mountain's history, not even
 during the glacial epochs.
 
-Several of the main ice streams head in the névés gathering about the
+Several of the main ice streams head in the névés gathering about the
 summit craters, but a larger number originate in profound
 amphitheaters carved in the mountain's flanks, at levels fully 4,000
 feet below the summit. In the general distribution of the glaciers the
@@ -8211,7 +8176,7 @@ appearance.
 These lava flows and beds of volcanic ejectamenta thus exposed dip
 away from the summit at a low angle. The steepest dip observed was in
 the amphitheater at the head of Carbon Glacier, where in the dividing
-spur the dip to the northeast is about 30°. Some exceptions in the
+spur the dip to the northeast is about 30°. Some exceptions in the
 inclination of the beds were noted on the southeastern slope, where in
 a few cases the layers are horizontal, or even dip toward the central
 axis of the cone. In general, however, the volcanics composing Mount
@@ -8366,7 +8331,7 @@ hypersthene-augite olivine variation, already referred to, doubtless
 well expresses the chemical composition of the magma, and deserves to
 be taken as the chief criterion in the classification of the lavas. As
 was noted by Hague and Iddings, the hypersthene and olivine play a
-like rôle, the former occurring when the silica percentage is somewhat
+like rôle, the former occurring when the silica percentage is somewhat
 higher than in basalt. It is exceptional to find the two in the same
 specimen, the one being absent whenever the other is present. The
 following analysis[30] of the typical hypersthene-andesite from Crater
@@ -8557,7 +8522,7 @@ BY PROFESSOR CHARLES V. PIPER
      Victoria, British Columbia, on June 16, 1867. He graduated
      from the University of Washington in 1885 and since then has
      received degrees and honors from other institutions and
-     learned societies. He was professor of botany and zoölogy at
+     learned societies. He was professor of botany and zoölogy at
      the Washington Agricultural College (now State College of
      Washington) from 1892 to 1903. He has been agrostologist in
      charge of forage crop investigations for the Bureau of Plant
@@ -9732,7 +9697,7 @@ Much like the preceding and found in similar places.
 
 Found on Mount Rainier and on Goat Mountains by Allen.
 
-=Parnassia fimbriata= König.
+=Parnassia fimbriata= König.
 
 A plant with radical reniform leaves and one-flowered scapes. The
 petals are white and fringed. Not rare in moist places near Sluiskin
@@ -10621,7 +10586,7 @@ FOOTNOTES:
 
 [27] Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, Vol. XXVI, 1883, pp. 222-235.
 
-[28] Neues Jahrbuch für Min., etc., Vol. I, 1885, pp. 222-226.
+[28] Neues Jahrbuch für Min., etc., Vol. I, 1885, pp. 222-226.
 
 [29] Observed by Iddings: Twelfth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, p.
 612.
@@ -10645,7 +10610,7 @@ MEMORIAL BY SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES
      A surprisingly wide interest was awakened by the proposal to
      create a national park to include the great mass of Mount
      Rainier and its immediate surroundings. Five societies
-     appointed committees to coöperate in securing the needed
+     appointed committees to coöperate in securing the needed
      legislation from Congress. Those committees prepared a
      memorial. The Senate Miscellaneous Document, number 247,
      Fifty-third Congress, second session, shows that the memorial
@@ -10694,7 +10659,7 @@ At a meeting of the Appalachian Mountain Club, held in Boston April
 Ritchie, Jr., Rev. E. C. Smith, Dr. Charles E. Fay.
 
 The committees thus appointed were instructed by the several bodies to
-which they belong to coöperate in the preparation of a memorial to
+which they belong to coöperate in the preparation of a memorial to
 Congress, setting forth the substantial reasons for the establishment
 of such park.
 
@@ -10782,7 +10747,7 @@ itself is as noble a mountain as we have ever seen in its lines and
 structure. The glaciers which descend from its snow fields present
 all the characteristic features of those in the Alps, and though less
 extensive than the ice streams of the Mount Blanc or Monta Rosa groups
-are in their crevasses and séracs equally striking and equally worthy
+are in their crevasses and séracs equally striking and equally worthy
 of close study. We have seen nothing more beautiful in Switzerland or
 Tyrol, in Norway or in the Pyrenees, than the Carbon River glaciers
 and the great Puyallup glaciers; indeed, the ice in the latter is
@@ -11889,7 +11854,7 @@ greater part of which is given to esoteric students and cannot be
 revealed. The word itself means "uncontaminated." The wonderful beauty
 of the scene, in its pure and original form, suggested the name to an
 early group of visitors, Theosophists, consisting of the following
-persons: Professor E. O. Schwägerl, Mr. and Mrs. George A. Sheffield,
+persons: Professor E. O. Schwägerl, Mr. and Mrs. George A. Sheffield,
 Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Knight, Miss Ida Wright (now Mrs. Vern Mudgett),
 Mrs. Addie G. Barlow and Mr. Henry Carter. Elevation, 4,572 feet above
 sea level.
@@ -12588,362 +12553,4 @@ of chapters to which they pertain.
 Company information at bottom of each ad page was reduced to one
 placement at the end of the ads.
 
-
-
-***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOUNT RAINIER***
-
-
-******* This file should be named 42314-8.txt or 42314-8.zip *******
-
-
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/3/1/42314
-
-
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
-will be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
-one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
-(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
-permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
-set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
-copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
-protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
-Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
-charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
-do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
-rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
-such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
-research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
-practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
-subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
-redistribution.
-
-
-
-*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-  www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-
-Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works
-
-1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
-all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
-If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
-terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
-entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
-
-1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
-paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
-and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
-or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
-collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
-individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
-located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
-copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
-works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
-are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
-Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
-freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
-this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
-the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
-keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
-a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
-the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
-before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
-creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
-Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
-the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
-States.
-
-1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
-access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
-whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
-copied or distributed:
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
-
-1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
-from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
-posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
-and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
-or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
-with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
-work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
-through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
-Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
-1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
-terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
-to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
-permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
-word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
-distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
-"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
-posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
-you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
-copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
-request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
-form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
-that
-
-- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
-     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
-     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
-     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
-     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
-     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
-     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
-     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
-     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
-     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-     License.  You must require such a user to return or
-     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
-     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
-     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
-     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
-     of receipt of the work.
-
-- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
-forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
-both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
-Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
-Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
-collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
-"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
-corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
-property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
-computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
-your equipment.
-
-1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
-your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
-the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
-refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
-providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
-receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
-is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
-opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
-WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
-WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
-If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
-law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
-interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
-the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
-provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
-with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
-promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
-harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
-that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
-or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
-work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
-Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
-
-
-Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
-including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
-because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
-people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
-To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
-and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
-Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
-permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
-Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
-throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at 809
-North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887.  Email
-contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the
-Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-     Chief Executive and Director
-     gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
-SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
-particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
-To donate, please visit:  www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-
-Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
-with anyone.  For forty years, he produced and distributed Project
-Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
-unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
-keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
-
-     www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42314 ***
diff --git a/42314-8.zip b/42314-8.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index 26dc621..0000000
--- a/42314-8.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/42314-h.zip b/42314-h.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index 29d3707..0000000
--- a/42314-h.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/42314-h/42314-h.htm b/42314-h/42314-h.htm
index 62632e3..a4f2bb3 100644
--- a/42314-h/42314-h.htm
+++ b/42314-h/42314-h.htm
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
 <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
 <head>
-<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" />
 <title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Mount Rainier, by Various</title>
 <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover-page.jpg"/>
     <style type="text/css">
@@ -191,28 +191,10 @@ padding-right: .5em;}
     </style>
 </head>
 <body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42314 ***</div>
 <h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, Mount Rainier, by Various, Edited by Edmond
 S. (Edmond Stephen) Meany</h1>
-<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at <a
-href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p>
-<p>Title: Mount Rainier</p>
-<p>       A Record of Exploration</p>
-<p>Author: Various</p>
-<p>Editor: Edmond S. (Edmond Stephen) Meany</p>
-<p>Release Date: March 12, 2013  [eBook #42314]</p>
-<p>Language: English</p>
-<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
-<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOUNT RAINIER***</p>
 <p>&nbsp;</p>
-<h4 class="pg">E-text prepared by Greg Bergquist, JoAnn Greenwood,<br />
-    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
-    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
-    from page images generously made available by<br />
-    Internet Archive<br />
-    (<a href="http://archive.org">http://archive.org</a>)</h4>
 <p>&nbsp;</p>
 <table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
   <tr>
@@ -242,11 +224,11 @@ href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p>
 
 <p class="center">
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br />
-<small>NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS<br />
-ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO</small><br />
+<small>NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS<br />
+ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO</small><br />
 <br />
 MACMILLAN &amp; CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br />
-<small>LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA<br />
+<small>LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA<br />
 MELBOURNE</small><br />
 <br />
 THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br />
@@ -565,7 +547,7 @@ Engraved by J. Landseer for Vancouver's Journal</a></td>
 <td class="tdl"><a href="#LANDES">Professor Henry Landes</a></td>
 <td class="tdr">194</td></tr>
 <tr>
-<td class="tdl"><a href="#MATTHES">François Émile Matthes</a></td>
+<td class="tdl"><a href="#MATTHES">François Émile Matthes</a></td>
 <td class="tdr">201</td></tr>
 <tr>
 <td class="tdl"><a href="#SMITH">George Otis Smith</a></td>
@@ -652,7 +634,7 @@ distance.</p>
 
 <p class="space-above">[Saturday, May 26, 1792.] Towards noon we landed
 on a point on the eastern shore, whose latitude I observed
-to be 47° 21&#8242;, round which we flattered ourselves
+to be 47° 21&#8242;, round which we flattered ourselves
 we should find the inlet take an extensive eastwardly
 course. This conjecture was supported by the appearance
 of a very abrupt division in the snowy range of
@@ -1208,7 +1190,7 @@ feet wide; along which is a fine meadow of some extent,
 with clumps of alder and willow: the soil was of a black
 turfy nature. After leaving the meadow-land, they
 began to ascend along a path that was scarcely visible
-from being overgrown with Gaultheria, Hazel, Spiræa,
+from being overgrown with Gaultheria, Hazel, Spiræa,
 Vaccinium, and Cornus.</p>
 
 <p>During the day, they crossed the Stehna.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a>
@@ -1217,7 +1199,7 @@ evening, after making sixteen miles, they encamped at
 the junction of the Puyallup with the Upthascap.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a>
 <a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
 Near by was a hut, built of the planks of the Arbor
-Vitæ (Thuja), which was remarkably well made; and
+Vitæ (Thuja), which was remarkably well made; and
 the boards used in its structure, although split, had all
 the appearance of being sawn: many of them were
 three feet wide, and about fifteen feet long. The hut
@@ -1254,7 +1236,7 @@ constructed as the one heretofore described, on
 the Chickeeles,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a>
 <a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> though much smaller.</p>
 
-<p>This part of the country abounds with arbor-vitæ
+<p>This part of the country abounds with arbor-vitæ
 trees, some of which were found to be thirty feet in
 circumference at the height of four feet from the ground,
 and upwards of one hundred feet high. Notwithstanding
@@ -1350,13 +1332,13 @@ with great relish.</p>
 
 <p>On the 25th, they set out at an early hour, and found
 the travelling less rough, so that they reached the foot
-of La Tête<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a>
+of La Tête<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a>
 <a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> before noon, having accomplished eleven
 miles. Lieutenant Johnson with the sergeant ascended
-La Tête, obtained the bearings, from its summit, of all
+La Tête, obtained the bearings, from its summit, of all
 the objects around, and made its height by barometer,
 two thousand seven hundred and ninety-eight feet:
-its latitude was fixed at 47° 08&#8242; 54&#8243; N. This mountain
+its latitude was fixed at 47° 08&#8242; 54&#8243; N. This mountain
 was entirely destitute of wood; but, having been burnt
 over, was found strewn with huge charred trunks, and
 the whole ground covered with ashes. The inclination
@@ -1364,7 +1346,7 @@ of its sides was about fifty degrees.</p>
 
 <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
 <p>The country around seemed one continued series of
-hills, and like La Tête had suffered from the fire.
+hills, and like La Tête had suffered from the fire.
 According to the natives, although the wood on the
 mountains was destroyed many years since, yet it was
 still observed to be on fire, in some places, about two
@@ -1374,11 +1356,11 @@ of two valleys, through which the two branches of the
 Smalocho<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a>
 <a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> flow.</p>
 
-<p>On descending from La Tête, the river was to be
+<p>On descending from La Tête, the river was to be
 crossed: this was found too deep to be forded, and it
 consequently became necessary to form a bridge to
 transport the baggage, by cutting down trees. The
-current was found to run 6·2 miles per hour. They had
+current was found to run 6·2 miles per hour. They had
 been in hopes of reaching the Little Prairie before night,
 but in consequence of this delay, were forced to encamp
 before arriving there.</p>
@@ -1407,10 +1389,10 @@ of the same size was found half a mile farther east.</p>
 <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
 <p>The 27th was employed by Lieutenant Johnson in
 determining the positions of this prairie, which proved
-to be in latitude 47° 05&#8242; 51&#8243; N., and longitude 120°
+to be in latitude 47° 05&#8242; 51&#8243; N., and longitude 120°
 13&#8242; W.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a>
 <a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
-The variation was 19° 39&#8242; easterly. At
+The variation was 19° 39&#8242; easterly. At
 sunset, messengers arrived from Mr. Waldron, who had
 reached the summit at noon, and was to proceed down
 to the snow-line to encamp. The snow was found to
@@ -1450,12 +1432,12 @@ they reached the summit.</p>
 apparently not more than ten miles distant. A profile
 of the mountain indicates that it has a terminal crater,
 as well as some on its flanks. The barometer stood
-at 24·950 in.: five thousand and ninety-two feet.
+at 24·950 in.: five thousand and ninety-two feet.
 There was another, to the north-northeast, covered with
 snow, and one to the west appeared about two hundred
 feet higher than the place where the observations were
 taken. This latter had suffered from fire in the same
-way as La Tête, and showed only a few patches of snow.
+way as La Tête, and showed only a few patches of snow.
 To the eastward, a range of inferior height, running
 north and south, was in view, without snow.</p>
 
@@ -1586,8 +1568,8 @@ its course was east-southeast.</p>
 decidedly more advanced than that to the west, and
 several very interesting species of plants were met with
 by the botanists, on the banks of the streams: among
-them were Pæonia brownii, Cypripedium oregonium,
-Pentstemon, Ipomopsis elegans, and several Compositæ,
+them were Pæonia brownii, Cypripedium oregonium,
+Pentstemon, Ipomopsis elegans, and several Compositæ,
 and a very handsome flowering shrub, Purshia tridentata.</p>
 
 <p>On the 31st, they continued their route over a rough
@@ -1736,13 +1718,13 @@ resorted to as before. On this plain was seen a number
 of curlews, some grouse, and a large species of hare.
 They encamped again near the snow, and found their
 altitude greater than any yet reached, the barometer
-standing at 24·750 in.: five thousand two hundred and
+standing at 24·750 in.: five thousand two hundred and
 three feet. They had again reached the spruces and
 lost the pine, which was only found on the hill-sides
 and plains.</p>
 
 <p>At 4 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> on the morning of the 4th of June, the
-thermometer stood at 28°. They on that day continued
+thermometer stood at 28°. They on that day continued
 their route up the mountain and across its
 summit, which was here and there covered with patches
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
@@ -1813,7 +1795,7 @@ the coast.</p>
 
 <p>This was one of the warmest days they had experienced,
 and the thermometer under the shade of a
-canopy stood at 108°. At a short distance from the
+canopy stood at 108°. At a short distance from the
 place where they stopped was a small hut, composed of
 a few branches and reeds, which was thought to be
 barely sufficient to contain a sheep; yet under it were
@@ -1993,7 +1975,7 @@ sharp in outline, so full of vigorous detail of surface?
 No cloud, as my stare, no longer dreamy, presently
 discovered,&mdash;no cloud, but a cloud compeller. It
 was a giant mountain dome of snow, swelling and
-seeming to fill the aërial spheres as its image displaced
+seeming to fill the aërial spheres as its image displaced
 the blue deeps of tranquil water. The smoky haze
 of an Oregon August hid all the length of its lesser
 ridges, and left this mighty summit based upon uplifting
@@ -2061,7 +2043,7 @@ now, and followed him humbly enough up the heights
 we had reached. Here were all the old difficulties
 increased, because they were no longer met on a level.
 We were to climb the main ridge,&mdash;the mountain of
-La Tête,&mdash;abandoning the valley, assaulting the
+La Tête,&mdash;abandoning the valley, assaulting the
 summits. And here, as Owhhigh had prophesied in
 his harangue at Nisqually, the horse's mane must be
 firmly grasped by the climber. Poor, panting, weary
@@ -2247,29 +2229,29 @@ enchanters, magicians, diviners,&mdash;what in conventional
 lingo is called "big medicine." For though the
 Indians here have not peopled these thrones of their
 world with the creatures of an anthropomorphic
-mythology, they yet deem them the abode of Tamanoüs.
-Tamanoüs is a vague and half-personified type
+mythology, they yet deem them the abode of Tamanoüs.
+Tamanoüs is a vague and half-personified type
 of the unknown, of the mysterious forces of nature;
 and there is also an indefinite multitude of undefined
-emanations, each one a tamanoüs with a small t, which
+emanations, each one a tamanoüs with a small t, which
 are busy and impish in complicating existence, or
 equally active and spritely in unravelling it. Each
 Indian of this region patronizes his own personal
-tamanoüs, as men of the more eastern tribes keep a
-private manitto, and as Socrates kept a daimôn. To
-supply this want, Tamanoüs with a big T undergoes
+tamanoüs, as men of the more eastern tribes keep a
+private manitto, and as Socrates kept a daimôn. To
+supply this want, Tamanoüs with a big T undergoes
 an avatar, and incarnates himself into a salmon, a
 beaver, a clam, or into some inanimate object, such as
 a canoe, a paddle, a fir-tree, a flint, or into some elemental
-essence, as fire, water, sun, mist; and tamanoüs
+essence, as fire, water, sun, mist; and tamanoüs
 thus individualized becomes the "guide, philosopher,
 and friend" of every siwash, conscious that otherwise
 he might stray and be lost in the unknown realms of
-Tamanoüs.</p>
+Tamanoüs.</p>
 
 <p>Hamitchou, a frowzy ancient of the Squallyamish,
 told to Dr. Tolmie and me, at Nisqually, a legend of
-Tamanoüs and Tacoma, which, being interpreted,
+Tamanoüs and Tacoma, which, being interpreted,
 runs as follows:&mdash;</p>
 
 
@@ -2347,17 +2329,17 @@ in hiaqua.</p>
 <p>"So the old man thought deeply, and communed
 with his wisdom, and, while he waited for fish or beast,
 he took advice within himself from his demon,&mdash;he
-talked with Tamanoüs. And always the question
+talked with Tamanoüs. And always the question
 was, 'How may I put hiaqua in my purse?'</p>
 
-<p>"Tamanoüs never revealed to him that far to the
+<p>"Tamanoüs never revealed to him that far to the
 north, beyond the waters of Whulge, are tribes with
 their under lip pierced with a fishbone, among whom
 hiaqua is plenty as salmonberries are in the woods
 what time in mid-summer salmon fin it along the
 reaches of Whulge.</p>
 
-<p>"But the more Tamanoüs did not reveal to him
+<p>"But the more Tamanoüs did not reveal to him
 these mysteries of nature, the more he kept dreamily
 prying into his own mind, endeavoring to devise some
 scheme by which he might discover a treasure-trove
@@ -2366,13 +2348,13 @@ patient, frugal industry, which only brought slow,
 meagre gains. He wanted the splendid elation of
 vast wealth and the excitement of sudden wealth.
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
-His own peculiar tamanoüs was the elk. Elk was
+His own peculiar tamanoüs was the elk. Elk was
 also his totem, the cognizance of his freemasonry with
 those of his own family, and their family friends in
 other tribes. Elk, therefore, were every way identified
 with his life; and he hunted them farther and farther
 up through the forests on the flanks of Tacoma, hoping
-that some day his tamanoüs would speak in the
+that some day his tamanoüs would speak in the
 dying groan of one of them, and gasp out the secret
 of the mines of hiaqua, his heart's desire.</p>
 
@@ -2394,9 +2376,9 @@ last, as he was hunting near the snows one day, one
 very clear and beautiful day of late summer, when
 sunlight was magically disclosing far distances, and
 making all nature supernaturally visible and proximate,
-Tamanoüs began to work in the soul of the miser.</p>
+Tamanoüs began to work in the soul of the miser.</p>
 
-<p>"'Are you brave,' whispered Tamanoüs in the
+<p>"'Are you brave,' whispered Tamanoüs in the
 strange, ringing, dull, silent thunder-tones of a demon
 voice. 'Dare you go to the caves where my treasures
 are hid?'</p>
@@ -2418,7 +2400,7 @@ of his own voice, there came across from the vast snow
 wall of Tacoma a tone like the muffled, threatening
 plunge of an avalanche into a chasm, 'I dare.'</p>
 
-<p>"'You dare,' said Tamanoüs, enveloping him with
+<p>"'You dare,' said Tamanoüs, enveloping him with
 a dread sense of an unseen, supernatural presence;
 'you pray for wealth of hiaqua. Listen!'</p>
 
@@ -2428,15 +2410,15 @@ was listening with every rusty hair separating from
 its unkempt mattedness, and outstanding upright, a
 caricature of an aureole.</p>
 
-<p>"'Listen,' said Tamanoüs, in the noonday hush.
-And then Tamanoüs vouchsafed at last the great
+<p>"'Listen,' said Tamanoüs, in the noonday hush.
+And then Tamanoüs vouchsafed at last the great
 secret of the hiaqua mines, while in terror near to death
 the miser heard, and every word of guidance toward
 the hidden treasure of the mountains seared itself
 into his soul ineffaceably.</p>
 
 <p>"Silence came again more terrible now than the
-voice of Tamanoüs,&mdash;silence under the shadow of the
+voice of Tamanoüs,&mdash;silence under the shadow of the
 great cliff,&mdash;silence deepening down the forest vistas,&mdash;silence
 filling the void up to the snows of Tacoma.
 All life and motion seemed paralyzed. At last Skai-ki,
@@ -2446,7 +2428,7 @@ honest laws of nature. The buzz of life stirred everywhere
 again, and the inspired miser rose and hastened
 home to prepare for his work.</p>
 
-<p>"When Tamanoüs has put a great thought in a
+<p>"When Tamanoüs has put a great thought in a
 man's brain, has whispered him a great discovery
 within his power, or hinted at a great crime, that
 spiteful demon does not likewise suggest the means of
@@ -2495,7 +2477,7 @@ of Tacoma. He desponded bitterly, almost ready to
 abandon his quest, almost doubting whether he had
 in truth received a revelation, whether his interview
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
-with Tamanoüs had not been a dream, and finally
+with Tamanoüs had not been a dream, and finally
 whether all the hiaqua in the world was worth this
 toil and anxiety. Fortunate is the sage who at such
 a point turns back and buys his experience without
@@ -2505,7 +2487,7 @@ worse befalling him.</p>
 drowse, and sat bolt upright in terror. A light.
 Was there another searcher in the forest, and a bolder
 than he? That flame just glimmering over the tree-tops,
-was it a camp-fire of friend or foe? Had Tamanoüs
+was it a camp-fire of friend or foe? Had Tamanoüs
 been revealing to another the great secret? No,
 smiled the miser, his eyes fairly open, and discovering
 that the new light was the moon. He had been waiting
@@ -2539,9 +2521,9 @@ he had come.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
 <p>"But he troubled himself little with staring about;
 up he looked, for the summit was at hand. To win
 that summit was wellnigh the attainment of his hopes,
-if Tamanoüs were true; and that, with the flush of
+if Tamanoüs were true; and that, with the flush of
 morning ardor upon him, he could not doubt. There,
-in a spot Tamanoüs had revealed to him, was hiaqua,&mdash;hiaqua
+in a spot Tamanoüs had revealed to him, was hiaqua,&mdash;hiaqua
 that should make him the richest and greatest
 of all the Squallyamish.</p>
 
@@ -2569,11 +2551,11 @@ necessities of Indian life delayed him but an instant,
 and he hastened on to the third monument, which stood
 apart on a perfect level. The third stone was capped
 by something he almost feared to behold, lest it should
-prove other than his hopes. Every word of Tamanoüs
+prove other than his hopes. Every word of Tamanoüs
 had thus far proved veritable; but might there not be
 a bitter deceit at the last? The miser trembled.</p>
 
-<p>"Yes, Tamanoüs was trustworthy. The third monument
+<p>"Yes, Tamanoüs was trustworthy. The third monument
 was as the old man anticipated. It was a stone
 elk's head, such as it appears in earliest summer, when
 the antlers are sprouting lustily under their rough
@@ -2581,8 +2563,8 @@ jacket of velvet.
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
 
 <p>"You remember, Boston tyee," continued Hamitchou,
-"that Elk was the old man's tamanoüs, the
-incarnation for him of the universal Tamanoüs. He
+"that Elk was the old man's tamanoüs, the
+incarnation for him of the universal Tamanoüs. He
 therefore was right joyous at this good omen of protection;
 and his heart grew big and swollen with hope,
 as the black salmon-berry swells in a swamp in June.
@@ -2613,7 +2595,7 @@ thirteen gave a mighty puff in chorus.</p>
 at his uninvited ring of spectators. But he had seen
 otter before, and bagged them. These he could not
 waste time to shoot, even if a phalanx so numerous
-were not formidable. Besides, they might be tamanoüs.
+were not formidable. Besides, they might be tamanoüs.
 He took to his pick and began digging stoutly.</p>
 
 <p>"He soon made way in the snow, and came to solid
@@ -2664,7 +2646,7 @@ cavity.</p>
 
 <p>"He was a millionnaire.</p>
 
-<p>"The otters recognized him as the favorite of Tamanoüs,
+<p>"The otters recognized him as the favorite of Tamanoüs,
 and retired to a respectful distance.</p>
 
 <p>"For some moments he gazed on his treasure, taking
@@ -2673,7 +2655,7 @@ thought of his future proud grandeur among the
 dwellers by Whulge. He plunged his arm deep as
 he could go; there was still nothing but the precious
 shells. He smiled to himself in triumph; he had
-wrung the secret from Tamanoüs. Then, as he withdrew
+wrung the secret from Tamanoüs. Then, as he withdrew
 his arm, the rattle of the hiaqua recalled him to
 the present. He saw that noon was long past, and
 he must proceed to reduce his property to possession.</p>
@@ -2692,7 +2674,7 @@ the whole.</p>
 
 <p>"The miser never dreamed of gratitude, never
 thought to hang a string from the buried treasure
-about the salmon and kamas tamanoüs stones, and
+about the salmon and kamas tamanoüs stones, and
 two strings around the elk's head; no, all must be
 his own, all he could carry now, and the rest for the
 future.</p>
@@ -2715,7 +2697,7 @@ the water.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></
 
 <p>"Terrible are storms in the mountains; but in this
 looming mass was a terror more dread than any hurricane
-of ruin ever bore within its wild vortexes. Tamanoüs
+of ruin ever bore within its wild vortexes. Tamanoüs
 was in that black cylinder, and as it strode
 forward, chasing in the very path of the miser, he
 shuddered, for his wealth and his life were in danger.</p>
@@ -2741,13 +2723,13 @@ uproar.</p>
 
 <p>"Present in every crash and thunder of the gale
 was a growing undertone, which the miser well knew
-to be the voice of Tamanoüs. A deadly shuddering
+to be the voice of Tamanoüs. A deadly shuddering
 shook him. Heretofore that potent Unseen had been
 his friend and guide; there had been awe, but no terror,
-in his words. Now the voice of Tamanoüs was inarticulate,
+in his words. Now the voice of Tamanoüs was inarticulate,
 but the miser could divine in that sound an
 unspeakable threat of wrath and vengeance. Floating
-upon this undertone were sharper tamanoüs voices,
+upon this undertone were sharper tamanoüs voices,
 shouting and screaming always sneeringly, 'Ha, ha,
 hiaqua!&mdash;ha, ha, ha!'</p>
 
@@ -2765,7 +2747,7 @@ but he held fast to his hiaqua.</p>
 with perdition; the din more impish, demoniac, and
 devilish; the laughter more appalling; and the miser
 more and more exhausted with vain buffeting. He
-determined to propitiate exasperated Tamanoüs with
+determined to propitiate exasperated Tamanoüs with
 a sacrifice. He threw into the black cylinder storm
 his left-handful, five strings of precious hiaqua."</p>
 
@@ -2780,8 +2762,8 @@ there was a momentary lull in elemental war, and he
 heard the otters puffing around him invisible. Then
 the storm renewed, blacker, louder, harsher, crueller
 than before, and over the dread undertone of the voice
-of Tamanoüs, tamanoüs voices again screamed, 'Ha,
-ha, ha, hiaqua!' and it seemed as if tamanoüs hands,
+of Tamanoüs, tamanoüs voices again screamed, 'Ha,
+ha, ha, hiaqua!' and it seemed as if tamanoüs hands,
 or the paws of the demon otters, clutched at the miser's
 right-handful and tore at his shoulder and waist belts.</p>
 
@@ -2803,7 +2785,7 @@ too, the storm laid its clutches. In the final desperate
 struggle the old man was wounded so sternly that
 when he had given up his last relic of the mighty
 treasure, when he had thrown into the formless chaos,
-instinct with Tamanoüs, his last propitiatory offering,
+instinct with Tamanoüs, his last propitiatory offering,
 he sank and became insensible.</p>
 
 <p>"It seemed a long slumber to him, but at last he
@@ -2838,7 +2820,7 @@ and alighting on his head. As he put his hand
 to dislodge her, he touched his scratching-stick of
 bone, and attempted to pass it, as usual, through his
 hair. The hair was matted and interlaced into a
-network reaching fully two ells down his back. 'Tamanoüs,'
+network reaching fully two ells down his back. 'Tamanoüs,'
 thought the old man.</p>
 
 <p>"Chiefly he was conscious of a mental change. He
@@ -2851,8 +2833,8 @@ outer world was cheerful and satisfying. He thought
 he had never awakened to a fresher morning. He was
 a young man again, except for that unusual stiffness
 and unmelodious creaking joints. He felt no apprehension
-of any presence of a deputy tamanoüs, sent
-by Tamanoüs to do malignities upon him in the lonely
+of any presence of a deputy tamanoüs, sent
+by Tamanoüs to do malignities upon him in the lonely
 wood. Great Nature had a kindly aspect, and made
 its divinity perceived only by the sweet notes of birds
 and the hum of forest life, and by a joy that clothed
@@ -2873,7 +2855,7 @@ drooping shade he had lurked, were down, and lay
 athwart his path, transformed into immense mossy
 mounds, like barrows of giants, over which he must
 clamber warily, lest he sink and be half stifled in the dust
-of rotten wood. Had Tamanoüs been widely at work
+of rotten wood. Had Tamanoüs been widely at work
 in that eventful night?&mdash;or had the spiritual change
 the old man felt affected his views of the outer world?</p>
 
@@ -2947,7 +2929,7 @@ whatever he possessed, material treasures or stores of
 wisdom and experience, freely to all the land. Every
 dweller by Whulge came to him for advice how to
 chase the elk, how to troll or spear the salmon, and
-how to propitiate Tamanoüs. He became the Great
+how to propitiate Tamanoüs. He became the Great
 Medicine Man of the siwashes, a benefactor to his
 tribe and his race.</p>
 
@@ -2959,7 +2941,7 @@ tilicum or any blanketeers were seen in the regions of
 Whulge, he told this history to my father, as a lesson
 and a warning. My father, dying, told it to me.
 But I, alas! have no son; I grow old, and lest this
-wisdom perish from the earth, and Tamanoüs be again
+wisdom perish from the earth, and Tamanoüs be again
 obliged to interpose against avarice, I tell the tale to
 thee, O Boston tyee. Mayest thou and thy nation
 not disdain this lesson of an earlier age, but profit by it
@@ -2975,7 +2957,7 @@ publication, is entitled: "Sowee House&mdash;Loolowcan."]</p></blockquote>
 <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
 
 <p>I had not long, that noon of August, from the top
-of La Tête, to study Tacoma, scene of Hamitchou's
+of La Tête, to study Tacoma, scene of Hamitchou's
 wild legend. Humanity forbade dalliance. While I
 fed my soul with sublimity, Klale and his comrades
 were wretched with starvation. But the summit of
@@ -3029,7 +3011,7 @@ well of brightest water. I called in no proxy of tin
 cup to aid me in saluting this sparkling creature, but
 stooped and kissed the spring. When I had rendered
 my first homage thus to the goddess of the fountain,
-Ægle herself, perhaps, fairest of Naiads, I drank
+Ægle herself, perhaps, fairest of Naiads, I drank
 thirstily of the medium in which she dwelt. A bubbling
 dash of water leaped up and splashed my visage
 as I withdrew. Why so, sweet fountain, which I may
@@ -3089,7 +3071,7 @@ doses us, by no means against our will, with many
 sweet boluses of delight, berries compacted of acidulated,
 sugary spiciness. Nature, tenderest of leeches,&mdash;no
 bolus of hers is pleasanter medicament than her
-ruddy strawberries. She shaped them like Minié-balls,
+ruddy strawberries. She shaped them like Minié-balls,
 that they might traverse unerringly to the cell
 of most dulcet digestion. Over their glistening surfaces
 she peppered little golden dots to act as obstacles
@@ -3226,7 +3208,7 @@ revolver, thinking that there might not be time to
 load, and fired in a hurry at the lowermost.
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
 
-<p>"Hyas tamanoüs!" whispered Loolowcan, when
+<p>"Hyas tamanoüs!" whispered Loolowcan, when
 no bird fell or flew,&mdash;"big magic," it seemed to the
 superstitious youth. Often when sportsmen miss,
 they claim that their gun is bewitched, and avail
@@ -3266,9 +3248,9 @@ trail. Loolowcan, reckless steeplechaser, put his horse
 at it, full speed. Gubbins, instead of going over
 neatly, or scrambling over cat-like, reared rampant
 and shied back, volte face. I rode forward to see
-what fresh interference of Tamanoüs was here,&mdash;nothing
+what fresh interference of Tamanoüs was here,&mdash;nothing
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
-tamanoüs but an unexpected sorry object of
+tamanoüs but an unexpected sorry object of
 a horse. A wretched castaway, probably abandoned
 by the exploring party, or astray from them, essaying
 to leap the tree, had fallen back beneath the trunk
@@ -3328,7 +3310,7 @@ three first requisites of a home in the wilderness,
 water, wood, and grass. A musical rustle, as we galloped
 through, proved the long grass. All around
 was the unshorn forest. There were columnar firs
-making the Sowee house a hypæthral temple on a
+making the Sowee house a hypæthral temple on a
 grand scale.</p>
 
 <p>There had been here a lodge. A few saplings of its
@@ -3510,8 +3492,8 @@ Nature in her roughness save them from such
 elaborate fetichism as may exist in more indolent climes
 and countries.</p>
 
-<p>Loolowcan has his tamanoüs. It is Talipus, the
-Wolf, a "hyas skookoom tamanoüs, a very mighty
+<p>Loolowcan has his tamanoüs. It is Talipus, the
+Wolf, a "hyas skookoom tamanoüs, a very mighty
 demon," he informs me. He does not worship it;
 that would interfere with his devotions to his real
 deity, Number One. It, in return, does him little
@@ -3521,14 +3503,14 @@ on a fair morning, he would think it a good omen; if
 on a sulky morning, he might be somewhat depressed,
 but would not on that account turn back, as a Roman
 brave would have done on meeting the matinal wolf.
-In fact, he keeps Talipus, his tamanoüs, as a kind of
+In fact, he keeps Talipus, his tamanoüs, as a kind of
 ideal hobby, very much as a savage civilized man entertains
 a pet bulldog or a tame bear, a link between
 himself and the rude, dangerous forces of nature.
 Loolowcan has either chosen his protector according
 to the law of likeness, or, choosing it by chance, has
 become assimilated to its characteristics. A wolfish
-youth is the <i>protégé</i> of Talipus,&mdash;an unfaithful,
+youth is the <i>protégé</i> of Talipus,&mdash;an unfaithful,
 sinister, cannibal-looking son of a horse-thief. Wolfish
 likewise is his appetite; when he asks me for more
 dinner, and this without stint or decorum he does, he
@@ -3784,7 +3766,7 @@ every thread of clothing to the skin. The summers of
 this region are in extraordinary contrast with the
 winters. Clear, beautiful, and dry, they begin in May
 and last till November; while in the winter, although
-in latitude 47° and 48°, it rarely freezes or snows&mdash;often,
+in latitude 47° and 48°, it rarely freezes or snows&mdash;often,
 however, raining two weeks without stopping
 a permeating drizzle.</p>
 
@@ -4007,7 +3989,7 @@ disintegration of this granite.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a>
 <p>We made our camp under a pine of dense foliage,
 whose limbs at the outer end drooped near the ground.
 We made our cup of tea, and found the water boil at
-202° Fahrenheit. Night set in with a drizzling rain, and
+202° Fahrenheit. Night set in with a drizzling rain, and
 a more solitary, gloomy picture than we presented at
 that camp it is impossible to conceive. Tired, hungry,
 dirty, clothes all in rags&mdash;the effects of our struggles
@@ -4234,7 +4216,7 @@ the worst of it. He could not have told a deer from a
 stump the length of his little old rifle.</p>
 
 <p>Our camp was about 1,000 or 1,500 feet below the
-last visible shrub; water boiled at 199°, and, according
+last visible shrub; water boiled at 199°, and, according
 to an approximate scale we had with us, this indicated
 an elevation of 7,000 feet. We estimated the highest
 peak to be over 12,000 feet high. I greatly regretted
@@ -4485,7 +4467,7 @@ visitors. In 1915, he returned East to live among kinsfolk in
 New York State.</p>
 
 <p class="hang">The names of both Stevens and Van Trump have been generously
-bestowed upon glaciers, creeks, ridges, and cañons within the
+bestowed upon glaciers, creeks, ridges, and cañons within the
 Mount Rainier National Park.</p>
 
 <p class="hang">General Stevens prefers to call the mountain Takhoma. The full
@@ -5375,7 +5357,7 @@ trip, and commenced the ascent by the steep, rocky
 ridge already described as reaching up to the snowy
 dome. We found it to be a very narrow, steep, irregular
 backbone, being solid rock, while the sides were
-composed of loose broken rocks and débris. Up this
+composed of loose broken rocks and débris. Up this
 ridge, keeping upon the spine when possible, and sometimes
 forced to pick our way over the loose and broken
 rocks at the sides, around columnar masses which we
@@ -5409,7 +5391,7 @@ A great glacier filled its bed and stretched away for
 several miles, all seamed or wrinkled across with countless
 crevasses. We crept up and along a ledge, not of
 solid, sure rock, but one obstructed with the loose stones
-and débris which were continually falling from above,
+and débris which were continually falling from above,
 and we trod on the upper edge of a steep slope of this
 rubbish, sending the stones at every step rolling and
 bounding into the depth below. Several times during
@@ -5419,7 +5401,7 @@ fortunately none struck us.</p>
 
 <p>Four hundred yards of this progress brought us to
 where the rock joined the overhanging edge of the vast
-névé or snow-field that descended from the dome of
+névé or snow-field that descended from the dome of
 the mountain and was from time to time, as pressed
 forward and downward, breaking off in immense
 masses, which fell with a noise as of thunder into the
@@ -5448,7 +5430,7 @@ regular, and, after ascending about three hundred yards,
 stood fairly upon the broad dome of mighty Takhoma.
 It rose before us like a broad, gently swelling headland
 of dazzling white, topped with black, where the rocky
-summit projected above the névé. Ascending diagonally
+summit projected above the névé. Ascending diagonally
 towards the left, we continued our course. The
 snow was hard and firm under foot, crisp and light for
 an inch or two, but solidified into ice a foot or less
@@ -5533,7 +5515,7 @@ have been impossible to descend the mountain before
 nightfall, and sure destruction to attempt it in darkness.
 We concluded to return to a mass of rocks not far below,
 and there pass the night as best we could, burrowing
-in the loose débris.</p>
+in the loose débris.</p>
 
 <p>The middle peak of the mountain, however, was evidently
 the highest, and we determined to first visit it.
@@ -5568,7 +5550,7 @@ for a time.</p>
 <p>A deep cavern, extending into and under the ice, and
 formed by the action of heat, was found. Its roof was
 a dome of brilliant green ice with long icicles pendent from
-it, while its floor, composed of the rocks and débris
+it, while its floor, composed of the rocks and débris
 which formed the side of the crater, descended at an
 angle of thirty degrees. Forty feet within its mouth
 we built a wall of stones, inclosing a space five by six
@@ -6190,8 +6172,8 @@ peak, which would seem to have formed originally the
 middle of the mountain mass, is a crater about a quarter
 of a mile in diameter of very perfect circular form.
 Its sides are bare for about 60 feet from the rim, below
-which they are covered by a <i>névé</i> having a slope of
-from 28° to 31°. This <i>névé</i> extending from the shoulders
+which they are covered by a <i>névé</i> having a slope of
+from 28° to 31°. This <i>névé</i> extending from the shoulders
 of the southwestern peak to those of the northern,
 a width of several miles, descends to a vertical distance
 of about 2000 feet below the crater rim, an immense
@@ -6459,13 +6441,13 @@ was formerly called the South Fork, but it should retain
 the name of Puyallup to its next division far up in
 the mountains. A short distance above their junction
 both Carbon River and the Puyallup escape from narrow,
-crooked cañons, whose vertical sides, one hundred
+crooked cañons, whose vertical sides, one hundred
 to three hundred feet high, are often but fifty feet
 apart. From these walls steep, heavily timbered slopes
 rise two hundred to eight hundred feet to the summits
-of the foot-hills. These cañons link the buried river
+of the foot-hills. These cañons link the buried river
 basin of the lower stream with the upper river valleys.
-The latter extend from the heads of the cañons to the
+The latter extend from the heads of the cañons to the
 glaciers. They are apparently the deserted beds of
 mightier ice rivers, now shrunk to the very foot of
 Mount Tacoma.</p>
@@ -6477,7 +6459,7 @@ back from these salt meadows the light green of the
 cottonwoods, alder and vine-maple mark the river's
 course, till it is lost in the dark monotone of the fir
 forest. No break in the evergreen surface indicates
-the place of the river cañons; but far out among the
+the place of the river cañons; but far out among the
 foot-hills a line of mist hangs over the upper valley of
 Carbon River, which winds away eastward, behind
 the rising ground, to the northern side of Mount Tacoma.
@@ -6488,7 +6470,7 @@ accumulate in two glaciers, from which flow the North
 and South Forks of the Puyallup. These streams
 meet in a level valley at the base of three singular
 peaks, and plunge united into the dark gateway of the
-cañon.</p>
+cañon.</p>
 
 <p>A trip to the grand snow peak from which these
 rivers spring was within a year a very difficult undertaking.
@@ -6499,7 +6481,7 @@ and provisions on his back, and worked his way slowly
 among the towering tree trunks, through underbrush
 luxuriant as a tropic jungle. But last summer a good
 horse trail was built from Wilkeson to Carbon River,
-crossing it above the cañon, sixteen miles below the
+crossing it above the cañon, sixteen miles below the
 glacier, and during the autumn it was extended to the
 head of the Puyallup. Wilkeson is reached by a branch
 railroad from New Tacoma. It is on a small tributary
@@ -6518,9 +6500,9 @@ has left its trace in similar terraces in all the valleys
 about the Sound.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a>
 <a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>
 Thence the trail extends southward
-over a level plateau. Carbon River Cañon is
+over a level plateau. Carbon River Cañon is
 but half a mile away on the west, and five miles from
-Wilkeson the valley above the cañon is reached. The
+Wilkeson the valley above the cañon is reached. The
 descent to the river is over three miles along the hillside
 eastward.</p>
 <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span></p>
@@ -6596,7 +6578,7 @@ evergreen spires. Its snow fields are only three miles
 distant, but Carbon River has come a long way round.
 For six miles eastward the undulating lines of the
 mountains converge, then those on the north suddenly
-cross the view, where the river cañon turns sharply
+cross the view, where the river cañon turns sharply
 southward.</p>
 
 <p>Three miles from this turn is Crescent Mountain, its
@@ -6649,7 +6631,7 @@ with a long shrill whistle that would make a schoolboy
 envious, but trots quickly away on nearer approach.
 The crest of the southwest rim of the amphitheater
 is easily gained, and the grandeur of the view bursts
-upon you suddenly. Eastward are the cliffs and cañons
+upon you suddenly. Eastward are the cliffs and cañons
 of the Cascade Range. Northward forest-covered hill
 and valley reach to Mount Baker and the snow peaks
 that break the horizon line. Westward are the blue
@@ -6673,7 +6655,7 @@ and the consolidated snow begins its downward movement
 from near the top. Little pinnacles of rock project
 through the mass and form eddies in the current.
 A jagged ridge divides it, and part descends into the
-deep unexplored cañon of White River, probably the
+deep unexplored cañon of White River, probably the
 deepest chasm in the flanks of Mount Tacoma. The
 other part comes straight on toward the southern side
 of Crescent Mountain, a precipice 2,000 feet high;
@@ -6696,7 +6678,7 @@ it passes out of sight in the depths of the basin.</p>
 
 <p>A two days' visit to this trackless region sufficed
 only to see a small part of the magnificent scenery.
-White River Cañon, the cliffs of Ragged Spur, the
+White River Cañon, the cliffs of Ragged Spur, the
 northern slope of Mount Tacoma, where the climber
 is always tempted upward, might occupy him for
 weeks. Across the snow fields, where Milk Creek
@@ -6885,7 +6867,7 @@ well as a health-giving beverage. Around each spring
 is an incrustation of soda compounds deposited by the
 water. One spring, over which a rude bath-house has
 been constructed, pours forth a large quantity of water
-at a temperature of 85° Fahr. A bath in this water is
+at a temperature of 85° Fahr. A bath in this water is
 pleasant and invigorating. The view from the springs
 is very beautiful. On the right is the swift flowing
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
@@ -6952,7 +6934,7 @@ over a thousand feet in height. Here the courage of
 one of the party failed him, and he concluded to go no
 farther. The most dangerous part of the ascent is
 along the base of this cliff. The earth pitches at an
-angle of 35° from its base, and at three particular
+angle of 35° from its base, and at three particular
 places this incline is not over six feet wide, ending in
 a perpendicular jump-off of fifteen hundred feet to the
 Nisqually glacier below. After a half hour's crouching
@@ -7231,7 +7213,7 @@ of the one we ascended, and show that the
 canyons were carved under different conditions from
 those now prevailing. The principal amount of canyon
 cutting must have been done before the streams
-were overloaded with débris contributed by glaciers&mdash;that
+were overloaded with débris contributed by glaciers&mdash;that
 is, the deep dissection of the lower slope of
 Mount Rainier and of the platform on which it stands
 must have preceded the Glacial epoch.</p>
@@ -7253,7 +7235,7 @@ of the canyon.</p>
 until we have made a reconnaissance of the mountain
 and climbed to its summit, as he will then be
 better prepared to understand the relation of the
-glaciers, névés, and other features with which it will
+glaciers, névés, and other features with which it will
 be necessary to deal. In this portion of our fireside
 explorations let us enjoy a summer outing, deferring
 until later the more serious task of questioning the
@@ -7394,7 +7376,7 @@ volcanic crater is not so apparent as we might expect.
 The basin is in volcanic rock, but none of the characteristics
 of a crater due to volcanic explosions can be
 recognized. The rocks, so far as I saw them, are
-massive lavas, and not fragmental scoriæ or other
+massive lavas, and not fragmental scoriæ or other
 products of explosive eruptions. On the bold, rounded
 rock ledges down which we climbed in order to reach
 the shore, there were deep glacial scorings, showing
@@ -7440,7 +7422,7 @@ station rose the pure white Liberty Cap, the crowning
 glory of the mountain as seen from the northward.
 The snow descending the northwest side of the great
 central dome is gathered between the ridges forming
-the sides of the valley, and forms a white névé from
+the sides of the valley, and forms a white névé from
 which flows Willis Glacier. In looking up the valley
 from Eagle Cliff the entire extent of the snow fields
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
@@ -7479,9 +7461,9 @@ lower border of the rapidly melting covering of winter
 snow. The glacier is there about a mile across. Its
 central part is higher than its border, and for the most
 part the ice is concealed by dirt and stones. Just
-below the névé, however, we found a space about half
+below the névé, however, we found a space about half
 a mile long in which melting had not led to the concentration
-of sufficient débris to make traveling difficult.
+of sufficient débris to make traveling difficult.
 Farther down the glacier, where surface melting was
 more advanced, the entire glacier, with the exception
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
@@ -7542,7 +7524,7 @@ the area between the Carbon and Winthrop glaciers
 is composed of this same kind of rock. Granite forms
 a portion of the border of the valley through which
 flow the glaciers just named, and furnished them with
-much granitic débris, which is carried away as moraines
+much granitic débris, which is carried away as moraines
 and later worked over into well-rounded bowlders by
 the streams flowing from the ice. The presence of
 granite pebbles in the course of Carbon and White
@@ -7604,7 +7586,7 @@ morning of July 23. Our route was comparatively
 easy at the start, but became steeper and steeper as
 we advanced. The snow was firm and, except for the
 numerous crevasses, presented no great difficulties to
-be overcome. In several places the névé rises in domes
+be overcome. In several places the névé rises in domes
 as if forced up from beneath, but caused in reality
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
 by bosses of rock over which the glacier flows. These
@@ -7617,7 +7599,7 @@ crevasse. Considerable time was lost in searching for
 a practicable upward route, but at length, by making
 a detour to the right, we found a way which, although
 steep, allowed us to pass the much crevassed area and
-gain the sharp ridge of rock which divides the névé
+gain the sharp ridge of rock which divides the névé
 snow flowing from the central dome of the mountain,
 and marks the separation between Winthrop and
 Emmons glaciers. This prow-like promontory, rising
@@ -7685,7 +7667,7 @@ that our course crossed were of the nature of
 faults. Their upper rims stood several feet above
 their lower margins, and thus added to the difficulty
 of passing them. Our aim at first was to traverse the
-névé of Emmons Glacier and gain the less rugged slope
+névé of Emmons Glacier and gain the less rugged slope
 bordering it on the south, but the intervening region
 was greatly broken and, as we found after several
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
@@ -7923,7 +7905,7 @@ before the explosion which truncated the mountain.
 It is an outstanding and very prominent rock mass,
 left in bold relief by the ice excavation which has
 carved deep valleys on each side. The rock divides
-the descending névé in the same manner as does The
+the descending névé in the same manner as does The
 Wedge, and causes a part of the snow drainage to flow
 to the Cowlitz and the other part to be tributary to
 the Nisqually Glacier. The rocks forming Gibraltar
@@ -8797,8 +8779,8 @@ measured from year to year.</p>
 
 <p><a name="MATTHES" id="MATTHES"></a></p>
 <div class="figcenter" style="width: 398px;">
-<img src="images/illo_240.jpg" width="398" height="600" alt="François Émile Matthes." title="" />
-<span class="caption">François Émile Matthes.</span>
+<img src="images/illo_240.jpg" width="398" height="600" alt="François Émile Matthes." title="" />
+<span class="caption">François Émile Matthes.</span>
 </div>
 
 <h2><a name="XIV_GLACIERS_OF_MOUNT_RAINIER" id="XIV_GLACIERS_OF_MOUNT_RAINIER"></a>
@@ -8806,7 +8788,7 @@ XIV. GLACIERS OF MOUNT RAINIER<br />
 
 <small><span class="smcap">By</span> F. E. MATTHES</small></h2>
 
-<blockquote><p class="hang">François Émile Matthes was born at Amsterdam, Holland, on
+<blockquote><p class="hang">François Émile Matthes was born at Amsterdam, Holland, on
 March 16, 1874. After pursuing studies in Holland, Switzerland
 and Germany, he came to the United States in 1891 and
 graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in
@@ -9111,7 +9093,7 @@ bed of the Nisqually River and crosses the foaming
 torrent on a picturesque wooden bridge. A scant
 thousand feet above this structure, blocking the valley
 to a height of some 400 feet, looms a huge shapeless
-pile of what seems at first sight only rock débris, gray
+pile of what seems at first sight only rock débris, gray
 and chocolate in color. It is the dirt-stained end of
 one of the largest glaciers&mdash;the Nisqually. From a
 yawning cave in its front issues the Nisqually stream,
@@ -9216,7 +9198,7 @@ and the crevasses heal up by degrees, providing a
 united surface, over which one may travel freely.
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p>
 
-<p>Gradually, also, the glacier covers itself with débris.
+<p>Gradually, also, the glacier covers itself with débris.
 Angular rock fragments, large and small, and quantities
 of dust, derived from the rock walls bordering
 the ice stream higher up, litter its surface and hide the
@@ -9225,14 +9207,14 @@ material&mdash;a moraine, as it is called&mdash;accompanies
 the ice river on each side, resembling a sharp-crested
 embankment built by human hands to restrain its
 floods; but toward the lower end of the glacier, as the
-ice wastes away, the débris contained in it is released
+ice wastes away, the débris contained in it is released
 in masses, and forms brown marginal bands, fringing
 the moraines. In fact, from here on down it becomes
 difficult to tell where the ice of the glacier ends at the
 sides and where the moraines begin.</p>
 
 <p>The lower part of the glacier also possesses a peculiar
-feature in the form of a débris ridge about midway on
+feature in the form of a débris ridge about midway on
 its back&mdash;a medial moraine. Most of the way it
 stretches like a slender, dark ribbon, gradually narrowing
 upstream. One may trace it with the eye up
@@ -9244,8 +9226,8 @@ on the mountain's flank.</p>
 moraine develops from a mere dirt band to a conspicuous
 embankment, projecting 40 feet above the ice. Not
 the entire body of the ridge, however, is made up of rock
-débris. The feature owes its elevation chiefly to the protective
-influence of the débris layer on its surface, which
+débris. The feature owes its elevation chiefly to the protective
+influence of the débris layer on its surface, which
 is thick enough to shield the ice beneath from the hot
 rays of the sun, and greatly retards melting, while the
 adjoining unprotected ice surfaces are rapidly reduced.</p>
@@ -9253,7 +9235,7 @@ adjoining unprotected ice surfaces are rapidly reduced.</p>
 <p>A short distance above the glacier's terminus the
 medial moraine and the ever-broadening marginal
 bands come together. No more clear ice remains
-exposed, irregular mounds and ridges of débris cover
+exposed, irregular mounds and ridges of débris cover
 the entire surface of the glacier, and the moraine-smothered
 mass assumes the peculiar inchoate appearance
 that is so striking upon first view.
@@ -9280,7 +9262,7 @@ of the glacier. There the material is a dense ice, more
 or less crystalline in texture; here it is scarcely more
 than snow, but slightly compacted and loosely granular&mdash;what
 is generally designated by the Swiss term
-"névé."</p>
+"névé."</p>
 
 <p>For several thousand feet down, as far as the 10,000-foot
 level, in fact, does the snow retain this granular
@@ -9346,7 +9328,7 @@ that they represent but a small fraction of the total
 microflora thriving on the snow, the other species remaining
 invisible for lack of a conspicuous color.</p>
 
-<p>To return to the frigid upper névés, it is not to be
+<p>To return to the frigid upper névés, it is not to be
 supposed that they suffer no loss whatever by melting.
 The heat radiated directly to them by the sun
 is alone capable of doing considerable damage, even
@@ -9402,17 +9384,17 @@ also for other reasons. It is the end of a great snow
 cascade that descends from the rim of the old crater.
 Several such cascades may be seen on the south side
 of the mountain, separated by craggy remnants of the
-crater rim. Above them the summit névés stretch in
+crater rim. Above them the summit névés stretch in
 continuous fields, but from the rim on down, the
 volcano's slopes are too precipitous to permit a gradual
-descent, and the névés break into wild cascades and
+descent, and the névés break into wild cascades and
 falls. Fully two to three thousand feet they tumble,
 assembling again in compact, sluggish ice fields on the
 gentler slopes below.</p>
 
 <p>Of the three cascades that feed the Nisqually Glacier
 only the central one, it is to be observed, forms a continuous
-connection between the summit névés and the
+connection between the summit névés and the
 lower ice fields. The two others, viz. the one next to
 Gibraltar and the westernmost of the three, terminate
 in vertical cliffs, over great precipices of rock. From
@@ -9444,7 +9426,7 @@ nourished chiefly by direct snow precipitation from the
 clouds. And this is true, in large measure, of all the
 ice fields lying under the ice cascades. The Nisqually
 Glacier, accordingly, is not to be regarded as composed
-merely of the cascading névés, reunited and cemented
+merely of the cascading névés, reunited and cemented
 together, but as taking a fresh start at these lower
 levels. Improbable though this may seem at first, it
 is nevertheless a fact that is readily explained.</p>
@@ -9529,7 +9511,7 @@ a sense reborn some 4,000 feet lower down.</p>
 <p>A striking example of an ice body nourished wholly
 by the snows falling on the lower slope of Mount
 Rainier is the Paradise Glacier. In no wise connected
-with the summit névés, it makes its start at an elevation
+with the summit névés, it makes its start at an elevation
 of less than 9,000 feet. Situated on the spreading
 slope between the diverging canyons of the Nisqually
 on the west and of the Cowlitz on the northeast, it
@@ -9538,7 +9520,7 @@ ice bodies of this kind are termed.</p>
 
 <p>Its appearance is that of a gently undulating ice
 field, crevassed only toward its lower edge and remarkably
-clean throughout. No débris-shedding cliffs
+clean throughout. No débris-shedding cliffs
 rise anywhere along its borders, and this fact, no doubt,
 largely explains its freedom from morainal accumulations.</p>
 
@@ -9684,7 +9666,7 @@ yet, when traced to their sources, they are found to
 originate in widely different ways. The north branch,
 named Ingraham Glacier (after Maj. E. S. Ingraham,
 one of Rainier's foremost pioneers), comes from the
-névés on the summit; while the south branch heads in
+névés on the summit; while the south branch heads in
 a pocket immediately under Gibraltar. No snow
 comes to it from the summit; hence we can not escape
 the conclusion that it receives through direct precipitation
@@ -9709,7 +9691,7 @@ ridges, and toward its end acquires broad marginal dirt
 bands. For nearly a mile these continue, leaving a
 gradually narrowing lane of clear ice between them.
 Then they coalesce and the whole ice body becomes
-strewn with rock débris.</p>
+strewn with rock débris.</p>
 
 <p>The Cowlitz Glacier, including its north branch, the
 Ingraham Glacier, measures slightly over 6 miles in
@@ -9730,7 +9712,7 @@ finally emptying in the Columbia River a short distance
 below Portland, Oregon.</p>
 
 <p>The name Muddy Fork is a most apt one, for the
-stream leaves the glacier heavily charged with débris
+stream leaves the glacier heavily charged with débris
 and mud, and while it gradually clears itself as it
 proceeds over its gravelly bed, it is still turbid when
 it reaches the Ohanapecosh. That stream is relatively
@@ -9747,14 +9729,14 @@ disintegrated are the volcanic materials of which that
 peak is composed, that the glaciers are enabled to erode
 with great rapidity, even in their present shrunken
 state. They consequently deliver to the streams vast
-quantities of débris, much of it in the form of cobbles
+quantities of débris, much of it in the form of cobbles
 and bowlders, but much of it also in the form of "rock
 flour."</p>
 
 <p>A considerable proportion of a glacier's erosional
 work is performed by abrasion or grinding, its bed
 being scoured and grooved by the rock blocks and
-smaller débris held by the passing ice. As a result
+smaller débris held by the passing ice. As a result
 glacier streams ordinarily carry much finely comminuted
 rock, or rock flour, and this, because of its
 fineness, remains long in suspension and imparts to
@@ -9864,7 +9846,7 @@ conquer the peak in 1870). About 5&#189; miles long and
 square miles of territory. It makes a continuous
 descent from the summit to the base, the rim of the old
 crater having almost completely broken down under
-its heavy névé cascades. But two small remnants of
+its heavy névé cascades. But two small remnants of
 the rim still protrude through the ice and divide it into
 three cascades. From each of these dark rock islands
 trails a long medial moraine that extends in an ever-broadening
@@ -9883,7 +9865,7 @@ with verdure, lie several hundred feet higher on the
 slope.</p>
 
 <p>The Emmons Glacier, like the Nisqually and the
-Cowlitz, becomes densely littered with morainal débris
+Cowlitz, becomes densely littered with morainal débris
 at its lower end, maintaining, however, for a considerable
 distance a central lane of clear ice. The stream
 which it sends forth, White River, is the largest of
@@ -9894,13 +9876,13 @@ direction, emptying finally in Puget Sound at the city
 of Seattle.</p>
 
 <p>On the northeast side of the mountain, descending
-from the same high névés as the Emmons Glacier, is
+from the same high névés as the Emmons Glacier, is
 the Winthrop Glacier. Not until halfway down, at
 an elevation of about 10,000 feet, does it detach itself
 as a separate ice stream. The division takes place at
 the apex of that great triangular interspace so aptly
 named "the Wedge." Upon its sharp cliff edge,
-Steamboat Prow, the descending névés part, it has
+Steamboat Prow, the descending névés part, it has
 been said, like swift-flowing waters upon the dividing
 bow of a ship at anchor. The simile is an excellent
 one; even the long foam crest, rising along the ship's
@@ -10027,16 +10009,16 @@ at the bottom receives the sun heat each day for a
 progressively shorter period, until at last it receives so
 little that its rate of sinking becomes less than that of
 the melting glacier surface. Nevertheless it will be
-clear that the presence of scattered rock débris on a
+clear that the presence of scattered rock débris on a
 glacier must greatly augment the rate of melting, as
 it fairly honeycombs the ice and increases the number
-of melting surfaces. Wherever the débris is dense, on
+of melting surfaces. Wherever the débris is dense, on
 the other hand, and accumulates on the glacier in a
 heavy layer, its effect becomes a protective one and
 surface melting is retarded instead of accelerated. The
 dirt-covered lower ends of the glaciers of Mount
 Rainier are thus to be regarded as in a measure preserved
-by the débris that cloaks them; their life is
+by the débris that cloaks them; their life is
 greatly prolonged by the unsightly garment.</p>
 
 <p>In many ways the most interesting of all the ice
@@ -10059,7 +10041,7 @@ however, and so simple are its outlines that the eye
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
 finds difficulty in correctly estimating the dimensions.
 Not until an avalanche breaks from the 300-foot
-névé cliff above and hurls itself over the precipice with
+névé cliff above and hurls itself over the precipice with
 crashing thunder, does one begin to realize the depth
 of the colossal recess. The falling snow mass is several
 seconds in descending, and though weighing hundreds
@@ -10074,7 +10056,7 @@ which glacial cirques evolve is better understood to-day.
 It is now known that cirques are produced
 primarily by the eroding action of the ice masses embedded
 in them. Slowly creeping forward, these ice
-masses, shod as they are with débris derived from the
+masses, shod as they are with débris derived from the
 encircling cliffs, scour and scoop out their hollow sites,
 and enlarge and deepen them by degrees. Seconding
 this work is the rock-splitting action of water freezing
@@ -10108,24 +10090,24 @@ may readily observe on the map, has encroached considerably
 upon the summit platform of the mountain,
 the massive northwest portion of the crater rim of which
 Liberty Cap is the highest point. In so doing it has
-made great inroads upon the névé fields that send down
+made great inroads upon the névé fields that send down
 the avalanches, and has reduced this source of supply.
 On the other hand, by deploying laterally, the glacier
-has succeeded in capturing part of the névés formerly
+has succeeded in capturing part of the névés formerly
 tributary to the ice fields to the west, and has made
 good some of the losses due to its headward cutting.
 But, after all, these are events of relatively slight
 importance in the glacier's career; for like the lower
 ice fields of the Nisqually, and like most glaciers on
 the lower slopes of the mountain, the Carbon Glacier
-is not wholly dependent upon the summit névés for
+is not wholly dependent upon the summit névés for
 its supply of ice. The avalanches, imposing though
 they are, contribute but a minor portion of its total
 bulk. Most of its mass is derived directly from the
 low hanging snow clouds, or is blown into the cirque by
 eddying winds. How abundantly capable these agents
 are to create large ice bodies at low altitudes is convincingly
-demonstrated by the extensive névé fields
+demonstrated by the extensive névé fields
 immediately west of the Carbon Glacier, for which the
 name Russell Glacier has recently been proposed. It
 is to be noted, however, that these ice fields lie spread
@@ -10134,7 +10116,7 @@ much better adapted for the accumulation of snow is
 the Carbon Glacier's amphitheater! Not only does
 it constitute an admirably designed catchment basin
 for wind-blown snow, but an effective conserver of the
-névés collecting in it. Opening to the north only, its
+névés collecting in it. Opening to the north only, its
 encircling cliffs thoroughly shield the contained ice
 mass from the sun. By its very form, moreover, it
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
@@ -10249,7 +10231,7 @@ capacious even as either of the twin recesses in the
 Carbon Glacier's amphitheater. As a consequence the
 ice stream issuing from it is of only moderate volume;
 nevertheless it attains a length of 3&#190; miles. This is due
-in part to the heavy snows that reënforce it throughout
+in part to the heavy snows that reënforce it throughout
 its middle course and in part to overflows from the
 ice fields bordering it on the south. These ice fields,
 almost extensive enough to be considered a distinct
@@ -10260,7 +10242,7 @@ by the ice. The lowest and most prominent of the
 rock spires bears the appropriate name of "The Needle"
 (7,587 feet).</p>
 
-<p>The débris-covered lower end of the glacier splits
+<p>The débris-covered lower end of the glacier splits
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
 into two short lobes on a rounded boss in the middle
 of the channel. This boss, but a short time ago, was
@@ -10276,7 +10258,7 @@ cirque-born ice stream, heading against the base of
 the Liberty Cap massif. It is the shortest of the
 western glaciers, measuring only a scant 3 miles.
 Aside from the snows accumulating in its ill-shaped
-cirque it receives strong reënforcements from its neighbor
+cirque it receives strong reënforcements from its neighbor
 to the south&mdash;the Puyallup Glacier.</p>
 
 <p>Toward its lower end it splits into two unequal lobes,
@@ -10317,8 +10299,8 @@ south on a wedge of rock.</p>
 <p>Immediately south of the elevated amphitheater of
 the Puyallup Glacier the crater rim of the volcano is
 breached for a distance of half a mile. Through this
-gap tumbles a voluminous cascade from the névé fields
-about the summit, and this cascade, reënforced by a
+gap tumbles a voluminous cascade from the névé fields
+about the summit, and this cascade, reënforced by a
 flow from the Puyallup cirque, forms the great Tahoma
 Glacier, the most impressive ice stream on the southwest
 side. Separated from its northern neighbor by
@@ -10328,7 +10310,7 @@ surface, more than a mile broad in places, is diversified
 by countless ice falls and cataracts.</p>
 
 <p>A mere row of isolated pinnacles indicates its eastern
-border, and across the gaps in this row its névés coalesce
+border, and across the gaps in this row its névés coalesce
 with those of the South Tahoma Glacier. Farther
 down the two ice streams abruptly part company
 and flow in wide detours around a cliff-girt, castellated
@@ -10338,7 +10320,7 @@ spits upon a low, verdant wedge and sends a lobe southward
 which skirts the walls of this island rock, and at
 its base meets again the South Tahoma Glacier. From
 here on the two ice streams merge and form a single
-densely débris-laden mass, so chaotic in appearance
+densely débris-laden mass, so chaotic in appearance
 that one would scarcely take it for a glacier. Numerous
 rivulets course over its dark surface only to disappear
 in mysterious holes and clefts. Profound, circular
@@ -10347,7 +10329,7 @@ it during the summer months, and after a brief existence
 empty themselves again by subglacial passages
 or by a newly formed crevasse. So abundant is the
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
-rock débris released by melting that the wind at times
+rock débris released by melting that the wind at times
 whips it up into veritable dust storms.</p>
 
 <p>Beautifully regular moraines accompany the ice mass
@@ -10388,7 +10370,7 @@ underlain by a heavy lava bed, and breaking off
 at its lower edge in precipitous, columnar cliffs. Into
 this platform a profound but narrow box canyon has
 been incised by an ice stream descending from the summit
-névés east of Peak Success. This is the Kautz
+névés east of Peak Success. This is the Kautz
 Glacier, an ice stream peculiar for its exceeding slenderness.
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
 On the map it presents almost a worm-like appearance,
@@ -10464,7 +10446,7 @@ crown. There is no ice cap, properly speaking, and
 there has perhaps never been one at any time in the
 mountain's history, not even during the glacial epochs.</p>
 
-<p>Several of the main ice streams head in the névés
+<p>Several of the main ice streams head in the névés
 gathering about the summit craters, but a larger number
 originate in profound amphitheaters carved in the
 mountain's flanks, at levels fully 4,000 feet below the
@@ -10584,7 +10566,7 @@ striking in appearance.</p>
 thus exposed dip away from the summit at a low
 angle. The steepest dip observed was in the amphitheater
 at the head of Carbon Glacier, where in the
-dividing spur the dip to the northeast is about 30°.
+dividing spur the dip to the northeast is about 30°.
 Some exceptions in the inclination of the beds were
 noted on the southeastern slope, where in a few cases
 the layers are horizontal, or even dip toward the
@@ -10783,7 +10765,7 @@ to, doubtless well expresses the chemical composition
 of the magma, and deserves to be taken as the
 chief criterion in the classification of the lavas. As was
 noted by Hague and Iddings, the hypersthene and
-olivine play a like rôle, the former occurring when the
+olivine play a like rôle, the former occurring when the
 silica percentage is somewhat higher than in basalt.
 <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
 It is exceptional to find the two in the same specimen,
@@ -11043,7 +11025,7 @@ XVI. THE FLORA OF MOUNT RAINIER<br />
 Victoria, British Columbia, on June 16, 1867. He graduated
 from the University of Washington in 1885 and since then
 has received degrees and honors from other institutions and
-learned societies. He was professor of botany and zoölogy
+learned societies. He was professor of botany and zoölogy
 at the Washington Agricultural College (now State College of
 Washington) from 1892 to 1903. He has been agrostologist
 in charge of forage crop investigations for the Bureau of Plant
@@ -12128,7 +12110,7 @@ Much like the preceding and found in similar places.</p>
 Found on Mount Rainier and on Goat Mountains by Allen.</p>
 <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p>
 
-<p class="hang"><b lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parnassia fimbriata</b> König.<br />
+<p class="hang"><b lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parnassia fimbriata</b> König.<br />
 A plant with radical reniform leaves and one-flowered scapes.
 The petals are white and fringed. Not rare in moist places near
 Sluiskin Falls; also at Crater Lake.</p>
@@ -12888,7 +12870,7 @@ Coast.</p>
 <blockquote><p class="hang">A surprisingly wide interest was awakened by the proposal to
 create a national park to include the great mass of Mount
 Rainier and its immediate surroundings. Five societies appointed
-committees to coöperate in securing the needed legislation
+committees to coöperate in securing the needed legislation
 from Congress. Those committees prepared a memorial.
 The Senate Miscellaneous Document, number 247, Fifty-third
 Congress, second session, shows that the memorial was introduced
@@ -12944,7 +12926,7 @@ appointed, consisting of Mr. John Ritchie, Jr., Rev.
 E. C. Smith, Dr. Charles E. Fay.</p>
 
 <p>The committees thus appointed were instructed by
-the several bodies to which they belong to coöperate
+the several bodies to which they belong to coöperate
 in the preparation of a memorial to Congress, setting
 forth the substantial reasons for the establishment of
 such park.</p>
@@ -13057,7 +13039,7 @@ glaciers which descend from its snow fields present all
 the characteristic features of those in the Alps, and
 though less extensive than the ice streams of the Mount
 Blanc or Monta Rosa groups are in their crevasses and
-séracs equally striking and equally worthy of close
+séracs equally striking and equally worthy of close
 study. We have seen nothing more beautiful in
 Switzerland or Tyrol, in Norway or in the Pyrenees,
 than the Carbon River glaciers and the great Puyallup
@@ -14317,7 +14299,7 @@ is given to esoteric students and cannot be revealed. The word
 itself means "uncontaminated." The wonderful beauty of the
 scene, in its pure and original form, suggested the name to an early
 group of visitors, Theosophists, consisting of the following persons:
-Professor E. O. Schwägerl, Mr. and Mrs. George A. Sheffield,
+Professor E. O. Schwägerl, Mr. and Mrs. George A. Sheffield,
 Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Knight, Miss Ida Wright (now Mrs. Vern
 Mudgett), Mrs. Addie G. Barlow and Mr. Henry Carter. Elevation,
 4,572 feet above sea level.</p>
@@ -15093,7 +15075,7 @@ White River.</p></div>
 <a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
 Lieutenant Richard Arnold, in Pacific Railway Reports, Volume XII, Part I,
 page 191, says: "Near the junction of Whitewater and Green rivers there is a remarkable
-peak called La Tête, from a large rock on its slope resembling the head and
+peak called La Tête, from a large rock on its slope resembling the head and
 neck of a man. This is an important point, as it forms the gate of the mountains
 on the west." Modern maps shift the "water" part of the names. They are
 now White and Greenwater rivers.</p></div>
@@ -15104,8 +15086,8 @@ White and Greenwater rivers.</p></div>
 
 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a>
 <a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
-This is an error and should read 121° 25&#8242; W. as Naches Pass is known to be
-121° 21&#8242; and Lieutenant Johnson's "Little Prairie" was a little west of the Pass.</p></div>
+This is an error and should read 121° 25&#8242; W. as Naches Pass is known to be
+121° 21&#8242; and Lieutenant Johnson's "Little Prairie" was a little west of the Pass.</p></div>
 
 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a>
 <a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>
@@ -15182,7 +15164,7 @@ Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, Vol. XXVI, 1883, pp. 222-235.</p></div>
 
 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a>
 <a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a>
-Neues Jahrbuch für Min., etc., Vol. I, 1885, pp. 222-226.</p></div>
+Neues Jahrbuch für Min., etc., Vol. I, 1885, pp. 222-226.</p></div>
 
 <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a>
 <a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a>
@@ -15223,360 +15205,6 @@ ads.</p>
 
 <p>&nbsp;</p>
 <p>&nbsp;</p>
-<hr class="full" />
-<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOUNT RAINIER***</p>
-<p>******* This file should be named 42314-h.txt or 42314-h.zip *******</p>
-<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/3/1/42314">http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/3/1/42314</a></p>
-<p>
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
-will be renamed.</p>
-
-<p>
-Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
-one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
-(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
-permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
-set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
-copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
-protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
-Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
-charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
-do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
-rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
-such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
-research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
-practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
-subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
-redistribution.
-</p>
-
-<h2>*** START: FULL LICENSE ***<br />
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE<br />
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</h2>
-
-<p>To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license">www.gutenberg.org/license</a>.</p>
-
-<h3>Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works</h3>
-
-<p>1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
-all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
-If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
-terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
-entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.</p>
-
-<p>1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
-paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
-and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.  See paragraph 1.E below.</p>
-
-<p>1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
-or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
-collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
-individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
-located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
-copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
-works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
-are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
-Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
-freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
-this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
-the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
-keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.</p>
-
-<p>1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
-a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
-the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
-before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
-creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
-Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
-the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
-States.</p>
-
-<p>1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:</p>
-
-<p>1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
-access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
-whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
-copied or distributed:</p>
-
-<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at <a
-href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p>
-
-<p>1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
-from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
-posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
-and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
-or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
-with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
-work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
-through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
-Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
-1.E.9.</p>
-
-<p>1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
-terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
-to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
-permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.</p>
-
-<p>1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.</p>
-
-<p>1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.</p>
-
-<p>1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
-word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
-distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
-"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
-posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
-you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
-copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
-request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
-form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.</p>
-
-<p>1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.</p>
-
-<p>1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
-that</p>
-
-<ul>
-<li>You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
-     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
-     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
-     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
-     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
-     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
-     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
-     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
-     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
-     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."</li>
-
-<li>You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-     License.  You must require such a user to return or
-     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
-     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
-     Project Gutenberg-tm works.</li>
-
-<li>You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
-     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
-     of receipt of the work.</li>
-
-<li>You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
-forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
-both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
-Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
-Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.</p>
-
-<p>1.F.</p>
-
-<p>1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
-collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
-"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
-corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
-property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
-computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
-your equipment.</p>
-
-<p>1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.</p>
-
-<p>1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
-your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
-the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
-refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
-providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
-receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
-is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
-opportunities to fix the problem.</p>
-
-<p>1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
-WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
-WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.</p>
-
-<p>1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
-If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
-law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
-interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
-the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
-provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.</p>
-
-<p>1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
-with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
-promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
-harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
-that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
-or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
-work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
-Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.</p>
-
-<h3>Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm</h3>
-
-<p>Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
-including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
-because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
-people in all walks of life.</p>
-
-<p>Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
-To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and
-the Foundation information page at <a
-href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p>
-
-<h3>Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
-Foundation</h3>
-
-<p>The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
-permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.</p>
-
-<p>The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
-Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
-throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at 809
-North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887.  Email
-contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the
-Foundation's web site and official page at <a
-href="http://www.gutenberg.org/contact">www.gutenberg.org/contact</a></p>
-
-<p>For additional contact information:<br />
-     Dr. Gregory B. Newby<br />
-     Chief Executive and Director<br />
-     gbnewby@pglaf.org</p>
-
-<h3>Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation</h3>
-
-<p>Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.</p>
-
-<p>The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
-SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
-particular state visit <a
-href="http://www.gutenberg.org/donate">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a></p>
-
-<p>While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.</p>
-
-<p>International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.</p>
-
-<p>Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
-To donate, please visit:  <a
-href="http://www.gutenberg.org/donate">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a></p>
-
-<h3>Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.</h3>
-
-<p>Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
-with anyone.  For forty years, he produced and distributed Project
-Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.</p>
-
-<p>Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
-unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
-keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.</p>
-
-<p>Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
-<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p>
-
-<p>This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.</p>
-
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42314 ***</div>
 </body>
 </html>
diff --git a/42314.txt b/42314.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index 7632cc1..0000000
--- a/42314.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,12949 +0,0 @@
-The Project Gutenberg eBook, Mount Rainier, by Various, Edited by Edmond
-S. (Edmond Stephen) Meany
-
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-
-
-
-Title: Mount Rainier
-       A Record of Exploration
-
-
-Author: Various
-
-Editor: Edmond S. (Edmond Stephen) Meany
-
-Release Date: March 12, 2013  [eBook #42314]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
-
-
-***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOUNT RAINIER***
-
-
-E-text prepared by Greg Bergquist, JoAnn Greenwood, and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images
-generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org)
-
-
-
-Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
-      file which includes the original illustrations.
-      See 42314-h.htm or 42314-h.zip:
-      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42314/42314-h/42314-h.htm)
-      or
-      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42314/42314-h.zip)
-
-
-      Images of the original pages are available through
-      Internet Archive. See
-      https://archive.org/details/mountrainierreco00meanuoft
-
-
-Transcriber's note:
-
-      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
-
-      Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
-
-      Subscripts in chemical formulas are indicated by an
-      underscore followed by the subscripted number enclosed
-      by curly brackets (example: SiO_{2} is the formula for
-      silicon dioxide).
-
-      In Chapter XII we were unable to resolve a discrepancy
-      between H. H. McAlister and E. H. McAlister, so both
-      were retained.
-
-
-
-
-
-MOUNT RAINIER
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Illustration]
-
-THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
-NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO . DALLAS
-ATLANTA . SAN FRANCISCO
-
-MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
-LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA
-MELBOURNE
-
-THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
-TORONTO
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-
-  [Illustration: FIRST PICTURE OF MOUNT RAINER.
-  Drawn by W. Alexander from a sketch by J. Sykes, 1792.
-  Engraved by J. Landseer for Vancouver's Journal.]
-
-
-MOUNT RAINIER
-
-A Record of Exploration
-
-Edited by
-
-EDMOND S. MEANY
-
-Professor of History in the University of Washington.
-President of The Mountaineers.
-Author of "Vancouver's Discovery of Puget Sound,"
-"History of the State of Washington," etc.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-New York
-The Macmillan Company
-1916
-
-All rights reserved
-
-Copyright, 1916,
-By the Macmillan Company.
-
-Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1916.
-
-Norwood Press
-J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
-Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
-
-
-
-
-                      To
-
-            GENERAL HAZARD STEVENS
-
-    EARLY LOVER OF THE MOUNTAIN, THIS BOOK
-
-          IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE
-
-
-Mount Rainier National Park is visited annually by increasing
-thousands of tourists. Many of them seek information about the
-discoveries and explorations of the mountain and its environs. Much of
-the information sought, especially that about the origin of place
-names, has never been published. The annals of discovery and
-exploration, which have been published, have often appeared in books,
-pamphlets, or periodicals not easily accessible. It is the purpose of
-this work to gather the essential portions of the desired information
-within a compact, usable form.
-
-During the summer of 1915, the mountain was for the first time
-encircled by a large company of travelers. Small parties, carrying
-their luggage and provisions on their backs, had made the trip a
-number of times. The Mountaineers Club, in 1915, conducted a party of
-one hundred, with fully equipped pack train and commissary, around the
-mountain. They camped each evening at or near the snow-line. At the
-daily campfires extracts were read from the original sources of the
-mountain's history. The interest there manifested in such records gave
-additional impulse to the preparation of this book.
-
-It is natural that the chronological order should be chosen in
-arranging the materials, beginning with the discovery and naming of
-the mountain by Captain George Vancouver of the British Navy. The
-records are then continued to the present time. There still remains to
-be done much scientific work on the glaciers, snowfields, rocks, and
-plants within the Park. It is hoped that this book may stimulate such
-field work as well as the publication of the results.
-
-The reader will notice that several writers in referring to the
-mountain use some form of the name Tacoma. The editor has not
-hesitated to publish such names as were used in the original articles
-here reproduced. In all other cases he has used the name Mount
-Rainier, approved by the United States Geographic Board.
-
-In the separate chapters it will be noticed that the height of the
-mountain has been placed at varying figures. The United States
-Geological Survey has spoken on this subject with apparent official
-finality, giving the altitude as 14,408 feet above sea level. How this
-height was determined is told in the official announcement reproduced
-in Chapter XVIII of the text, with comment thereon by F. E. Matthes,
-one of the engineers of the United States Geological Survey.
-
-The place names within the Park have been derived from such varied
-sources that it is well-nigh impossible to ascertain the origin and
-meaning of all of them. For the first time they are here (Chapter XIX)
-gathered into a complete alphabetical arrangement with as full
-information as is now available. The writer would welcome further
-facts about any of the names.
-
-In the introductory paragraphs before each chapter, the editor has
-sought to express his acknowledgment for assistance rendered by others
-in the compilation of the work. For fear some may have been omitted he
-wishes here to express gratitude for all such help and to mention
-especially Professor J. Franklin Jameson, Director of the Department
-of Historical Research of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, for
-his assistance in securing photostat reproductions of a number of rare
-items found in the Library of Congress.
-
-The editor also acknowledges the assistance rendered by Victor J.
-Farrar, research assistant in the University of Washington.
-
-                              EDMOND S. MEANY.
-
-  UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON,
-  Seattle, August, 1916.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-    CHAPTER                                                 PAGE
-
-        I. THE MOUNTAIN DISCOVERED AND NAMED, 1792             1
-             By Captain George Vancouver, R.N.
-
-       II. FIRST APPROACH TO THE MOUNTAIN, 1833                6
-             By Doctor William Fraser Tolmie.
-
-      III. FIRST RECORDED TRIP THROUGH NACHES PASS, 1841      13
-             By Lieutenant Robert E. Johnson, U.S.N., of
-             the Wilkes Expedition.
-
-       IV. TACOMA AND THE INDIAN LEGEND OF HAMITCHOU          34
-             By Theodore Winthrop.
-
-        V. FIRST ATTEMPTED ASCENT, 1857                       73
-             By Lieutenant A. V. Kautz, U.S.A.
-
-       VI. FIRST SUCCESSFUL ASCENT, 1870                      94
-             By General Hazard Stevens.
-
-      VII. INDIAN WARNING AGAINST DEMONS                     132
-             By Sluiskin, Indian Guide.
-
-     VIII. SECOND SUCCESSFUL ASCENT, 1870                    135
-             By S. F. Emmons.
-
-       IX. EXPLORATIONS ON THE NORTHERN SLOPES, 1881-1883    142
-             By Bailey Willis.
-
-        X. DISCOVERY OF CAMP MUIR, 1888                      150
-             By Major E. S. Ingraham.
-
-       XI. EXPLORING THE MOUNTAIN AND ITS GLACIERS, 1896     159
-             By Professor I. C. Russell.
-
-      XII. MCCLURE'S ACHIEVEMENT AND TRAGIC DEATH, 1897      183
-             By Herbert L. Bruce and Professor H. H.
-             McAlister.
-
-     XIII. FIELD NOTES ON MOUNT RAINIER, 1905                194
-             By Professor Henry Landes.
-
-      XIV. GLACIERS OF MOUNT RAINIER                         201
-             By F. E. Matthes.
-
-       XV. THE ROCKS OF MOUNT RAINIER                        241
-             By George Otis Smith.
-
-      XVI. THE FLORA OF MOUNT RAINIER                        254
-             By Professor Charles V. Piper.
-
-     XVII. CREATION OF MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK           287
-             Memorial by Scientific Societies.
-
-    XVIII. MOUNT RAINIER IS 14,408 FEET HIGH                 297
-             By the United States Geological Survey.
-
-      XIX. PLACE NAMES AND ELEVATIONS IN MOUNT RAINIER
-                   NATIONAL PARK                             302
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-
-    First Picture of Mount Rainier. Drawn by W. Alexander,
-          from a sketch by J. Sykes, 1792. Engraved by J.
-          Landseer for Vancouver's Journal        _Frontispiece_
-
-                                                            PAGE
-
-    Captain George Vancouver, Royal Navy                       1
-
-    Doctor William Fraser Tolmie                               6
-
-    Commander Charles Wilkes, United States Navy              13
-
-    Theodore Winthrop, from the Rowse Crayon Portrait.        34
-
-    General August Valentine Kautz, United States Army.       73
-
-    General Hazard Stevens                                    94
-
-    Samuel Franklin Emmons                                   135
-
-    Bailey Willis, from Photograph taken in 1883             142
-
-    Major Edward Sturgis Ingraham                            150
-
-    Professor Israel Cook Russell                            159
-
-    Professor Edgar McClure                                  183
-
-    Professor Henry Landes                                   194
-
-    Francois Emile Matthes                                   201
-
-    George Otis Smith                                        241
-
-    Professor Charles Vancouver Piper                        254
-
-    Peter Rainier, Admiral of the Blue, Royal Navy           302
-
-
-
-
-MOUNT RAINIER
-
-A RECORD OF EXPLORATIONS
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: CAPTAIN GEORGE VANCOUVER.
-  Royal Navy.]
-
-I. THE MOUNTAIN DISCOVERED AND NAMED, 1792
-
-BY CAPTAIN GEORGE VANCOUVER, R.N.
-
-
-     Captain George Vancouver, the great English navigator and
-     explorer, lived but forty years, from 1758 to 1798. He
-     entered the British navy on the _Resolution_ under Captain
-     James Cook in 1771 and was with that even more famous
-     explorer during his second and third voyages, from 1772 to
-     1780. He was placed in command of the _Discovery_ and
-     _Chatham_ in 1791 and sent to the northwest coast of America.
-     On this voyage he discovered and named Puget Sound and many
-     other geographic features on the western coast of America.
-
-     The portions of his Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific
-     Ocean, giving the record of his discovery, naming, and
-     exploration in the vicinity of Mount Rainier, are taken from
-     Volume II of the second edition, published in London in 1801,
-     pages 79, 118, and 134-138.
-
-
-[Tuesday, May 8, 1792.] The weather was serene and pleasant, and the
-country continued to exhibit, between us and the eastern snowy range,
-the same luxuriant appearance. At its northern extremity, mount Baker
-bore by compass N. 22 E.; the round snowy mountain, now forming its
-southern extremity, and which, after my friend Rear Admiral Rainier, I
-distinguished by the name of MOUNT RAINIER, bore N. [S.] 42 E.
-
-
-[Saturday, May 19, 1792.] About noon, we passed an inlet on the
-larboard or eastern shore, which seemed to stretch far to the
-northward; but, as it was out of the line of our intended pursuit of
-keeping the continental shore on board, I continued our course up the
-main inlet, which now extended as far as, from the deck, the eye could
-reach, though, from the mast-head, intervening land appeared, beyond
-which another high round mountain covered with snow was discovered,
-apparently situated several leagues to the south of mount Rainier, and
-bearing by compass S. 22 E. This I considered as a further extension
-of the eastern snowy range; but the intermediate mountains, connecting
-it with mount Rainier, were not sufficiently high to be seen at that
-distance.
-
-
-[Saturday, May 26, 1792.] Towards noon we landed on a point on the
-eastern shore, whose latitude I observed to be 47 deg. 21', round which
-we flattered ourselves we should find the inlet take an extensive
-eastwardly course. This conjecture was supported by the appearance of
-a very abrupt division in the snowy range of mountains immediately to
-the south of mount Rainier, which was very conspicuous from the ship,
-and the main arm of the inlet appearing to stretch in that direction
-from the point we were then upon. We here dined, and although our
-repast was soon concluded, the delay was irksome, as we were
-excessively anxious to ascertain the truth, of which we were not long
-held in suspense. For having passed round the point, we found the
-inlet to terminate here in an extensive circular compact bay, whose
-waters washed the base of mount Rainier, though its elevated summit
-was yet at a very considerable distance from the shore, with which it
-was connected by several ridges of hills rising towards it with
-gradual ascent and much regularity. The forest trees, and the several
-shades of verdure that covered the hills, gradually decreased in point
-of beauty, until they became invisible; when the perpetual clothing of
-snow commenced, which seemed to form a horizontal line from north to
-south along this range of rugged mountains, from whose summit mount
-Rainier rose conspicuously, and seemed as much elevated above them as
-they were above the level of the sea; the whole producing a most
-grand, picturesque effect. The lower mountains, as they descended to
-the right and left, became gradually relieved of their frigid garment;
-and as they approached the fertile woodland region that binds the
-shores of this inlet in every direction, produced a pleasing variety.
-We now proceeded to the N. W. in which direction the inlet from hence
-extended, and afforded us some reason to believe that it communicated
-with that under the survey of our other party. This opinion was
-further corroborated by a few Indians, who had in a very civil manner
-accompanied us some time, and who gave us to understand that in the
-north western direction this inlet was very wide and extensive; this
-they expressed before we quitted our dinner station, by opening their
-arms, and making other signs that we should be led a long way by
-pursuing that route; whereas, by bending their arm, or spreading out
-their hand, and pointing to the space contained in the curve of the
-arm, or between the fore-finger and thumb, that we should find our
-progress soon stopped in the direction which led towards mount
-Rainier. The little respect which most Indians bear to truth, and
-their readiness to assert what they think is most agreeable for the
-moment, or to answer their own particular wishes and inclinations,
-induced me to place little dependance on this information, although
-they could have no motive for deceiving us.
-
-About a dozen of these friendly people had attended at our dinner, one
-part of which was a venison pasty. Two of them, expressing a desire to
-pass the line of separation drawn between us, were permitted to do so.
-They sat down by us, and ate of the bread, and fish that we gave them
-without the least hesitation; but on being offered some of the
-venison, though they saw us eat it with great relish, they could not
-be induced to taste it. They received it from us with great disgust,
-and presented it round to the rest of the party, by whom it underwent
-a very strict examination. Their conduct on this occasion left no
-doubt in our minds that they believed it to be human flesh, an
-impression which it was highly expedient should be done away. To
-satisfy them that it was the flesh of the deer, we pointed to the
-skins of the animal they had about them. In reply to this they pointed
-to each other, and made signs that could not be misunderstood, that it
-was the flesh of human beings, and threw it down in the dirt, with
-gestures of great aversion and displeasure. At length we happily
-convinced them of their mistake by shewing them a haunch we had in the
-boat, by which means they were undeceived, and some of them ate of the
-remainder of the pye with a good appetite.
-
-This behavior, whilst in some measure tending to substantiate their
-knowledge or suspicions that such barbarities have existence, led us
-to conclude, that the character given of the natives of North-West
-America does not attach to every tribe. These people have been
-represented not only as accustomed inhumanly to devour the flesh of
-their conquered enemies; but also to keep certain servants, or rather
-slaves, of their own nation, for the sole purpose of making the
-principal part of the banquet, to satisfy the unnatural savage
-gluttony of the chiefs of this country, on their visits to each other.
-Were such barbarities practiced once a month, as is stated, it would
-be natural to suppose these people, so inured, would not have shewn
-the least aversion to eating flesh of any description; on the
-contrary, it is not possible to conceive a greater degree of
-abhorrence than was manifested by these good people, until their minds
-were made perfectly easy that it was not human flesh we offered them
-to eat. This instance must necessarily exonerate at least this
-particular tribe from so barbarous a practice; and, as their affinity
-to the inhabitants of Nootka, and of the sea-coast, to the south of
-that place, in their manners and customs, admits of little difference,
-it is but charitable to hope those also, on a more minute inquiry, may
-be found not altogether deserving such a character. They are not,
-however, free from the general failing attendant on a savage life. One
-of them having taken a knife and fork to imitate our manner of eating,
-found means to secrete them under his garment; but, on his being
-detected, gave up his plunder with the utmost good humour and
-unconcern.
-
-They accompanied us from three or four miserable huts, near the place
-where we had dined, for about four miles; during which time they
-exchanged the only things they had to dispose of, their bows, arrows,
-and spears, in the most fair and honest manner, for hawk's bells,
-buttons, beads, and such useless commodities.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: DOCTOR WILLIAM FRASER TOLMIE.]
-
-II. FIRST APPROACH TO THE MOUNTAIN, 1833
-
-BY DOCTOR WILLIAM FRASER TOLMIE
-
-
-     Doctor William Fraser Tolmie was a medical officer in the
-     service of the Hudson's Bay Company. He was born at
-     Inverness, Scotland, on February 3, 1812, and died at
-     Victoria, British Columbia, on December 8, 1888. He was
-     educated at Glasgow, and when twenty years of age he joined
-     the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1833, he was located at
-     Nisqually House, Puget Sound. It was then that he made his
-     trip to the mountain. He later served at other posts in the
-     Pacific Northwest, and was raised to the rank of Chief Factor
-     in 1856. He was then placed on the board of management of the
-     great company. In 1860 he retired from the service.
-
-     In 1850 he was married to Jane, eldest daughter of Chief
-     Factor John Work. Their descendants still live at Victoria,
-     British Columbia. They, especially the son John W. Tolmie,
-     have compared this reproduction from Doctor Tolmie's diary
-     with the original manuscript to insure accuracy. So far as is
-     now known, this is the first record of a white man's close
-     approach to Mount Rainier.
-
-     It is pleasant to note that the new map of Mount Rainier
-     National Park, published by the United States Geological
-     Survey, shows the peak he climbed and the creek flowing near
-     it bearing the name of Tolmie.
-
-August 27, 1833. Obtained Mr. Herron's consent to making a botanizing
-excursion to Mt. Rainier, for which he has allowed 10 days. Have
-engaged two horses from a chief living in that quarter, who came here
-tonight, and Lachalet is to be my guide. Told the Indians I am going
-to Mt. Rainier to gather herbs of which to make medicine, part of
-which is to be sent to Britain and part retained in case intermittent
-fever should visit us when I will prescribe for the Indians.
-
-Aug. 28. A tremendous thunder storm occurred last night, succeeded by
-torrents of rain. The thunder was very loud, and the lightening
-flashing completely enlightened my apartment. Have been chatting with
-Mr. Herron about colonizing Whidby's island, a project of which he is
-at present quite full--more anon. No horses have appeared. Understand
-that the mountain is four days' journey distant--the first of which
-can only be performed on horseback. If they do not appear tomorrow I
-shall start with Lachalet on foot.
-
-Aug. 29. Prairie 8 miles N. of home. Sunset. Busy making arrangements
-for journey, and while thus occupied the guide arrived with 3 horses.
-Started about 3, mounted on a strong iron grey, my companions
-disposing of themselves on the other two horses, except one, who
-walked. We were 6 in number. I have engaged Lachalet for a blanket,
-and his nephew, Lashima, for ammunition to accompany me and Nuckalkut
-a Poyalip (whom I took for a native of Mt. Rainier) with 2 horses to
-be guide on the mountain after leaving the horse track, and Quilniash,
-his relative, a very active, strong fellow, has volunteered to
-accompany me. The Indians are all in great hopes of killing elk and
-chevriel, and Lachalet has already been selling and promising the
-grease he is to get. It is in a great measure the expectation of
-finding game that urges them to undertake the journey. Cantered slowly
-along the prairie and are now at the residence of Nuckalkut's father,
-under the shade of a lofty pine, in a grassy amphitheatre, beautifully
-interspersed and surrounded with oaks, and through the gaps in the
-circle we see the broad plain extending southwards to Nusqually. In a
-hollow immediately behind is a small lake whose surface is almost one
-sheet of waterlilies about to flower. Have supped on sallal; and at
-dusk shall turn in.
-
-Aug. 30. Sandy beach of Poyallipa River. Slept ill last night, and as
-I dozed in the morning was aroused by a stroke across the thigh from a
-large decayed branch which fell from the pine overshadowing us. A
-drizzling rain fell during most of the night. Got up about dawn, and
-finding thigh stiff and painful thought a stop put to the journey, but
-after moving about it felt easier. Started about sunrise, I mounted on
-a spirited brown mare, the rest on passable animals, except Nuckalkut,
-who bestrode a foal. Made a northeasterly course through prairie.
-Breakfasted at a small marsh on bread, sallal, dried cockels and a
-small piece of chevriel saved from the last night's repast of my
-companions (for I cannot call them attendants). The points of wood now
-became broader, and the intervening plain degenerated into prairions.
-Stopped about 1 P.M. at the abode of 3 Tekatat families, who met us
-rank and file at the door to shake hands. Their sheds were made of
-bark resting on a horizontal pole, supported at each end by tripods,
-and showed an abundance of elk's flesh dried within. Two kettles were
-filled with this, and, after smoking, my Indians made a savage repast
-on the meat and bouillion, Lachalet saying it was the Indian custom to
-eat a great deal at once and afterwards abstain for a time; he,
-however, has twice eaten since. Traded some dried meat for 4 balls and
-3 rings, and mounting, rode off in the midst of a heavy shower.
-Ascended and descended at different times several steep banks and
-passed through dense and tangled thickets, occasionally coming on a
-prairion. The soil throughout was of the same nature as that of
-Nusqually. After descending a very steep bank came to the Poyallip.
-Lashima carried the baggage across on his head. Rode to the opposite
-side through a rich alluvial plain, 3 or 4 miles in length and 3/4 to
-1 in breadth. It is covered with fern about 8 feet high in some parts.
-Passed through woods and crossed river several times. About 7 P.M.
-dismounted and the horses and accoutrements were left in a wood at
-the river's brink. Started now on foot for a house Nuckalkut knew, and
-after traversing woods and twice crossing the torrents "on the
-unsteadfast footing" of a log, arrived at the house, which was a
-deserted one, and encamped on the dry part of river's bed, along which
-our course lies tomorrow. The Poyallip flows rapidly and is about 10
-or 12 yards broad. Its banks are high and covered with lofty cedars
-and pines. The water is of a dirty white colour, being impregnated by
-white clay. Lachalet has tonight been trying to persuade me from going
-to the snow on the mountain.
-
-Aug. 31. Slept well, and in the morning two salmon were caught, on
-which we are to breakfast before starting. After breakfast Quillihaish
-stuck the gills and sound of the fish on a spit which stood before the
-fire, so that the next comer might know that salmon could be obtained
-there. Have traveled nearly the whole day through a wood of cedar and
-pine, surface very uneven, and after ascending the bed of river a
-couple of miles are now encamped about ten yards from its margin in
-the wood. Find myself very inferior to my companions in the power of
-enduring fatigue. Their pace is a smart trot which soon obliges me to
-rest. The waters of the Poyallip are still of the same colour. Can see
-a short distance up two lofty hills covered with wood. Evening cloudy
-and rainy. Showery all day.
-
-Sunday, Sept. 1. Bank of Poyallip river. It has rained all night and
-is now, 6 A.M., pouring down. Are a good deal sheltered by the trees.
-My companions are all snoozing. Shall presently arouse them and hold a
-council of war. The prospect is very discouraging. Our provisions will
-be expended today and Lachalet said he thought the river would be too
-high to be fordable in either direction. Had dried meat boiled in a
-cedar bark kettle for breakfast. I got rigged out in green blanket
-without trousers, in Indian style, and trudged on through the wood.
-Afterwood exchanged blanket with Lachalet for Ouvrie's capot, which
-has been on almost every Indian at Nusqually. However, I found it more
-convenient than the blanket. Our course lay up the river, which we
-crossed frequently. The bed is clayey in most parts. Saw the sawbill
-duck once or twice riding down on a log and fired twice,
-unsuccessfully. Have been flanked on both sides with high, pineclad
-hills for some time. A short distance above encampment snow can be
-seen. It having rained almost incessantly, have encamped under
-shelving bank which has been undermined by the river. Immense stones,
-only held in situ by dried roots, form the roof, and the floor is very
-rugged. Have supped on berries, which, when heated with stones in
-kettle, taste like lozenges. Propose tomorrow to ascend one of the
-snowy peaks above.
-
-Sept. 2. Summit of a snowy peak immediately under Rainier. Passed a
-very uncomfortable night in our troglodytic mansion. Ascended the
-river for 3 miles to where it was shut in by amphitheatre of mountains
-and could be seen bounding over a lofty precipice above. Ascended that
-which showed most snow. Our track lay at first through a dense wood of
-pine, but we afterwards emerged into an exuberantly verdant gully,
-closed on each side by lofty precipices. Followed fully to near the
-summit and found excellent berries in abundance. It contained very few
-Alpine plants. Afterwards came to a grassy mound, where the sight of
-several decayed trees induced us to encamp. After tea I set out with
-Lachalet and Nuckalkut for the summit, which was ankle deep with snow
-for 1/4 mile downwards. The summit terminated in abrupt precipice
-directed northwards and bearing N. E. from Mt. Rainier, the adjoining
-peak. The mists were at times very dense, but a puff of S. W. wind
-occasionally dispelled them. On the S. side of Poyallip is a range of
-snow-dappled mountains, and they, as well as that on the N. side,
-terminate in Mt. Rainier, a short distance to E. Collected a vasculum
-of plants at the snow, and having examined and packed them shall turn
-in. Thermometer at base, 54 deg., at summit of ascent, 47 deg.
-
-Sept. 3. Woody islet on Poyallip. It rained heavily during night, but
-about dawn the wind shifting to the N. E. dispersed the clouds and
-frost set in. Lay shivering all night and roused my swarthy companions
-twice to rekindle the fire. At sunrise, accompanied by Quilliliash,
-went to the summit and found the tempr. of the air 33 deg. The snow
-was spangled and sparkled brightly in the bright sunshine. It was
-crisp and only yielded a couple of inches to the pressure of foot in
-walking. Mt. Rainier appeared surpassingly splendid and magnificent;
-it bore, from the peak on which I stood, S. S. E., and was separated
-from it only by a narrow glen, whose sides, however, were formed by
-inaccessible precipices. Got all my bearings more correctly to-day,
-the atmosphere being clear and every object distinctly perceived. The
-river flows at first in a northerly direction from the mountain. The
-snow on the summit of the mountain adjoining Rainier on western side
-of Poyallip is continuous with that of latter, and thus the S. Western
-aspect of Rainier seemed the most accessible. By ascending the first
-mountain through a gully in its northern side, you reach the eternal
-snow of Rainier, and for a long distance afterwards the ascent is very
-gradual, but then it becomes abrupt from the sugarloaf form assumed by
-the mountain. Its eastern side is steep on its northern aspect; a few
-glaciers were seen on the conical portion; below that the mountain is
-composed of bare rock, apparently volcanic, which about 50 yards in
-breadth reaches from the snow to the valley beneath and is bounded on
-each side by bold bluff crags scantily covered with stunted pines. Its
-surface is generally smooth, but here and there raised into small
-points or knobs or arrowed with short and narrow longitudinal lines in
-which snow lay. From the snow on western border the Poyallipa arose,
-and in its course down this rock slope was fenced into the eastward by
-a regular elevation of the rock in the form of a wall or dyke, which
-at the distance I viewed it at, seemed about four feet high and four
-hundred yards in length. Two large pyramids of rock arose from the
-gentle acclivity at S. W. extremity of mountain, and around each the
-drifting snow had accumulated in large quantity, forming a basin
-apparently of great depth. Here I also perceived, peeping from their
-snowy covering, two lines of dyke similar to that already mentioned.
-
-Sept. 4. Am tonight encamped on a small eminence near the commencement
-of prairie. Had a tedious walk through the wood bordering Poyallip,
-but accomplished it in much shorter time than formerly. Evening fine.
-
-Sept. 5. Nusqually. Reached Tekatat camp in the forenoon and regaled
-on boiled elk and shallon. Pushed on ahead with Lachalet and
-Quilliliash, and arrived here in the evening, where all is well.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: COMMANDER CHARLES WILKES.
-  United States Navy.]
-
-III. FIRST RECORDED TRIP THROUGH NACHES PASS, 1841
-
-BY LIEUTENANT ROBERT E. JOHNSON, U.S.N.
-
-
-     The proper and official title of the United States Exploring
-     Expedition, 1838-1842, by common speech has been contracted
-     to the Wilkes Expedition. The commander of the expedition was
-     Charles Wilkes, who entered the United States Navy as a
-     midshipman on January 1, 1818. On July 25, 1866, he was
-     promoted to rear-admiral on the retired list. He was born at
-     New York City on April 3, 1798, and died at Washington City
-     on February 8, 1877.
-
-     He was honored in Europe and America for his scientific
-     attainments, especially in connection with the expedition
-     that now bears his name. That voyage with a squadron of
-     American naval vessels was for the purpose of increasing the
-     world's knowledge of geography and kindred sciences. They
-     reached Puget Sound in 1841 and, while making headquarters at
-     Nisqually House of the Hudson's Bay Company, Commander Wilkes
-     sent Lieutenant Robert E. Johnson in command of a party to
-     cross the Cascade Range. Search in the Navy Department
-     revealed only scant information that Lieutenant Johnson was
-     from North Carolina. The Historical Commission of that State
-     and others there have failed to find information about his
-     subsequent career.
-
-     Since he speaks of obtaining a guide, it is likely that he
-     was not the first white man to cross the Cascades, but he was
-     the first to leave us a known record. The portions of that
-     record which bear upon Mount Rainier and its environs is here
-     reproduced.
-
-     Commander Wilkes, before giving the record of his
-     subordinate, makes reference to the peak as follows: "The
-     height of Mount Rainier was obtained by measuring a base line
-     on the prairies, in which operation I was assisted by
-     Lieutenant Case, and the triangulation gave its height,
-     twelve thousand three hundred and thirty feet." (Narrative,
-     Volume IV., page 413.)
-
-     The final reports of the expedition were to appear in
-     twenty-four large volumes and eleven atlases. Several of the
-     volumes were never published, and of those completed only one
-     hundred sets were printed. The rare monographs were full of
-     information. The first part or "Narrative" in five volumes
-     was issued in several editions. The portions here reproduced
-     are taken from the edition by Lea and Blanchard,
-     Philadelphia, 1845, Volume IV., pages 418-429 and 468-470.
-
-I have before stated that Lieutenant Johnson's party was ready for
-departure on the 19th May [1841]; that it consisted of Lieutenant
-Johnson, Messrs. Pickering, Waldron, and Brackenridge, a sergeant of
-marines, and a servant. I must do justice to the exertions of this
-officer in getting ready for his journey, which he accomplished in
-less time than I anticipated, as the delays incident to setting out on
-a novel expedition, and one believed by most persons to be scarcely
-practicable in the summer season, are great and tantalizing. In making
-preparations for such a journey, the Indians were to be bargained
-with, and, as I have before had occasion to remark, are enough to tire
-the patience of Job himself. First, the Indian himself is to be sought
-out; then the horse is to be tried; next the price is to be discussed,
-then the mode of payment, and finally the potlatch: each and all are
-matters of grave consideration and delay, during which the Indians
-make a business of watching every circumstance of which they can take
-advantage. No one can be sure of closing his bargain, until the terms
-are duly arranged, the potlatch given, and the horse delivered. After
-obtaining horses, Lieutenant Johnson had the saddles, alforcas,
-saddle-cloths, saddle-trees or pack-saddles, etc., with a variety of
-lashings, to prepare. For many of these we were indebted to the
-kindness of Captain M'Niel and Mr. Anderson.[1] Others were made on
-board the ship, after a pattern lent us. One of the most important
-persons to obtain was a good guide, and hearing of one who resided at
-the Cowlitz river, by the name of Pierre Charles,[2] he was at once
-sent for; but I did not think it worth while to detain the party until
-his arrival, as he could easily overtake it. Lieutenant Johnson,
-therefore, was directed to hurry his departure, and to set out, which
-he did on the 19th May, at noon, and proceeded to the prairie about
-two miles distant, where the party encamped.
-
-There is little danger on these expeditions of having too few
-articles: the great difficulty is to avoid having too many. It turned
-out as I had anticipated. The first night passed in their tent fully
-satisfied them of this, and taught them to dispense with all other
-bedding save blankets.
-
-Mr. Anderson rode to the encampment before night, bringing the news of
-the arrival of Pierre Charles at the fort; whereupon Lieutenant
-Johnson returned to make an agreement with him and his companion. This
-was done, although, as is to be supposed, their demands were
-exorbitant, in consequence of the belief that their services were
-indispensable.
-
-Pierre Charles's companion was a young man, named Peter Bercier, (a
-connexion of Plomondon)[3] who spoke English, and all the languages of
-the country.
-
-On the morning of the 20th, they obtained an accession to their
-horses, and set out on their route towards the mountains. Although the
-possibility of crossing them was doubted, yet I felt satisfied if
-exertion and perseverance could effect the object, the officer who had
-charge of the party would succeed. This day, they made but five miles;
-after which they encamped, at the recommendation of Pierre Charles, in
-order that the horses might not be over-fatigued, and be able to get
-good pasture and water. Here a number of natives visited the camp.
-Pine trees were in large numbers, many of them upwards of one hundred
-and thirty feet in height. On the banks of a small stream, near their
-camp, were found the yellow Ranunculus, a species of Trillium, in
-thickets, with large leaves and small flowers, Lupines, and some
-specimens of a cruciferous plant.
-
-On the 21st they made an early start, and in the forenoon crossed the
-Puyallup, a stream about seventy feet wide; along which is a fine
-meadow of some extent, with clumps of alder and willow: the soil was
-of a black turfy nature. After leaving the meadow-land, they began to
-ascend along a path that was scarcely visible from being overgrown
-with Gaultheria, Hazel, Spiraea, Vaccinium, and Cornus.
-
-During the day, they crossed the Stehna.[4] In the evening, after
-making sixteen miles, they encamped at the junction of the Puyallup
-with the Upthascap.[5] Near by was a hut, built of the planks of the
-Arbor Vitae (Thuja), which was remarkably well made; and the boards
-used in its structure, although split, had all the appearance of being
-sawn: many of them were three feet wide, and about fifteen feet long.
-The hut was perfectly water-tight. Its only inhabitants were two
-miserable old Indians and two boys, who were waiting here for the
-arrival of those employed in the salmon-fishery. The rivers were
-beginning to swell to an unusual size, owing to the melting of the
-snows in the mountains; and in order to cross the streams, it became
-necessary to cut down large trees, over which the packs were carried,
-while the horses swam over. These were not the only difficulties they
-had to encounter: the path was to be cut for miles through thickets of
-brushwood and fallen timber; steep precipices were to be ascended,
-with slippery sides and entangled with roots of every variety of shape
-and size, in which the horses' legs would become entangled, and before
-reaching the top be precipitated, loads and all, to the bottom. The
-horses would at times become jammed with their packs between trees,
-and were not to be disengaged without great toil, trouble, and damage
-to their burdens. In some cases, after succeeding in getting nearly to
-the top of a hill thirty or forty feet high, they would become
-exhausted and fall over backwards, making two or three somersets,
-until they reached the bottom, when their loads were again to be
-arranged.
-
-On the 22d, their route lay along the banks of the Upthascap,[6] which
-is a much wider stream than the Puyallup. A short distance up, they
-came to a fish-weir, constructed as the one heretofore described, on
-the Chickeeles,[7] though much smaller.
-
-This part of the country abounds with arbor-vitae trees, some of which
-were found to be thirty feet in circumference at the height of four
-feet from the ground, and upwards of one hundred feet high.
-Notwithstanding the many difficulties encountered, they this day made
-about twelve miles.
-
-On the morning of the 23d, just as they were about to leave their
-camp, their men brought in a deer, which was soon skinned and packed
-away on the horses. This was the first large game they had obtained,
-having previously got only a few grouse.
-
-They had now reached the Smalocho,[8] which runs to the westward, and
-is sixty-five feet wide: its depth was found to be four and a half
-feet, which, as it was also rapid, was too great for the horses to
-ford and carry their loads. The Indians now became serviceable to
-them. Lieutenant Johnson had engaged several that were met on their
-way, and they now amounted to thirteen, who appeared for a time lively
-and contented. This, however, was but a forerunner of discontent, and
-a refusal to go any farther; but with coaxing and threatening they
-were induced to proceed.
-
-The road or way, after passing the river, was over a succession of
-deep valleys and hills, so steep that it was difficult for a horse to
-get up and over them with a load, and the fall of a horse became a
-common occurrence. They were all, however, recovered without injury,
-although one of them fell upwards of one hundred feet; yet in
-consequence of his fall having been repeatedly broken by the shrubs
-and trees, he reached the bottom without injury to himself, but with
-the loss of his load, consisting of their camp utensils, &c., which
-were swept off by the rapid current of the river.
-
-The route lay, for several days, through forests of spruce, and some
-of the trees that had fallen measured two hundred and sixty-five feet
-in length. One of these, at the height of ten feet from the roots,
-measured thirty-five feet in circumference, and at the end which had
-been broken off in its fall, it was found to be eighteen inches in
-diameter, which would make the tree little short of three hundred feet
-when it was growing. The stems of all these trees were clear of
-branches to the height of one hundred and fifty feet from the ground,
-and perfectly straight. In many cases it was impossible to see over
-the fallen trees, even when on horseback, and on these, seedlings were
-growing luxuriantly, forcing their roots through the bark and over the
-body of the trunk till they reached the ground. Many spruces were seen
-which had grown in this way; and these, though of considerable size,
-still retained the form of an arch, showing where the old tree had
-lain, and under which they occasionally rode. As may be supposed, they
-could not advance very rapidly over such ground, and Lieutenant
-Johnson remarks, that although he was frequently desirous of
-shortening the road, by taking what seemed a more direct course, he
-invariably found himself obliged to return to the Indian trail.
-
-Daylight of the 24th brought with it its troubles: it was found that
-the horses had strayed,--a disaster that the Indians took quite
-coolly, hoping it would be the cause of their return. After a
-diligent search, the horses were found in places where they had sought
-better food, although it was scanty enough even there.
-
-During the day, the route led along the Smalocho,[9] which runs nearly
-east and west; and they only left its banks when they were obliged to
-do so by various impassable barriers. This part of the country is
-composed of conical hills, which are all thickly clothed with pine
-trees of gigantic dimensions. They made nine miles this day, without
-accident; but when they encamped, they had no food for the horses
-except fern. The animals, in consequence, seemed much overcome, as did
-also the Indians, who had travelled the whole day with heavy loads.
-Lieutenant Johnson, by way of diverting the fatigue of the latter, got
-up a shooting-match for a knife, the excitement of which had the
-desired effect.
-
-The trees hereabout were chiefly the cotton-wood, maple, spruce, pine,
-and elder, and some undergrowth of raspberry, the young shoots of
-which the natives eat with great relish.
-
-On the 25th, they set out at an early hour, and found the travelling
-less rough, so that they reached the foot of La Tete[10] before noon,
-having accomplished eleven miles. Lieutenant Johnson with the sergeant
-ascended La Tete, obtained the bearings, from its summit, of all the
-objects around, and made its height by barometer, two thousand seven
-hundred and ninety-eight feet: its latitude was fixed at 47 deg. 08'
-54'' N. This mountain was entirely destitute of wood; but, having
-been burnt over, was found strewn with huge charred trunks, and the
-whole ground covered with ashes. The inclination of its sides was
-about fifty degrees.
-
-The country around seemed one continued series of hills, and like La
-Tete had suffered from the fire. According to the natives, although
-the wood on the mountains was destroyed many years since, yet it was
-still observed to be on fire, in some places, about two years ago.
-Most of the tops of the distant peaks had snow on them. To the east
-was seen the appearance of two valleys, through which the two branches
-of the Smalocho[11] flow.
-
-On descending from La Tete, the river was to be crossed: this was
-found too deep to be forded, and it consequently became necessary to
-form a bridge to transport the baggage, by cutting down trees. The
-current was found to run 6.2 miles per hour. They had been in hopes of
-reaching the Little Prairie before night, but in consequence of this
-delay, were forced to encamp before arriving there.
-
-The Indians complained much of the want of food: many of the horses
-also were exhausted for the same cause, and exhibited their scanty
-nourishment in their emaciated appearance.
-
-On the 26th, they reached the Little Prairie at an early hour, where,
-after consultation, it was determined to wait a day to recruit the
-horses, as this was the only place they could obtain food. It was also
-desirable to ascertain the practicability of passing the mountain with
-the horses, and at the same time to carry forward some of the loads,
-that the horses might have as little as possible to transport. Mr.
-Waldron and Pierre Charles were therefore sent forward with the
-Indians, having loads of fifty pounds each, to ascend the mountain,
-while Lieutenant Johnson remained with the camp to get observations.
-Dr. Pickering and Mr. Brackenridge accompanied the party of Mr.
-Waldron to the snow-line. The prairie on which they had encamped was
-about two and a half acres in extent, and another of the same size was
-found half a mile farther east.
-
-The 27th was employed by Lieutenant Johnson in determining the
-positions of this prairie, which proved to be in latitude 47 deg. 05'
-51'' N., and longitude 120 deg. 13' W.[12] The variation was 19 deg.
-39' easterly. At sunset, messengers arrived from Mr. Waldron, who had
-reached the summit at noon, and was to proceed down to the snow-line
-to encamp. The snow was found to be about ten feet deep, and the party
-crossing sank about ankle-deep, for which reason opinions varied as to
-the possibility of getting the horses over; but it was determined to
-make the trial. Lieutenant Johnson, therefore, set out, leaving a
-supply of food with an old Indian and a horse, both of whom were worn
-out, and unable to proceed.
-
-By eleven o'clock, they were met by Pierre Charles and the Indians,
-who gave some slight hopes of accomplishing the task of getting all
-over. Lieutenant Johnson determined to take only the strongest horses
-to the edge of the snow. At half-past 5 P.M., they reached the best
-practicable encampment, being a mile beyond the place where Mr.
-Waldron had encamped two days before. The snow having melted so
-rapidly, Lieutenant Johnson, taking all things into consideration,
-determined, notwithstanding the forebodings of failure held out by the
-party that had gone before, to make the attempt. It now became
-necessary to push on with as much haste as possible, on account of the
-state of their provisions; for what with the loss sustained in fording
-the river, and in consumption, they were obliged to adopt an
-allowance.
-
-On the 29th, they departed, at early dawn, in order to take advantage
-of the firmness of the snow, occasioned by the last night's frost.
-They ascended rapidly, and passed over the worst of the way, the
-horses sinking no deeper than their fetlocks. They first passed over a
-narrow ridge, and then a succession of small cones, until they reached
-the summit.
-
-Mount Rainier, from the top, bore south-southwest, apparently not more
-than ten miles distant. A profile of the mountain indicates that it
-has a terminal crater, as well as some on its flanks. The barometer
-stood at 24.950 in.: five thousand and ninety-two feet. There was
-another, to the north-northeast, covered with snow, and one to the
-west appeared about two hundred feet higher than the place where the
-observations were taken. This latter had suffered from fire in the
-same way as La Tete, and showed only a few patches of snow. To the
-eastward, a range of inferior height, running north and south, was in
-view, without snow.
-
-On the western ascent of this mountain, the pines were scrubby; but at
-the summit, which was a plain, about a mile in length by half a mile
-wide, they were straight and towering, about eighty feet in height,
-without any limbs or foliage, except at the top. The distance
-travelled over the top was about five miles. On descending the east
-side, the snow was much deeper and softer, but the horses managed to
-get along well, and without accident.
-
-Lieutenant Johnson, in following the party, missed the trail, and lost
-his way for three or four hours. On discovering the camp of those who
-had gone before, on the opposite side of a stream, he attempted to
-cross it on a log, in doing which his foot slipped, and he was
-precipitated into the water. Although his first thought was to save
-the chronometer from accident, it was too late, for the watch had
-stopped; it was not, however, so far injured as not to be set a-going,
-and it continued to go during the remainder of the journey: the only
-use I have been able to make of his subsequent observations, was to
-obtain the relative meridian distances between the points visited,
-without the absolute longitude. It is needless to say, that I placed
-little or no dependence on them, in constructing the map.
-
-Although the horses had, with one or two exceptions, reached the
-eastern side of the mountain, yet they, together with the Indians,
-were very much exhausted. The time had now come when the Indians,
-according to agreement, were to be paid off, and they had done much
-more than they agreed to do, having crossed the mountain twice.
-
-Finding the necessity of retaining all the blankets that had been
-brought with them, in order to buy horses, Lieutenant Johnson proposed
-to the Indians to receive an order on Nisqually, in lieu of the
-immediate delivery of the blankets. This they readily assented to, and
-also willingly gave up those that had already been paid them, on
-receiving a similar order,--thus showing a spirit of accommodation
-highly praiseworthy. Only two of them returned to Nisqually, to whom
-were entrusted the botanical specimens, and the care of the horses
-left upon the road.
-
-The banks of the small streams on the eastern side of the mountain
-were bordered with the greatest variety of trees and shrubs,
-consisting of poplars, buckthorn fifty feet high, dogwood thirty to
-forty feet high, several species of willow, alder, two species of
-maple, and occasionally a yew. The undergrowth was composed of Hazel,
-Vaccinium, Gaultheria, and a prickly species of Aralia. The herbaceous
-shrubs were Goodyera, Neottia, Viola, Claytonia, Corallorrhiza. The
-latter, however, were not in flower.
-
-The party on foot, after leaving the Little Prairie about half a mile,
-crossed the northern branch of the Smalocho,[13] which was found much
-swollen and very rapid. Two trees were cut down to form a bridge.
-After this, the walking through the forest became smooth and firm, and
-they passed on at a rapid pace. The Indians, although loaded with
-ninety pounds of baggage, kept up with the rest. At nightfall they
-encamped at the margin of the snow.
-
-On lighting their fires, they accidentally set fire to the
-moss-covered trees, and in a few moments all around them was a
-blazing mass of flame, which compelled them to change their quarters
-farther to windward. They had made eighteen miles. But few plants were
-found, the season being too early for collecting at so high an
-elevation. The ground was covered with spruce-twigs, which had
-apparently been broken off by the weight of the snow. The summit was
-passed through an open space about twenty acres in extent. This glade
-was surrounded with a dense forest of spruce trees. There was no
-danger in walking except near the young trees, which had been bent
-down by the snow, but on passing these they often broke through, and
-experienced much difficulty in extricating themselves, particularly
-the poor Indians, with their heavy burdens. The breadth of snow passed
-over was about eight miles. At three o'clock they reached the
-Spipen[14] River, where they encamped: this camp was found to be two
-thousand five hundred and forty-one feet above the level of the sea.
-The vegetation appeared to our botanical gentlemen farther advanced on
-the east side than on the west, at the same height; the Pulmonarias
-and several small annuals were more forward. There were only a few
-pine trees, and those small, seen on the west side of the ridge; and
-on the east side, there was a species of larch, the hackmatack of the
-country. While they remained at this camp, they found a Pyrola, and
-some new ferns.
-
-The country about the Spipen[14] is mountainous and woody, with a
-narrow strip of meadow-land along its banks. Mr. Waldron had, on
-arriving at the camp, sent Lachemere, one of the Indians, down the
-river to an Indian chief, in order to procure horses. Those that
-remained after providing for the baggage, were consequently assigned
-each to two or three individuals to ride and tye on their route.
-
-On the 30th, they proceeded down the Spipen, making a journey of
-eighteen miles, and passed another branch of the river, the junction
-of which augmented its size very considerably. Its banks, too, became
-perpendicular and rocky, with a current flowing between them at the
-rate of six or seven miles an hour. After the junction, the stream was
-about one hundred feet broad, and its course was east-southeast.
-
-The vegetation on the east side of the mountains was decidedly more
-advanced than that to the west, and several very interesting species
-of plants were met with by the botanists, on the banks of the streams:
-among them were Paeonia brownii, Cypripedium oregonium, Pentstemon,
-Ipomopsis elegans, and several Compositae, and a very handsome
-flowering shrub, Purshia tridentata.
-
-On the 31st, they continued their route over a rough country, in some
-places almost impassable for a horse from its steepness, and in others
-so marshy as to require much caution to prevent being mired.
-
-During the morning, they met two Indians, who informed them that the
-chief of the Yakima tribe was a short distance in advance, waiting to
-meet them, and that he had several horses. At noon they reached a
-small prairie on the banks of the river, where old Tidias, the chief,
-was seen seated in state to receive Lieutenant Johnson; but this
-ceremony was unavoidably broken in upon by the necessity of getting
-the meridian observations. The chief, however, advanced towards him
-with every mark of friendship, giving the party a hearty welcome. In
-person he was tall, straight, and thin, a little bald, with long black
-hair hanging down his back, carefully tied with a worsted rag. He was
-grave, but dignified and graceful. When they had been seated, and
-after smoking a couple of pipes in silence, he intimated that he was
-ready for a talk, which then followed, relative to the rivers and face
-of the country; but little information was obtained that could be
-depended upon.
-
-This tribe subsist chiefly upon salmon and the cammass-root: game is
-very scarce, and the beaver have all disappeared. The cammass-root is
-pounded and made into a sort of cake, which is not unpleasant, having
-a sweetish taste, but it is very dry, although some of the party took
-a fancy to it.
-
-Tidias had with him an old man almost blind, who claimed much respect,
-and two young men, whose dress of buckskin, profusely ornamented with
-beads, was much admired by the party. During the talk, the old chief
-expressed himself delighted to see the white men, and spoke of his own
-importance, his immense territory, etc., in a style of boasting, to
-which the Indians are very much addicted. He said that he was desirous
-of affording all the accommodation he could to the party. But although
-he had eight or ten fine horses with him, he would not agree to part
-with them, as they were all his favourites. He was presented with a
-variety of articles, in return for which he gave the party a few dried
-salmon.
-
-Towards evening, old Tidias took leave of them, saying that it was not
-proper for an Indian to encamp in the same place with a white man, and
-with a promise that he would have horses by ten o'clock the next day;
-but he had a game to play by procrastinating, in which he thoroughly
-succeeded.
-
-In the morning they reached the Indian camp below, but no horses had
-arrived. It was far, they said, to Tidias's house; a man could not go
-thither and return in the same day; no horses or salmon could be
-brought; no one could be permitted to go. Lieutenant Johnson was then
-told that the road he had to follow was a "hungry" road. At last the
-Indian was induced by high offers to exchange good horses for a great
-number of bad ones, and finally consented to part with two more. On
-quitting him they became thoroughly aware that all the difficulties
-were owing, not to any indisposition to sell, but were created for the
-purpose of inducing high prices to be given.
-
-The party now branched off at right angles to their former route,
-Lieutenant Johnson heartily sick and tired of his friend Tidias and
-his people. Two more of the Indians here left them. The country they
-entered, after passing a ridge about six hundred feet high, was quite
-of a different aspect, forming long sloping hills, covered with a
-scanty growth of pines. Many dry beds of rivulets were passed, and the
-soil of the hills produced nothing but a long thin grass. There are,
-however, some small valleys where the growth of grass is luxuriant,
-the pines are larger, and the scenery assumed a park-like appearance.
-
-From the summit of one of the hills, a sketch of Mount Rainier, and of
-the intervening range, was obtained.
-
-On the top of the ridge they fell in with a number of Spipen Indians,
-who were engaged in digging the cammass and other roots. The latter
-were those of an umbelliferous plant, oblong, tuberous, and in taste
-resembling a parsnip. The process used to prepare them for bread, is
-to bake them in a well-heated oven of stones; when they are taken out
-they are dried, and then pounded between two stones till the mass
-becomes as fine as corn meal, when it is kneaded into cakes and dried
-in the sun. These roots are the principal vegetable food of the
-Indians throughout Middle Oregon. The women are frequently seen, to
-the number of twenty or thirty, with baskets suspended from the neck,
-and a pointed stick in their hand, digging these roots, and so
-intently engaged in the search for them, as to pay no attention
-whatever to a passer-by. When these roots are properly dried, they are
-stored away for the winter's consumption. This day they made only
-fifteen miles, in a northern direction.
-
-On the 2d of June, they reached the Yakima, after having crossed a
-small stream. The Yakima was too deep for the horses to ford with
-their packs, and they now for the first time used their balsas of
-India-rubber cloth, which were found to answer the purpose of
-floating the loads across the stream.
-
-This river is one hundred and fifty feet wide, and pursues an
-east-southeast course, with a velocity of more than four miles an
-hour. At this place were found twenty migrating Indians, who have
-their permanent residence on the banks lower down.
-
-The chief, Kamaiyah, was the son-in-law of old Tidias, and one of the
-most handsome and perfectly-formed Indians they had met with. He was
-found to be gruff and surly in his manners, which was thought to be
-owing to his wish to appear dignified. These Indians were living in
-temporary huts, consisting of mats spread on poles. Among them was
-seen quite a pretty girl, dressed in a shirt and trousers, with
-moccasins of skin very much ornamented with fringe and beads. They had
-a number of fine horses, but could not be induced to part with any of
-them.
-
-Lieutenant Johnson had now succeeded in purchasing venison and salmon,
-and the party again had full allowance.
-
-On the 3d, they continued their route to the northward, over gradually
-rising ground, and Lieutenant Johnson having succeeded in purchasing
-three more horses, only three of the party were now without them, so
-that the riding and tye system was not quite so often resorted to as
-before. On this plain was seen a number of curlews, some grouse, and a
-large species of hare. They encamped again near the snow, and found
-their altitude greater than any yet reached, the barometer standing at
-24.750 in.: five thousand two hundred and three feet. They had again
-reached the spruces and lost the pine, which was only found on the
-hill-sides and plains.
-
-At 4 A.M. on the morning of the 4th of June, the thermometer stood at
-28 deg.. They on that day continued their route up the mountain and
-across its summit, which was here and there covered with patches of snow.
-I regret to record another accident to the instruments. The sergeant, to
-whom the barometer was intrusted by Lieutenant Johnson, in putting up
-the instrument this morning, carelessly broke it; and thus ended the
-barometrical experiments in the most interesting portion of the route.
-
-It is difficult to account for the scarcity of snow on a much higher
-elevation than they had before reached, and under circumstances which
-would appear to have warranted a contrary expectation. Dr. Pickering
-was induced to believe that this change in the climate is owing to the
-open nature of the surrounding country; its being devoid of dense
-forests, with but a few scattered trees and no under-brush; and the
-vicinity to elevated plains, and the ridge being of a less broken
-character.
-
-The early part of the day was cold, with showers of sleet. On the
-crest of the mountain they passed over swampy ground, with but a few
-patches of spruces: after passing which, they began to descend very
-regularly towards the Columbia, which they reached early in the
-afternoon, about three miles below the Pischous River.[15] The
-Columbia at this place is a rapid stream, but the scenery differs
-entirely from that of other rivers: its banks are altogether devoid of
-any fertile alluvial flats; destitute even of scattered trees; there
-is no freshness in the little vegetation on its borders; the sterile
-sands in fact reach to its very brink, and it is scarcely to be
-believed until its banks are reached that a mighty river is rolling
-its waters past these arid wastes.
-
-     [The record of the journey to Fort Colville is omitted, to be
-     resumed when the party returning draws near the environs of
-     Mount Rainier. The portion omitted extends from page 430 to
-     468 in the original publication.]
-
-The party now pursued the route up the river, and in two hours reached
-the Yakima, up whose valley they passed, encamping after making
-twenty-five miles. The country was rolling, and might be termed sandy
-and barren.
-
-Mount St. Helen's,[16] with its snow-capped top, was seen at a great
-distance to the west.
-
-On the 5th, they continued their route, and at midday were overtaken
-by an Indian, with a note informing them of the arrival of Mr. Drayton
-at Wallawalla with the brigade. This was quick travelling for news in
-Oregon; for so slow is it usually carried, that our party were the
-first to bring the news of the arrival and operations of the squadron
-in Oregon. This intelligence had not previously reached Wallawalla,
-although it is considered to be on the direct post-route to the
-interior, notwithstanding we had been in the country nearly two
-months. The news of the murder of Mr. Black, in New Caledonia, was
-nearly a year in reaching some points on the coast.
-
-This was one of the warmest days they had experienced, and the
-thermometer under the shade of a canopy stood at 108 deg. At a short
-distance from the place where they stopped was a small hut, composed
-of a few branches and reeds, which was thought to be barely sufficient
-to contain a sheep; yet under it were four generations of human
-beings, all females, seated in a posture, which, to whites, would have
-been impracticable. They had just procured their subsistence for the
-day, and their meal consisted of the berries of the dogwood. The scene
-was not calculated to impress one very favourably with savage life.
-The oldest of these had the cartilage of the nose pierced, but the
-others had not; leading to the conclusion that the practice had been
-discontinued for some years in the nation, who still, however, retain
-the name.
-
-The country exhibited little appearance of vegetation; the herbage
-was quite dried up, and from appearances was likely to continue so
-throughout the season. The prevailing vegetation consisted of bushes
-of wormwood, stinted in growth, and unyielding.
-
-After making thirty-three miles, they encamped among loose sand, one
-hundred feet above the water of the river. Many rattlesnakes were
-found in this vicinity.
-
-Owing to the quantities of mosquitoes, combined with the fear of
-snakes, the party obtained little or no rest, and were all glad to
-mount their horses and proceed on their way.
-
-In the early part of the day, they arrived at the junction of the
-Spipen with the Yakima: previous to this they crossed another branch,
-coming in from the southwest; the waters of the latter were very
-turbid, of a dark-brown colour, and it was conjectured that it had its
-source at or near Mount Rainier. Along its banks was seen a range of
-basaltic columns. The Yakima was crossed during the day in canoes, the
-river not being yet fordable.
-
-The country, which had for some days exhibited the appearance of the
-Tillandsia districts of Peru, had now begun to acquire a tinge of
-green, and some scattered pine trees had become visible. Some small
-oaks were passed, which appeared of a local character. This night they
-again had a number of rattlesnakes in their camp.
-
-On the 8th, the valley had narrowed, and the banks becoming more
-perpendicular, they had a great many difficulties to encounter. They
-stopped at the camp of old Tidias, whom, it will be recollected, they
-had encountered after crossing the mountains, and from whom they
-obtained some horses. They soon afterwards arrived at the path where
-they had turned off to the north. The river had fallen very much
-during their absence, and there was a marked difference in the season,
-the vegetation being much more backward than in the parts they had
-recently visited. The berries were just beginning to ripen, while in
-the plains, not twenty miles distant, they were already over. Old
-Tidias determined to accompany them to Nisqually, taking with him his
-son, and lending them several horses. The Spipen, up which they
-passed, was now hemmed in by mountain ridges, occasionally leaving
-small portions of level ground. They encamped at the place they had
-occupied on the 30th of May.
-
-The vegetation, since they had passed this place, had so much advanced
-that they had difficulty in recognising it again. The wet prairies
-were overgrown with rank grass, from one to two feet in height. After
-a short rest at the foot of the mountain, they began its ascent, and
-reached the crest of the ridge in about three hours. On every side
-they found a low growth of shrubs, which they had not suspected when
-it was covered with snow, and causing the summit to differ essentially
-from the broad ridge they had crossed between the Yakima and Pischous
-rivers. They encamped for the night on the edge of a wet prairie,
-which afforded pasturage for their horses.
-
-The next day they passed through several similar prairies, and
-descended the western slope of the mountain, where they found more
-patches of snow than on the east side. This was just the reverse of
-what they had found on their previous passage; the season, too, was
-evidently much less advanced. This circumstance was supposed to be
-owing to the denser forest on the west, as well as the absence of
-elevated plains.
-
-They encamped the same night at the little prairie before spoken of,
-at the foot of the western slope. Before reaching it, they met a party
-of men and women carrying a sick chief over the mountain, who was
-evidently dying. It was affecting to see him stretching forth his hand
-to them as they passed, as if desiring to be friends with all before
-he died. He died the same night.
-
-The two next days it rained almost constantly, but they found the road
-much less difficult to travel than before, and the streams were
-fordable, which enabled them to make more rapid progress.
-
-On the 13th, they passed the Smalocho, and on the 15th reached
-Nisqually, all well; having performed a journey of about one thousand
-miles without any material accident, except those that have been
-related as having occurred to the instruments. They traversed a route
-which white men had never before taken, thus enabling us to become
-acquainted with a portion of the country about which all had before
-been conjecture. They had also made a large addition to our collection
-of plants.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: THEODORE WINTHROP.
-  From the Rowse crayon portrait.]
-
-IV. TACOMA AND THE INDIAN LEGEND OF HAMITCHOU
-
-BY THEODORE WINTHROP
-
-
-     Theodore Winthrop was a descendant of the famous Governor
-     John Winthrop, of Massachusetts. He was born at New Haven,
-     Connecticut, on September 22, 1828, and lost his life early
-     in the Civil War near Great Bethel, Virginia, on June 10,
-     1861. His death was deeply mourned as of one who had given
-     great promise of success in the field of literature.
-
-     His book, _The Canoe and the Saddle_, has appeared in many
-     editions. It tells of his visit to Puget Sound and across the
-     Cascade Mountains in 1853. In that volume he declares that
-     the Indians called the mountain, Tacoma. So far as is known
-     to the editor, that is the first place that that name for the
-     mountain appeared in print.
-
-     In addition to this interesting fact, the book is a charming
-     piece of literature, and will endure as one of the classics
-     on the Pacific Northwest. The portions here reproduced relate
-     to the mountain. They are taken from an early edition of the
-     book published by the John W. Lovell Company of New York. The
-     edition carries no date, but the copyright notice is by
-     Ticknor and Fields, 1862. The parts used are from pages
-     43-45, and 123-176.
-
-     The author's niece, Elizabeth Winthrop Johnson, of Pasadena,
-     California, kindly furnished a photograph of Rowse's portrait
-     of her famous uncle.
-
-     The large and beautiful glacier sweeping from the northeast
-     summit past the western slope of Steamboat Prow now bears the
-     name of Winthrop Glacier.
-
-We had rounded a point, and opened Puyallop Bay, a breadth of
-sheltered calmness, when I, lifting sleepy eyelids for a dreamy stare
-about, was suddenly aware of a vast white shadow in the water. What
-cloud, piled massive on the horizon, could cast an image so sharp in
-outline, so full of vigorous detail of surface? No cloud, as my
-stare, no longer dreamy, presently discovered,--no cloud, but a cloud
-compeller. It was a giant mountain dome of snow, swelling and seeming
-to fill the aerial spheres as its image displaced the blue deeps of
-tranquil water. The smoky haze of an Oregon August hid all the length
-of its lesser ridges, and left this mighty summit based upon uplifting
-dimness. Only its splendid snows were visible, high in the unearthly
-regions of clear blue noonday sky. The shore line drew a cincture of
-pines across the broad base, where it faded unreal into the mist. The
-same dark girth separated the peak from its reflection, over which my
-canoe was now pressing, and sending wavering swells to shatter the
-beautiful vision before it.
-
-Kingly and alone stood this majesty, without any visible comrade or
-consort, though far to the north and the south its brethren and
-sisters dominated their realms, each in isolated sovereignty, rising
-above the pine-darkened sierra of the Cascade Mountains,--above the
-stern chasm where the Columbia, Achilles of rivers, sweeps,
-short-lived and jubilant, to the sea,--above the lovely vales of the
-Willamette and Umpqua. Of all the peaks from California to Frazer's
-River, this one before me was royalest. Mount Regnier Christians have
-dubbed it, in stupid nomenclature perpetuating the name of somebody or
-nobody. More melodiously the siwashes call it Tacoma,--a generic term
-also applied to all snow peaks. Whatever keen crests and crags there
-may be in its rock anatomy of basalt, snow covers softly with its
-bends and sweeping curves. Tacoma, under its ermine, is a crushed
-volcanic dome, or an ancient volcano fallen in, and perhaps as yet not
-wholly lifeless. The domes of snow are stateliest. There may be more
-of feminine beauty in the cones, and more of masculine force and
-hardihood in the rough pyramids, but the great domes are calmer and
-more divine, and, even if they have failed to attain absolute
-dignified grace of finish, and are riven and broken down, they still
-demand our sympathy for giant power, if only partially victor. Each
-form--the dome, the cone, and the pyramid--has its type among the
-great snow peaks of the Cascades.
-
-     [Chapter VII, beginning at page 123 of the original
-     publication, is entitled "Tacoma."]
-
-Up and down go the fortunes of men, now benignant, now malignant.
-_Ante meridiem_ of our lives, we are rising characters. Our full noon
-comes, and we are borne with plaudits on the shoulders of a grateful
-populace. _Post meridiem_, we are ostracized, if not more rudely
-mobbed. At twilight, we are perhaps recalled, and set on the throne of
-Nestor.
-
-Such slow changes in esteem are for men of some import and of settled
-character. Loolowcan suffered under a more rapidly fluctuating public
-opinion. At the camp of the road-makers, he had passed through a
-period of neglect,--almost of ignominy. My hosts had prejudices
-against redskins; they treated the son of Owhhigh with no
-consideration; and he became depressed and slinking in manner under
-the influence of their ostracism. No sooner had we disappeared from
-the range of Boston eyes than Loolowcan resumed his leadership and his
-control. I was very secondary now, and followed him humbly enough up
-the heights we had reached. Here were all the old difficulties
-increased, because they were no longer met on a level. We were to
-climb the main ridge,--the mountain of La Tete,--abandoning the
-valley, assaulting the summits. And here, as Owhhigh had prophesied in
-his harangue at Nisqually, the horse's mane must be firmly grasped by
-the climber. Poor, panting, weary nags! may it be true, the promise of
-Loolowcan, that not far away is abundant fodder! But where can aught,
-save firs with ostrich digestion, grow on these rough, forest-clad
-shoulders?
-
-So I clambered on till near noon.
-
-I had been following thus for many hours the blind path, harsh,
-darksome, and utterly lonely, urging on with no outlook, encountering
-no landmark,--at last, as I stormed a ragged crest, gaining a height
-that overtopped the firs, and, halting there for panting moments,
-glanced to see if I had achieved mastery as well as position,--as I
-looked somewhat wearily and drearily across the solemn surges of
-forest, suddenly above their sombre green appeared Tacoma. Large and
-neighbor it stood, so near that every jewel of its snow-fields seemed
-to send me a separate ray; yet not so near but that I could with one
-look take in its whole image, from clear-cut edge to edge.
-
-All around it the dark evergreens rose like a ruff; above them the
-mountain splendors swelled statelier for the contrast. Sunlight of
-noon was so refulgent upon the crown, and lay so thick and dazzling in
-nooks and chasms, that the eye sought repose of gentler lights, and
-found it in shadowed nooks and clefts, where, sunlight entering not,
-delicate mist, an emanation from the blue sky, had fallen, and lay
-sheltered and tremulous, a mild substitute for the stronger glory. The
-blue haze so wavered and trembled into sunlight, and sunbeams shot
-glimmering over snowy brinks so like a constant avalanche, that I
-might doubt whether this movement and waver and glimmer, this blending
-of mist with noontide flame, were not a drifting smoke and cloud of
-yellow sulphurous vapor floating over some slowly chilling crater far
-down in the red crevices.
-
-But if the giant fires had ever burned under that cold summit, they
-had long since gone out. The dome that swelled up passionately had
-crusted over and then fallen in upon itself, not vigorous enough with
-internal life to bear up in smooth proportion. Where it broke into
-ruin was no doubt a desolate waste, stern, craggy, and riven, but such
-drear results of Titanic convulsion the gentle snows hid from view.
-
-No foot of man had ever trampled those pure snows. It was a virginal
-mountain, distant from the possibility of human approach and human
-inquisitiveness as a marble goddess is from human love.
-
-Yet there was nothing unsympathetic in its isolation, or despotic in
-its distant majesty. But this serene loftiness was no home for any
-deity of those that men create. Only the thought of eternal peace
-arose from this heaven-upbearing monument like incense, and,
-overflowing, filled the world with deep and holy calm.
-
-Wherever the mountain turned its cheek toward the sun, many fair and
-smiling dimples appeared, and along soft curves of snow, lines of
-shadow drew tracery fair as the blue veins on a child's temple.
-Without the infinite sweetness and charm of this kindly changefulness
-of form and color, there might have been oppressive awe in the
-presence of this transcendent glory against the solemn blue of noon.
-Grace played over the surface of majesty, as a drift of rose-leaves
-wavers in the air before a summer shower, or as a wreath of rosy mist
-flits before the grandeur of a storm. Loveliness was sprinkled like a
-boon of blossoms upon sublimity.
-
-Our lives forever demand and need visual images that can be symbols to
-us of the grandeur or the sweetness of repose. There are some faces
-that arise dreamy in our memories, and look us into calmness in our
-frantic moods. Fair and happy is a life that need not call upon its
-vague memorial dreams for such attuning influence, but can turn to a
-present reality, and ask tranquillity at the shrine of a household
-goddess. The noble works of nature, and mountains most of all,
-
-                "have power to make
-    Our noisy years seem moments in the being
-    Of the eternal silence."
-
-And, studying the light and the majesty of Tacoma, there passed from
-it and entered into my being, to dwell there evermore by the side of
-many such, a thought and an image of solemn beauty, which I could
-thenceforth evoke whenever in the world I must have peace or die. For
-such emotion years of pilgrimage were worthily spent. If mortal can
-gain the thoughts of immortality, is not his earthly destiny achieved?
-For, when we have so studied the visible poem, and so fixed it deep in
-the very substance of our minds, there is forever with us not merely a
-perpetual possession of delight, but a watchful monitor that will not
-let our thoughts be long unfit for the pure companionship of beauty.
-For whenever a man is false to the light that is in him, and accepts
-meaner joys, or chooses the easy indulgence that meaner passions give,
-then every fair landscape in all his horizon dims, and all its
-grandeurs fade and dwindle away, the glory vanishes, and he looks,
-like one lost, upon his world, late so lovely and sinless.
-
-While I was studying Tacoma, and learning its fine lesson, it in turn
-might contemplate its own image far away on the waters of Whulge,
-where streams from its own snows, gushing seaward to buffet in the
-boundless deep, might rejoice in a last look at their parent ere they
-swept out of Puyallop Bay. Other large privilege of view it had. It
-could see what I could not,--Tacoma the Less, Mt. Adams, meritorious
-but clumsy; it could reflect sunbeams gracefully across a breadth of
-forest to St. Helen's, the vestal virgin, who still kept her flame
-kindled, and proved her watchfulness ever and anon. Continuing its
-panoramic studies, Tacoma could trace the chasm of the Columbia by
-silver circles here and there,--could see every peak, chimney, or
-unopened vent, from Kulshan to Shasta Butte. The Blue Mountains
-eastward were within its scope, and westward the faint-blue levels of
-the Pacific. Another region, worthy of any mountain's beholding,
-Tacoma sees, somewhat vague and dim in distance: it sees the sweet
-Arcadian valley of the Willamette, charming with meadow, park, and
-grove. In no older world where men have, in all their happiest moods,
-recreated themselves for generations in taming earth to orderly
-beauty, have they achieved a fairer garden than Nature's simple labor
-of love has made there, giving to rough pioneers the blessings and the
-possible education of refined and finished landscape, in the presence
-of landscape strong, savage, and majestic.
-
-All this Tacoma beholds, as I can but briefly hint; and as one who is
-a seer himself becomes a tower of light and illumination to the world,
-so Tacoma, so every brother seer of his among the lofty snow-peaks,
-stands to educate, by his inevitable presence, every dweller
-thereabouts. Our race has never yet come into contact with great
-mountains as companions of daily life, nor felt that daily development
-of the finer and more comprehensive senses which these signal facts of
-nature compel. That is an influence of the future. The Oregon people,
-in a climate where being is bliss,--where every breath is a draught of
-vivid life,--these Oregon people, carrying to a new and grander New
-England of the West a fuller growth of the American Idea, under whose
-teaching the man of lowest ambitions must still have some little
-indestructible respect for himself, and the brute of most tyrannical
-aspirations some little respect for others; carrying the civilization
-of history where it will not suffer by the example of Europe,--with
-such material, that Western society, when it crystallizes, will
-elaborate new systems of thought and life. It is unphilosophical to
-suppose that a strong race, developing under the best, largest, and
-calmest conditions of nature, will not achieve a destiny.
-
-Up to Tacoma, or into some such solitude of nature, imaginative men
-must go, as Moses went up to Sinai, that the divine afflatus may stir
-within them. The siwashes appreciate, according to their capacity, the
-inspiration of lonely grandeur, and go upon the mountains, starving
-and alone, that they may become seers, enchanters, magicians,
-diviners,--what in conventional lingo is called "big medicine." For
-though the Indians here have not peopled these thrones of their world
-with the creatures of an anthropomorphic mythology, they yet deem them
-the abode of Tamanous. Tamanous is a vague and half-personified type
-of the unknown, of the mysterious forces of nature; and there is also
-an indefinite multitude of undefined emanations, each one a tamanous
-with a small t, which are busy and impish in complicating existence,
-or equally active and spritely in unravelling it. Each Indian of this
-region patronizes his own personal tamanous, as men of the more
-eastern tribes keep a private manitto, and as Socrates kept a daimon.
-To supply this want, Tamanous with a big T undergoes an avatar, and
-incarnates himself into a salmon, a beaver, a clam, or into some
-inanimate object, such as a canoe, a paddle, a fir-tree, a flint, or
-into some elemental essence, as fire, water, sun, mist; and tamanous
-thus individualized becomes the "guide, philosopher, and friend" of
-every siwash, conscious that otherwise he might stray and be lost in
-the unknown realms of Tamanous.
-
-Hamitchou, a frowzy ancient of the Squallyamish, told to Dr. Tolmie
-and me, at Nisqually, a legend of Tamanous and Tacoma, which, being
-interpreted, runs as follows:--
-
-    Hamitchou's Legend
-
-"Avarice, O Boston tyee," quoth Hamitchou, studying me with dusky
-eyes, "is a mighty passion. Now, be it known unto thee that we Indians
-anciently used not metals nor the money of you blanketeers. Our
-circulating medium was shells,--wampum you would name it. Of all
-wampum, the most precious is Hiaqua. Hiaqua comes from the far north.
-It is a small, perforated shell, not unlike a very opaque quill
-toothpick, tapering from the middle, and cut square at both ends. We
-string it in many strands, and hang it around the neck of one we
-love,--namely, each man his own neck. We also buy with it what our
-hearts desire. He who has most hiaqua is best and wisest and happiest
-of all the northern Haida and of all the people of Whulge. The
-mountain horsemen value it; and braves of the terrible Blackfeet have
-been known, in the good old days, to come over and offer a horse or a
-wife for a bunch of fifty hiaqua.
-
-"Now, once upon a time there dwelt where this fort of Nisqually now
-stands a wise old man of the Squallyamish. He was a great fisherman
-and a great hunter; and the wiser he grew, much the wiser he thought
-himself. When he had grown very wise, he used to stay apart from every
-other siwash. Companionable salmon-boilings round a common pot had no
-charms for him. 'Feasting was wasteful,' he said, 'and revellers would
-come to want.' And when they verified his prophecy, and were full of
-hunger and empty of salmon, he came out of his hermitage, and had
-salmon to sell.
-
-"Hiaqua was the pay he always demanded; and as he was a very wise old
-man, and knew all the tide-ways of Whulge, and all the enticing
-ripples and placid spots of repose in every river where fish might
-dash or delay, he was sure to have salmon when others wanted, and thus
-bagged largely of its precious equivalent, hiaqua.
-
-"Not only a mighty fisher was the sage, but a mighty hunter, and elk,
-the greatest animal of the woods, was the game he loved. Well had he
-studied every trail where elk leave the print of their hoofs, and
-where, tossing their heads, they bend the tender twigs. Well had he
-searched through the broad forest, and found the long-haired prairies
-where elk feed luxuriously; and there, from behind palisade fir-trees,
-he had launched the fatal arrow. Sometimes, also, he lay beside a pool
-of sweetest water, revealed to him by gemmy reflections of sunshine
-gleaming through the woods, until at noon the elk came down, to find
-death awaiting him as he stooped and drank. Or beside the same
-fountain the old man watched at night, drowsily starting at every
-crackling branch, until, when the moon was high, and her illumination
-declared the pearly water, elk dashed forth incautious into the glade,
-and met their midnight destiny.
-
-"Elk-meat, too, he sold to his tribe. This brought him pelf, but, alas
-for his greed, the pelf came slowly. Waters and woods were rich in
-game. All the Squallyamish were hunters and fishers, though none so
-skilled as he. They were rarely in absolute want, and, when they came
-to him for supplies, they were far too poor in hiaqua.
-
-"So the old man thought deeply, and communed with his wisdom, and,
-while he waited for fish or beast, he took advice within himself from
-his demon,--he talked with Tamanous. And always the question was, 'How
-may I put hiaqua in my purse?'
-
-"Tamanous never revealed to him that far to the north, beyond the
-waters of Whulge, are tribes with their under lip pierced with a
-fishbone, among whom hiaqua is plenty as salmonberries are in the
-woods what time in mid-summer salmon fin it along the reaches of
-Whulge.
-
-"But the more Tamanous did not reveal to him these mysteries of
-nature, the more he kept dreamily prying into his own mind,
-endeavoring to devise some scheme by which he might discover a
-treasure-trove of the beloved shell. His life seemed wasted in the
-patient, frugal industry, which only brought slow, meagre gains. He
-wanted the splendid elation of vast wealth and the excitement of
-sudden wealth. His own peculiar tamanous was the elk. Elk was also
-his totem, the cognizance of his freemasonry with those of his own
-family, and their family friends in other tribes. Elk, therefore, were
-every way identified with his life; and he hunted them farther and
-farther up through the forests on the flanks of Tacoma, hoping that
-some day his tamanous would speak in the dying groan of one of them,
-and gasp out the secret of the mines of hiaqua, his heart's desire.
-
-"Tacoma was so white and glittering, that it seemed to stare at him
-very terribly and mockingly, and to know his shameful avarice, and how
-it led him to take from starving women their cherished lip and nose
-jewels of hiaqua, and to give them in return only tough scraps of
-dried elk-meat and salmon. When men are shabby, mean, and grasping,
-they feel reproached for their grovelling lives by the unearthliness
-of nature's beautiful objects, and they hate flowers, and sunsets,
-mountains, and the quiet stars of heaven.
-
-"Nevertheless," continued Hamitchou, "this wise old fool of my legend
-went on stalking elk along the sides of Tacoma, ever dreaming of
-wealth. And at last, as he was hunting near the snows one day, one
-very clear and beautiful day of late summer, when sunlight was
-magically disclosing far distances, and making all nature
-supernaturally visible and proximate, Tamanous began to work in the
-soul of the miser.
-
-"'Are you brave,' whispered Tamanous in the strange, ringing, dull,
-silent thunder-tones of a demon voice. 'Dare you go to the caves where
-my treasures are hid?'
-
-"'I dare,' said the miser.
-
-"He did not know that his lips had syllabled a reply. He did not even
-hear his own words. But all the place had become suddenly vocal with
-echoes. The great rock against which he leaned crashed forth, 'I
-dare.' Then all along through the forest, dashing from tree to tree
-and lost at last among the murmuring of breeze-shaken leaves, went
-careering his answer, taken up and repeated scornfully, 'I dare.' And
-after a silence, while the daring one trembled and would gladly have
-ventured to shout, for the companionship of his own voice, there came
-across from the vast snow wall of Tacoma a tone like the muffled,
-threatening plunge of an avalanche into a chasm, 'I dare.'
-
-"'You dare,' said Tamanous, enveloping him with a dread sense of an
-unseen, supernatural presence; 'you pray for wealth of hiaqua.
-Listen!'
-
-"This injunction was hardly needed; the miser was listening with dull
-eyes kindled and starting. He was listening with every rusty hair
-separating from its unkempt mattedness, and outstanding upright, a
-caricature of an aureole.
-
-"'Listen,' said Tamanous, in the noonday hush. And then Tamanous
-vouchsafed at last the great secret of the hiaqua mines, while in
-terror near to death the miser heard, and every word of guidance
-toward the hidden treasure of the mountains seared itself into his
-soul ineffaceably.
-
-"Silence came again more terrible now than the voice of
-Tamanous,--silence under the shadow of the great cliff,--silence
-deepening down the forest vistas,--silence filling the void up to the
-snows of Tacoma. All life and motion seemed paralyzed. At last
-Skai-ki, the Blue-Jay, the wise bird, foe to magic, sang cheerily
-overhead. Her song seemed to refresh again the honest laws of nature.
-The buzz of life stirred everywhere again, and the inspired miser rose
-and hastened home to prepare for his work.
-
-"When Tamanous has put a great thought in a man's brain, has whispered
-him a great discovery within his power, or hinted at a great crime,
-that spiteful demon does not likewise suggest the means of
-accomplishment.
-
-"The miser, therefore, must call upon his own skill to devise proper
-tools, and upon his own judgment to fix upon the most fitting time
-for carrying out his quest. Sending his squaw out to the kamas
-prairie, under pretence that now was the season for her to gather
-their winter store of that sickish-sweet esculent root, and that she
-might not have her squaw's curiosity aroused by seeing him at strange
-work, he began his preparations. He took a pair of enormous elk-horns,
-and fashioned from each horn a two-pronged pick or spade, by removing
-all the antlers except the two topmost. He packed a good supply of
-kippered salmon, and filled his pouch with kinni kinnick for smoking
-in his black stone pipe. With his bow and arrows and his two elk-horn
-picks wrapped in buckskin hung at his back, he started just before
-sunset, as if for a long hunt. His old, faithful, maltreated,
-blanketless, vermilionless squaw, returning with baskets full of
-kamas, saw him disappearing moodily down the trail.
-
-"All that night, all the day following, he moved on noiselessly by
-paths he knew. He hastened on, unnoticing outward objects, as one with
-a controlling purpose hastens. Elk and deer, bounding through the
-trees, passed him, but he tarried not. At night he camped just below
-the snows of Tacoma. He was weary, weary, and chill night-airs blowing
-down from the summit almost froze him. He dared not take his
-fire-sticks, and, placing one perpendicular upon a little hollow on
-the flat side of the other, twirl the upright stick rapidly between
-his palms until the charred spot kindled and lighted his 'tipsoo,' his
-dry, tindery wool of inner bark. A fire, gleaming high upon the
-mountain-side, might be a beacon to draw thither any night-wandering
-savage to watch in ambush, and learn the path toward the mines of
-hiaqua. So he drowsed chilly and fireless, awakened often by dread
-sounds of crashing and rumbling among the chasms of Tacoma. He
-desponded bitterly, almost ready to abandon his quest, almost doubting
-whether he had in truth received a revelation, whether his interview
-with Tamanous had not been a dream, and finally whether all the hiaqua
-in the world was worth this toil and anxiety. Fortunate is the sage
-who at such a point turns back and buys his experience without worse
-befalling him.
-
-"Past midnight he suddenly was startled from his drowse, and sat bolt
-upright in terror. A light. Was there another searcher in the forest,
-and a bolder than he? That flame just glimmering over the tree-tops,
-was it a camp-fire of friend or foe? Had Tamanous been revealing to
-another the great secret? No, smiled the miser, his eyes fairly open,
-and discovering that the new light was the moon. He had been waiting
-for her illumination of paths heretofore untrodden by mortal. She did
-not show her full, round jolly face, but turned it askance as if she
-hardly liked to be implicated in this night's transaction.
-
-"However, it was light he wanted, not sympathy, and he started up at
-once to climb over the dim snows. The surface was packed by the
-night's frost, and his moccasins gave him firm hold; yet he travelled
-but slowly, and could not always save himself from a _glissade_
-backwards, and a bruise upon some projecting knob or crag. Sometimes,
-upright fronts of ice diverted him for long circuits, or a broken wall
-of cold cliff arose, which he must surmount painfully. Once or twice
-he stuck fast in a crevice, and hardly drew himself out by placing his
-bundle of picks across the crack. As he plodded and floundered thus
-deviously and toilsomely upward, at last the wasted moon gan pale
-overhead, and under foot the snow grew rosy with coming dawn. The dim
-world about the mountain's base displayed something of its vast
-detail. He could see, more positively than by moonlight, the
-far-reaching arteries of mist marking the organism of Whulge beneath;
-and what had been but a black chaos now revealed itself into the
-Alpine forest whence he had come.
-
-"But he troubled himself little with staring about; up he looked, for
-the summit was at hand. To win that summit was wellnigh the attainment
-of his hopes, if Tamanous were true; and that, with the flush of
-morning ardor upon him, he could not doubt. There, in a spot Tamanous
-had revealed to him, was hiaqua,--hiaqua that should make him the
-richest and greatest of all the Squallyamish.
-
-"The chill before sunrise was upon him as he reached the last curve of
-the dome. Sunrise and he struck the summit together. Together sunrise
-and he looked over the glacis. They saw within a great hollow all
-covered with the whitest of snow, save at the centre, where a black
-lake lay deep in a well of purple rock.
-
-"At the eastern end of this lake was a small, irregular plain of snow,
-marked by three stones like monuments. Towards these the miser sprang
-rapidly, with full sunshine streaming after him over the snows.
-
-"The first monument he examined with keen looks. It was tall as a
-giant man, and its top was fashioned into the grotesque likeness of a
-salmon's head. He turned from this to inspect the second. It was of
-similar height, but bore at its apex an object in shape like the
-regular flame of a torch. As he approached, he presently discovered
-that this was an image of the kamas-bulb in stone. These two
-semblances of prime necessities of Indian life delayed him but an
-instant, and he hastened on to the third monument, which stood apart
-on a perfect level. The third stone was capped by something he almost
-feared to behold, lest it should prove other than his hopes. Every
-word of Tamanous had thus far proved veritable; but might there not be
-a bitter deceit at the last? The miser trembled.
-
-"Yes, Tamanous was trustworthy. The third monument was as the old man
-anticipated. It was a stone elk's head, such as it appears in earliest
-summer, when the antlers are sprouting lustily under their rough
-jacket of velvet.
-
-"You remember, Boston tyee," continued Hamitchou, "that Elk was the
-old man's tamanous, the incarnation for him of the universal Tamanous.
-He therefore was right joyous at this good omen of protection; and his
-heart grew big and swollen with hope, as the black salmon-berry swells
-in a swamp in June. He threw down his 'ikta'; every impediment he laid
-down upon the snow; and, unwrapping his two picks of elk-horn, he took
-the stoutest, and began to dig in the frozen snow at the foot of the
-elk-head monument.
-
-"No sooner had he struck the first blow than he heard behind him a
-sudden puff, such as a seal makes when it comes to the surface to
-breathe. Turning round much startled, he saw a huge otter just
-clambering up over the edge of the lake. The otter paused, and struck
-on the snow with his tail, whereupon another otter and another
-appeared, until, following their leader in slow and solemn file, were
-twelve other otters, marching toward the miser. The twelve approached,
-and drew up in a circle around him. Each was twice as large as any
-otter ever seen. Their chief was four times as large as the most
-gigantic otter ever seen in the regions of Whulge, and certainly was
-as great as a seal. When the twelve were arranged, their leader
-skipped to the top of the elk-head stone, and sat there between the
-horns. Then the whole thirteen gave a mighty puff in chorus.
-
-"The hunter of hiaqua was for a moment abashed at his uninvited ring
-of spectators. But he had seen otter before, and bagged them. These he
-could not waste time to shoot, even if a phalanx so numerous were not
-formidable. Besides, they might be tamanous. He took to his pick and
-began digging stoutly.
-
-"He soon made way in the snow, and came to solid rock beneath. At
-every thirteenth stroke of his pick, the fugleman otter tapped with
-his tail on the monument. Then the choir of lesser otters tapped
-together with theirs on the snow. This caudal action produced a dull,
-muffled sound, as if there were a vast hollow below.
-
-"Digging with all his force, by and by the seeker for treasure began
-to tire, and laid down his elk-horn spade to wipe the sweat from his
-brow. Straightway the fugleman otter turned, and, swinging his tail,
-gave the weary man a mighty thump on the shoulder; and the whole band,
-imitating, turned, and, backing inward, smote him with centripetal
-tails, until he resumed his labors, much bruised.
-
-"The rock lay first in plates, then in scales. These it was easy to
-remove. Presently, however, as the miser pried carelessly at a larger
-mass, he broke his elkhorn tool. Fugleman otter leaped down, and
-seizing the supplemental pick between his teeth, mouthed it over to
-the digger. Then the amphibious monster took in the same manner the
-broken pick, and bore it round the circle of his suite, who inspected
-it gravely with puffs.
-
-"These strange, magical proceedings disconcerted and somewhat baffled
-the miser; but he plucked up heart, for the prize was priceless, and
-worked on more cautiously with his second pick. At last its blows and
-the regular thumps of the otter's tails called forth a sound hollower
-and hollower. His circle of spectators narrowed so that he could feel
-their panting breath as they bent curiously over the little pit he had
-dug.
-
-"The crisis was evidently at hand.
-
-"He lifted each scale of rock more delicately. Finally he raised a
-scale so thin that it cracked into flakes as he turned it over.
-Beneath was a large square cavity.
-
-"It was filled to the brim with hiaqua.
-
-"He was a millionnaire.
-
-"The otters recognized him as the favorite of Tamanous, and retired to
-a respectful distance.
-
-"For some moments he gazed on his treasure, taking thought of his
-future proud grandeur among the dwellers by Whulge. He plunged his arm
-deep as he could go; there was still nothing but the precious shells.
-He smiled to himself in triumph; he had wrung the secret from
-Tamanous. Then, as he withdrew his arm, the rattle of the hiaqua
-recalled him to the present. He saw that noon was long past, and he
-must proceed to reduce his property to possession.
-
-"The hiaqua was strung upon long, stout sinews of elk, in bunches of
-fifty shells on each side. Four of these he wound about his waist;
-three he hung across each shoulder; five he took in each hand;--twenty
-strings of pure white hiaqua, every shell large, smooth, unbroken,
-beautiful. He could carry no more; hardly even with this could he
-stagger along. He put down his burden for a moment, while he covered
-up the seemingly untouched wealth of the deposit carefully with the
-scale stones, and brushed snow over the whole.
-
-"The miser never dreamed of gratitude, never thought to hang a string
-from the buried treasure about the salmon and kamas tamanous stones,
-and two strings around the elk's head; no, all must be his own, all he
-could carry now, and the rest for the future.
-
-"He turned, and began his climb toward the crater's edge. At once the
-otters, with a mighty puff in concert, took up their line of
-procession, and, plunging into the black lake, began to beat the water
-with their tails.
-
-"The miser could hear the sound of splashing water as he struggled
-upward through the snow, now melted and yielding. It was a long hour
-of harsh toil and much backsliding before he reached the rim, and
-turned to take one more view of this valley of good fortune.
-
-"As he looked, a thick mist began to rise from the lake centre, where
-the otters were splashing. Under the mist grew a cylinder of black
-cloud, utterly hiding the water.
-
-"Terrible are storms in the mountains; but in this looming mass was a
-terror more dread than any hurricane of ruin ever bore within its wild
-vortexes. Tamanous was in that black cylinder, and as it strode
-forward, chasing in the very path of the miser, he shuddered, for his
-wealth and his life were in danger.
-
-"However, it might be but a common storm. Sunlight was bright as ever
-overhead in heaven, and all the lovely world below lay dreamily fair,
-in that afternoon of summer, at the feet of the rich man, who now was
-hastening to be its king. He stepped from the crater edge and began
-his descent.
-
-"Instantly the storm overtook him. He was thrown down by its first
-assault, flung over a rough bank of iciness, and lay at the foot torn
-and bleeding, but clinging still to his precious burden. Each hand
-still held its five strings of hiaqua. In each hand he bore a nation's
-ransom. He staggered to his feet against the blast. Utter night was
-around him,--night as if daylight had forever perished, had never come
-into being from chaos. The roaring of the storm had also deafened and
-bewildered him with its wild uproar.
-
-"Present in every crash and thunder of the gale was a growing
-undertone, which the miser well knew to be the voice of Tamanous. A
-deadly shuddering shook him. Heretofore that potent Unseen had been
-his friend and guide; there had been awe, but no terror, in his words.
-Now the voice of Tamanous was inarticulate, but the miser could divine
-in that sound an unspeakable threat of wrath and vengeance. Floating
-upon this undertone were sharper tamanous voices, shouting and
-screaming always sneeringly, 'Ha, ha, hiaqua!--ha, ha, ha!'
-
-"Whenever the miser essayed to move and continue his descent, a
-whirlwind caught him, and with much ado tossed him hither and thither,
-leaving him at last flung and imprisoned in a pinching crevice, or
-buried to the eyes in a snowdrift, or bedded upside down on a shaggy
-boulder, or gnawed by lacerating lava jaws. Sharp torture the old man
-was encountering, but he held fast to his hiaqua.
-
-"The blackness grew ever deeper and more crowded with perdition; the
-din more impish, demoniac, and devilish; the laughter more appalling;
-and the miser more and more exhausted with vain buffeting. He
-determined to propitiate exasperated Tamanous with a sacrifice. He
-threw into the black cylinder storm his left-handful, five strings of
-precious hiaqua."
-
-"Somewhat long-winded is thy legend, Hamitchou, Great Medicine-Man of
-the Squallyamish," quoth I. "Why didn't the old fool drop his
-wampum,--shell out, as one might say,--and make tracks?"
-
-"Well, well!" continued Hamitchou; "when the miser had thrown away his
-first handful of hiaqua, there was a momentary lull in elemental war,
-and he heard the otters puffing around him invisible. Then the storm
-renewed, blacker, louder, harsher, crueller than before, and over the
-dread undertone of the voice of Tamanous, tamanous voices again
-screamed, 'Ha, ha, ha, hiaqua!' and it seemed as if tamanous hands, or
-the paws of the demon otters, clutched at the miser's right-handful
-and tore at his shoulder and waist belts.
-
-"So, while darkness and tempest still buffeted the hapless old man,
-and thrust him away from his path, and while the roaring was wickeder
-than the roars of tens and tens of tens of bears when ahungered they
-pounce upon a plain of kamas, gradually wounded and terrified he flung
-away string after string of hiaqua, gaining never any notice of such
-sacrifice, except an instant's lull of the cyclone and a puff from the
-invisible otters.
-
-"The last string he clung to long, and before he threw it to be caught
-and whirled after its fellows, he tore off a single bunch of fifty
-shells. But upon this, too, the storm laid its clutches. In the final
-desperate struggle the old man was wounded so sternly that when he
-had given up his last relic of the mighty treasure, when he had thrown
-into the formless chaos, instinct with Tamanous, his last propitiatory
-offering, he sank and became insensible.
-
-"It seemed a long slumber to him, but at last he awoke. The jagged
-moon was just paling overhead, and he heard Skai-ki, the Blue-Jay, foe
-to magic, singing welcome to sunrise. It was the very spot whence he
-started at morning.
-
-"He was hungry, and felt for his bag of kamas and pouch of
-smokeleaves. There, indeed, by his side were the elk-sinew strings of
-the bag, and the black stone pipe-bowl,--but no bag, no kamas, no
-kinni kinnik. The whole spot was thick with kamas plants, strangely
-out of place on the mountain-side, and overhead grew a large
-arbutus-tree, with glistening leaves, ripe for smoking. The old man
-found his hardwood fire-sticks safe under the herbage, and soon
-twirled a light, and, nurturing it in dry grass, kindled a cheery
-fire. He plucked up kamas, set it to roast, and laid a store of the
-arbutus-leaves to dry on a flat stone.
-
-"After he had made a hearty breakfast of the chestnut-like
-kamas-bulbs, and, smoking the thoughtful pipe, was reflecting on the
-events of yesterday, he became aware of an odd change in his
-condition. He was not bruised and wounded from head to foot, as he
-expected, but very stiff only, and as he stirred, his joints creaked
-like the creak of a lazy paddle upon the rim of a canoe. Skai-ki, the
-Blue-Jay, was singularly familiar with him, hopping from her perch in
-the arbutus, and alighting on his head. As he put his hand to dislodge
-her, he touched his scratching-stick of bone, and attempted to pass
-it, as usual, through his hair. The hair was matted and interlaced
-into a network reaching fully two ells down his back. 'Tamanous,'
-thought the old man.
-
-"Chiefly he was conscious of a mental change. He was calm and
-content. Hiaqua and wealth seemed to have lost their charms for him.
-Tacoma, shining like gold and silver and precious stones of gayest
-lustre, seemed a benign comrade and friend. All the outer world was
-cheerful and satisfying. He thought he had never awakened to a fresher
-morning. He was a young man again, except for that unusual stiffness
-and unmelodious creaking joints. He felt no apprehension of any
-presence of a deputy tamanous, sent by Tamanous to do malignities upon
-him in the lonely wood. Great Nature had a kindly aspect, and made its
-divinity perceived only by the sweet notes of birds and the hum of
-forest life, and by a joy that clothed his being. And now he found in
-his heart a sympathy for man, and a longing to meet his old
-acquaintances down by the shores of Whulge.
-
-"He rose, and started on the downward way, smiling, and sometimes
-laughing heartily at the strange croaking, moaning, cracking, and
-rasping of his joints. But soon motion set the lubricating valves at
-work, and the sockets grew slippery again. He marched rapidly,
-hastening out of loneliness into society. The world of wood, glade,
-and stream seemed to him strangely altered. Old colossal trees, firs
-behind which he had hidden when on the hunt, cedars under whose
-drooping shade he had lurked, were down, and lay athwart his path,
-transformed into immense mossy mounds, like barrows of giants, over
-which he must clamber warily, lest he sink and be half stifled in the
-dust of rotten wood. Had Tamanous been widely at work in that eventful
-night?--or had the spiritual change the old man felt affected his
-views of the outer world?
-
-"Travelling downward, he advanced rapidly, and just before sunset came
-to the prairies where his lodge should be. Everything had seemed to
-him so totally altered, that he tarried a moment in the edge of the
-woods to take an observation before approaching his home. There was a
-lodge, indeed, in the old spot, but a newer and far handsomer one
-than he had left on the fourth evening before.
-
-"A very decrepit old squaw, ablaze with vermilion and decked with
-countless strings of hiaqua and costly beads, was seated on the ground
-near the door, tending a kettle of salmon, whose blue and fragrant
-steam mingled pleasantly with the golden haze of sunset. She resembled
-his own squaw in countenance, as an ancient smoked salmon is like a
-newly-dried salmon. If she was indeed his spouse, she was many years
-older than when he saw her last, and much better dressed than the
-respectable lady had ever been during his miserly days.
-
-"He drew near quietly. The bedizened dame was crooning a chant, very
-dolorous,--like this:
-
-      'My old man has gone, gone, gone,--
-      My old man to Tacoma, has gone.
-      To hunt the elk, he went long ago.
-      When will he come down, down, down,
-      Down to the salmon-pot and me?'
-
-    'He has come from Tacoma down, down, down,--
-    Down to the salmon-pot and thee,'
-
-shouted the reformed miser, rushing forward to supper and his faithful
-wife."
-
-"And how did Penelope explain the mystery?" I asked.
-
-"If you mean the old lady," replied Hamitchou, "she was my
-grandmother, and I'd thank you not to call names. She told my
-grandfather that he had been gone many years;--she could not tell how
-many, having dropped her tally-stick in the fire by accident that very
-day. She also told him how, in despite of the entreaties of many a
-chief who knew her economic virtues, and prayed her to become mistress
-of his household, she had remained constant to the Absent, and forever
-kept the hopeful salmon-pot boiling for his return. She had distracted
-her mind from the bitterness of sorrow by trading in kamas and magic
-herbs, and had thus acquired a genteel competence. The excellent dame
-then exhibited with great complacency her gains, most of which she had
-put in the portable and secure form of personal ornament, making
-herself a resplendent magazine of valuable frippery.
-
-"Little cared the repentant sage for such things. But he was rejoiced
-to be again at home and at peace, and near his own early gains of
-hiaqua and treasure, buried in a place of security. These, however, he
-no longer over-esteemed and hoarded. He imparted whatever he
-possessed, material treasures or stores of wisdom and experience,
-freely to all the land. Every dweller by Whulge came to him for advice
-how to chase the elk, how to troll or spear the salmon, and how to
-propitiate Tamanous. He became the Great Medicine Man of the siwashes,
-a benefactor to his tribe and his race.
-
-"Within a year after he came down from his long nap on the side of
-Tacoma, a child, my father, was born to him. The sage lived many
-years, beloved and revered, and on his deathbed, long before the
-Boston tilicum or any blanketeers were seen in the regions of Whulge,
-he told this history to my father, as a lesson and a warning. My
-father, dying, told it to me. But I, alas! have no son; I grow old,
-and lest this wisdom perish from the earth, and Tamanous be again
-obliged to interpose against avarice, I tell the tale to thee, O
-Boston tyee. Mayest thou and thy nation not disdain this lesson of an
-earlier age, but profit by it and be wise."
-
-So far Hamitchou recounted his legend without the palisades of Fort
-Nisqually, and motioning, in expressive pantomime, at the close, that
-he was dry with big talk, and would gladly wet his whistle.
-
-     [Chapter VIII, beginning at page 155 of the original
-     publication, is entitled: "Sowee House--Loolowcan."]
-
-I had not long, that noon of August, from the top of La Tete, to study
-Tacoma, scene of Hamitchou's wild legend. Humanity forbade dalliance.
-While I fed my soul with sublimity, Klale and his comrades were
-wretched with starvation. But the summit of the pass is near. A few
-struggles more, Klale the plucky, and thy empty sides shall echo less
-drum-like. Up stoutly, my steeds; up a steep but little less than
-perpendicular, paw over these last trunks of the barricades in our
-trail, and ye have won!
-
-So it was. The angle of our ascent suddenly broke down from ninety to
-fifteen, then to nothing. We had reached the plateau. Here were the
-first prairies. Nibble in these, my nags, for a few refreshing
-moments, and then on to superlative dinners in lovelier spots just
-beyond.
-
-Let no one, exaggerating the joys of campaigning, with Horace's
-"Militia potior est," deem that there is no compensating pang among
-them. Is it a pleasant thing, O traveller only in dreams, envier of
-the voyager in reality, to urge tired, reluctant, and unfed mustangs
-up a mountain pass, even for their own good? In such a case a man, the
-humanest and gentlest, must adopt the manners of a brute. He must ply
-the whip, and that cruelly; otherwise, no go. At first, as he smites,
-he winces, for he has struck his own sensibilities; by and by he
-hardens himself, and thrashes without a tremor. When the cortege
-arrives at an edible prairie, gastronomic satisfaction will put
-Lethean freshness in the battered hide of every horse.
-
-We presently turned just aside from the trail into an episode of
-beautiful prairie, one of a succession along the plateau at the crest
-of the range. At this height of about five thousand feet, the snows
-remain until June. In this fair, oval, forest-circled prairie of my
-nooning, the grass was long and succulent, as if it grew in the bed of
-a drained lake. The horses, undressed, were allowed to plunge and
-wallow in the deep herbage. Only horse heads soon could be seen,
-moving about like their brother hippopotami, swimming in sedges.
-
-To me it was luxury enough not to be a whip for a time. Over and above
-this, I had the charm of a quiet nooning on a bank of emerald turf, by
-a spring, at the edge of a clump of evergreens. I took my luncheon of
-cold salt pork and doughy biscuit by a well of brightest water. I
-called in no proxy of tin cup to aid me in saluting this sparkling
-creature, but stooped and kissed the spring. When I had rendered my
-first homage thus to the goddess of the fountain, Aegle herself,
-perhaps, fairest of Naiads, I drank thirstily of the medium in which
-she dwelt. A bubbling dash of water leaped up and splashed my visage
-as I withdrew. Why so, sweet fountain, which I may name Hippocrene,
-since hoofs of Klale have caused me thy discovery? Is this a rebuff?
-If there ever was lover who little merited such treatment it is I.
-"Not so, appreciative stranger," came up in other bubbling gushes the
-responsive voice of Nature through sweet vibrations of the melodious
-fount. "Never a Nymph of mine will thrust thee back. This sudden leap
-of water was a movement of sympathy, and a gentle emotion of
-hospitality. The Naiad there was offering thee her treasure liberally,
-and saying that, drink as thou wilt, I, her mother Nature, have
-commanded my winds and sun to distil thee fresh supplies, and my
-craggy crevices are filtering it in the store-houses, that it may be
-offered to every welcome guest, pure and cool as airs of dawn. Stoop
-down," continued the voice, "thirsty wayfarer, and kiss again my
-daughter of the fountain, nor be abashed if she meets thee half-way.
-She knows that a true lover will never scorn his love's delicate
-advances."
-
-In response to such invitation, and the more for my thirsty slices of
-pork, I lapped the aerated tipple in its goblet, whose stem reaches
-deep into the bubble laboratories. I lapped,--an excellent test of
-pluck in the days of Gideon son of Barak;--and why? For many reasons,
-but among them for this;--he who lying prone can with stout muscular
-gullet swallow water, will be also able to swallow back into position
-his heart, when in moments of tremor it leaps into his throat.
-
-When I had lapped plenteously, I lay and let the breeze-shaken shadows
-smooth me into smiling mood, while my sympathies overflowed to enjoy
-with my horses their dinner. They fed like school-boys home for
-Thanksgiving, in haste lest the present banquet, too good to be true,
-prove Barmecide. A feast of colossal grasses placed itself at the lips
-of the breakfastless stud. They champed as their nature was;--Klale
-like a hungry gentleman,--Gubbins like a hungry clodhopper,--Antipodes
-like a lubberly oaf. They were laying in, according to the Hudson's
-Bay Company's rule, supply at this meal for five days; without such
-power, neither man nor horse is fit to tramp the Northwest.
-
-I lay on the beautiful verdant bank, plucking now dextrously and now
-sinistrously of strawberries, that summer, climbing late to these
-snowy heights, had just ripened. Medical men command us to swallow
-twice a day one bitter pill confectioned of all disgust. Nature doses
-us, by no means against our will, with many sweet boluses of delight,
-berries compacted of acidulated, sugary spiciness. Nature, tenderest
-of leeches,--no bolus of hers is pleasanter medicament than her ruddy
-strawberries. She shaped them like Minie-balls, that they might
-traverse unerringly to the cell of most dulcet digestion. Over their
-glistening surfaces she peppered little golden dots to act as
-obstacles lest they should glide too fleetly over the surfaces of
-taste, and also to gently rasp them into keener sensitiveness. Mongers
-of pestled poisons may punch their pills in malodorous mortars, roll
-them in floury palms, pack them in pink boxes, and send them forth to
-distress a world of patients:--but Nature, who if she even feels one's
-pulse does it by a gentle pressure of atmosphere,--Nature, knowing
-that her children in their travels always need lively tonics, tells
-wind, sun, and dew, servitors of hers, clean and fine of touch, to
-manipulate gay strawberries, and dispose them attractively on fair
-green terraces, shaded at parching noon. Of these lovely fabrics of
-pithy pulpiness, no limit to the dose, if the invalid does as Nature
-intended, and plucks for himself, with fingers rosy and fragrant. I
-plucked of them, as far as I could reach on either side of me, and
-then lay drowsily reposing on my couch at the summit of the Cascade
-Pass, under the shade of a fir, which, outstanding from the forest,
-had changed its columnar structure into a pyramidal, and had branches
-all along its stalwart trunk, instead of a mere tuft at the top.
-
-In this shade I should have known the tree which gave it, without
-looking up,--not because the sharp little spicular leaves of the fir,
-miniatures of that sword Rome used to open the world, its oyster,
-would drop and plunge themselves into my eyes, or would insert their
-blades down my back and scarify,--but because there is an influence
-and sentiment in umbrages, and under every tree its own atmosphere.
-Elms refine and have a graceful elegiac effect upon those they
-shelter. Oaks drop robustness. Mimosas will presently make a
-sensitive-plant of him who hangs his hammock beneath their shade.
-Cocoa-palms will infect him with such tropical indolence, that he will
-not stir until frowzy monkeys climb the tree and pelt him away to the
-next one. The shade of pine-trees, as any one can prove by a journey
-in Maine, makes those who undergo it wiry, keen, trenchant,
-inexhaustible, and tough.
-
-When I had felt the influence of my fir shelter, on the edge of the
-wayside prairie, long enough, I became of course keen as a blade. I
-sprang up and called to Loolowcan, in a resinous voice, "Mamook chaco
-cuitan; make come horse."
-
-Loolowcan, in more genial mood than I had known him, drove the trio
-out from the long grass. They came forth not with backward hankerings,
-but far happier quadrupeds than when they climbed the pass at noon. It
-was a pleasure now to compress with the knees Klale, transformed from
-an empty barrel with protuberant hoops, into a full elastic cylinder,
-smooth as the boiler of a locomotive.
-
-"Loolowcan, my lad, my experienced guide, cur nesika moosum; where
-sleep we?" said I.
-
-"Copa Sowee house,--kicuali. Sowee, olyman tyee,--memloose. Sia-a-ah
-mitlite;--At Sowee's camp--below. Sowee, oldman chief,--dead. It is
-far, far away," replied the son of Owhhigh.
-
-Far is near, distance is annihilated this brilliant day of summer, for
-us recreated with Hippocrene, strawberries, shade of fir and tall
-snow-fed grass. Down the mountain range seems nothing after our long
-laborious up; "the half is more than the whole." "Lead on, Loolowcan,
-intelligent brave, toward the residence of the late Sowee."
-
-More fair prairies linked themselves along the trail. From these
-alpine pastures the future will draw butter and cheese, pasturing
-migratory cattle there, when summer dries the scanty grass upon the
-macadamized prairies of Whulge. It is well to remind ourselves
-sometimes that the world is not wholly squatted over. The plateau soon
-began to ebb toward the downward slope. Descent was like ascent, a way
-shaggy and abrupt. Again the Boston hooihut intruded. My friends the
-woodsmen had constructed an elaborate inclined plane of very knobby
-corduroy. Klale sniffed at this novel road, and turned up his nose at
-it. He was competent to protect that feature against all the perils of
-stumble and fall on the trails he had been educated to travel, but
-dreaded grinding it on the rough bark of this unaccustomed highway.
-Slow-footed oxen, leaning inward and sustaining each other, like two
-roysterers unsteady after wassail, might clumsily toil up such a road
-as this, hauling up stout, white-cotton-roofed wagons, filled with the
-babies and Lares of emigrants; but quick-footed ponies, descending and
-carrying light loads of a wild Indian and an untamed blanketeer, chose
-rather to whisk along the aboriginal paths.
-
-As we came to the irregular terraces after the first pitch, and
-scampered on gayly, I by and by heard a welcome whiz, and a dusky
-grouse (_Tetrao obscurus_) lifted himself out of the trail into the
-lower branches of a giant fir. I had lugged my double-barrel thus far,
-a futile burden, unless when it served a minatory purpose among the
-drunken Klalams. Now it became an animated machine, and uttered a
-sharp exclamation of relief after long patient silence. Down came
-tetrao,--down he came with satisfactory thud, signifying pounds of
-something not pork for supper. We bagged him joyously and dashed on.
-
-"Kopet," whispered Loolowcan turning, with a hushing gesture, "hiu
-kullakullie nika nanitch;--halt, plenty birds I see." He was so eager
-that from under his low brows and unkempt hair his dusky eyes glared
-like the eyes of wild beast, studying his prey from a shadowy lair.
-
-Dismounting, I stole forward with assassin intent, and birds, grouse,
-five noble ones I saw, engaged in fattening their bodies for human
-solace and support. I sent a shot among them. There was a flutter
-among the choir,--one fluttered not. At the sound of my right barrel
-one bird fell without rising; another rose and fell at a hint from the
-sinister tube. The surviving trio were distracted by mortal terror.
-They flew no farther than a dwarf tree hard by. I drew my revolver,
-thinking that there might not be time to load, and fired in a hurry at
-the lowermost.
-
-"Hyas tamanous!" whispered Loolowcan, when no bird fell or flew,--"big
-magic," it seemed to the superstitious youth. Often when sportsmen
-miss, they claim that their gun is bewitched, and avail themselves of
-the sure silver bullet.
-
-A second ball, passing with keener aim through the barrel, attained
-its mark. Grouse third shook off his mortal remains, and sped to
-heaven. The two others, contrary to rule, for I had shot the lower,
-fled, cowardly carrying their heavy bodies to die of cold, starvation,
-or old age. "The good die first,"--ay, Wordsworth! among birds this is
-verity; for the good are the fat, who, because of their avoirdupois,
-lag in flight, or alight upon lower branches and are easiest shot.
-
-Loolowcan bagged my three trophies and added them to the first.
-Henceforth the thought of a grouse supper became a fixed idea with me.
-I dwelt upon it with even a morbid appetite. I rehearsed, in prophetic
-mood, the scene of plucking, the scene of roasting, that happy festal
-scene of eating. So immersed did I become in gastronomic revery, that
-I did not mind my lookout, as I dashed after Loolowcan, fearless and
-agile cavalier. A thrust awoke me to a sense of passing objects, a
-very fierce, lance-like thrust, full at my life. A wrecking snag of
-harsh dead wood, that projected up in the trail, struck me, and tore
-me half off my horse, leaving me jerked, scratched, disjointed, and
-shuddering. Pachydermatous leggins of buckskin, at cost of their own
-unity, had saved me from impalement. Some such warning is always
-preparing for the careless.
-
-I soon had an opportunity to propitiate Nemesis by a humane action. A
-monstrous trunk lay across the trail. Loolowcan, reckless
-steeplechaser, put his horse at it, full speed. Gubbins, instead of
-going over neatly, or scrambling over cat-like, reared rampant and
-shied back, volte face. I rode forward to see what fresh interference
-of Tamanous was here,--nothing tamanous but an unexpected sorry
-object of a horse. A wretched castaway, probably abandoned by the
-exploring party, or astray from them, essaying to leap the tree, had
-fallen back beneath the trunk and branches, and lay there entangled
-and perfectly helpless. We struggled to release him. In vain. At last
-a thought struck me. We seized the poor beast by his tail, fortunately
-a tenacious member, and, heaving vigorously, towed him out of prison.
-
-He tottered forlornly to his feet, looking about him like one risen
-from the dead. "How now, Caudal?" said I, baptizing him by the name of
-the part that saved his life; "canst thou follow toward fodder?" He
-debated the question with himself awhile. Solitary confinement of
-indefinite length, in a cramped posture, had given the poor skeleton
-time to consider that safety from starvation is worth one effort more.
-He found that there was still a modicum of life and its energy within
-his baggy hide. My horses seemed to impart to him some of their
-electricity, and he staggered on droopingly. Lucky Caudal, if life is
-worth having, that on that day, of all days, I should have arrived to
-rescue him. Strange deliverances for body and soul come to the dying.
-Fate sends unlooked-for succor, when horses or men despair.
-
-Luckily for Caudal, the weak-kneed and utterly dejected, Sowee's
-prairie was near,--near was the prairie of Sowee, mighty hunter of
-deer and elk, terror of bears. There at weird night Sowee's ghost was
-often seen to stalk. Dyspeptics from feather-beds behold ghosts, and
-are terrified, but nightwalkers are but bugbears to men who have
-ridden from dawn to dusk of a long summer's day over an Indian trail
-in the mountains. I felt no fear that any incubus in the shape of a
-brassy-hued Indian chief would sit upon my breast that night, and
-murder wholesome sleep.
-
-Nightfall was tumbling down from the zenith before we reached camp.
-The sweet glimmers of twilight were ousted from the forest, sternly
-as mercy is thrust from a darkening heart. Night is really only
-beautiful so far as it is not night,--that is, for its stars, which
-are sources of resolute daylight in other spheres, and for its moon,
-which is daylight's memory, realized, softened, and refined.
-
-Night, however, had not drawn the pall of brief death over the world
-so thick but that I could see enough to respect the taste of the late
-Sowee. When he voted himself this farm, and became seized of it in the
-days of unwritten agrarian laws, and before patents were in vogue, he
-proved his intelligent right to suffrage and seizure. Here in
-admirable quality were the three first requisites of a home in the
-wilderness, water, wood, and grass. A musical rustle, as we galloped
-through, proved the long grass. All around was the unshorn forest.
-There were columnar firs making the Sowee house a hypaethral temple on
-a grand scale.
-
-There had been here a lodge. A few saplings of its framework still
-stood, but Sowee had moved elsewhere not long ago. Wake siah
-memloose,--not long dead was the builder, and viator might camp here
-unquestioned.
-
-Caudal had followed us in an inane, irresponsible way. Patiently now
-he stood, apparently waiting for farther commands from his preservers.
-We unpacked and unsaddled the other animals. They knew their business,
-namely, to bolt instantly for their pasture. Then a busy uproar of
-nipping and crunching was heard. Poor Caudal would not take the hint.
-We were obliged to drive that bony estray with blows out to the
-supper-field, where he stood aghast at the appetites of his new
-comrades. Repose and good example, however, soon had their effect, and
-eight equine jaws instead of six made play in the herbage.
-
-"Alki mika mamook pire, pe nesika klatawah copa klap tsuk; now light
-thou a fire, and we will go find water," said Loolowcan. I struck
-fire,--fire smote tinder,--tinder sent the flame on, until a pyre from
-the world's free wood-pile was kindled. This boon of fire,--what wonder
-that men devised a Prometheus greatest of demigods as its discoverer?
-Mortals, shrinking from the responsibility of a high destiny and
-dreading to know how divine the Divine would have them, always imagine
-an avatar of some one not lower than a half-god when a gift of great
-price comes to the world. And fire is a very priceless and beautiful
-boon,--not, as most know it, in imprisonment, barred with iron, or in
-sooty chimneys, or in mad revolt of conflagration,--but as it grows in
-a flashing pyramid out in camp in the free woods, with eager air
-hurrying in on every side to feed its glory. In the gloom I strike
-metal of steel against metallic flint. From this union a child is born.
-I receive the young spark tenderly in warm "tipsoo," in a soft woolly
-nest of bark or grass tinder. Swaddled in this he thrives. He smiles;
-he chuckles; he laughs; he dances about, does my agile nursling. He
-will soon wear out his first infantile garb, so I cover him up in
-shelter. I feed him with digestible viands, according to his years. I
-give him presently stouter fare, and offer exhilarating morsels of
-fatness. All these the hearty youth assimilates, and grows healthily.
-And now I educate him to manliness, training him on great joints,
-shoulders, and marrowy portions. He becomes erelong a power and a
-friend able to requite me generously for my care. He aids me in
-preparing my feast, and we feast together. Afterward we talk,--Flame
-and I,--we think together strong and passionate thoughts of purpose and
-achievement. These emotions of manhood die away, and we share pensive
-memories of happiness missed, or disdained, or feebly grasped and torn
-away; regrets cover these like embers, and slowly over dead fieriness
-comes a robe of ashy gray.
-
-Fire in the forest is light, heat, and cheer. When ours was nurtured
-to the self-sustaining point, we searched to find where the sage Sowee
-kept his potables. Carefully covered up in sedges was a slender supply
-of water, worth concealing from vulgar dabblers. Its diamond drops
-were hidden away so thoroughly that we must mine for them by
-torchlight. I held a flaring torch, while Loolowcan lay in wait for
-the trickle, and captured it in a tin pot. How wild he looked, that
-youth so frowzy by daylight, as, stooping under the tall sedges, he
-clutched those priceless sparkles.
-
-Upon the _carte du jour_ at Restaurant Sowee was written Grouse. "How
-shall we have them?" said I, cook and convive, to Loolowcan, marmiton
-and convive. "One of these cocks of the mountain shall be fried, since
-gridiron is not," said I to myself, after meditation. "Two shall be
-spitted, and roasted; and, as Azrael may not want us before breakfast
-to-morrow, the fourth shall go on the _carte de dejeuner_."
-
-"O Pork! what a creature thou art!" continued I, in monologue, cutting
-neat slices of that viand with my bowie-knife, and laying them
-fraternally, three in a bed, in the frying-pan. "Blessed be Moses! who
-forbade thee to the Jews, whereby we, of freer dispensations, heirs of
-all the ages, inherit also pigs more numerous and bacon cheaper. O
-Pork! what could campaigners do without thy fatness, thy leanness, thy
-saltness, thy portableness?"
-
-Here Loolowcan presented me the three birds plucked featherless as
-Plato's man. The two roasters we planted carefully on spits before a
-sultry spot of the fire. From a horizontal stick, supported on forked
-stakes, we suspended by a twig over each roaster an automatic baster,
-an inverted cone of pork, ordained to yield its spicy juices to the
-wooing flame, and drip bedewing on each bosom beneath. The roasters
-ripened deliberately, while keen and quick fire told upon the fryer,
-the first course of our feast. Meanwhile I brewed a pot of tea,
-blessing Confucius for that restorative weed, as I had blessed Moses
-for his abstinence from porkers.
-
-Need I say that the grouse was admirable, that everything was
-delicious, and the Confucian weed first chop? Even a scouse of mouldy
-biscuit met the approval of Loolowcan. Feasts cooked under the
-greenwood tree, and eaten by their cooks after a triumphant day of
-progress, are sweeter than the conventional banquets of languid
-Christendom. After we had paid our duty to the brisk fryer and the
-rotund roaster grouse, nothing remained but bones to propitiate Sowee,
-should he find short commons in Elysium, and wander back to his lodge,
-seeking what he might devour.
-
-All along the journey I had been quietly probing the nature of
-Loolowcan, my most intimate associate thus far among the unalloyed
-copper-skins. Chinook jargon was indeed but a blunt probe, yet perhaps
-delicate enough to follow up such rough bits of conglomerate as served
-him for ideas. An inductive philosopher, tracing the laws of
-developing human thought _in corpore viti_ of a frowzy savage, finds
-his work simple,--the nuggets are on the surface. Those tough pebbles
-known to some metaphysicians as innate ideas, can be studied in
-Loolowcan in their process of formation out of instincts.
-
-Number one is the prize number in Loolowcan's lottery of life. He
-thinks of that number; he dreams of it alone. When he lies down to
-sleep, he plots what he will do in the morning with his prize and his
-possession; when he wakes, he at once proceeds to execute his plots.
-Loolowcan knows that there are powers out of himself; rights out of
-himself he does not comprehend, or even conceive. I have thus far been
-very indulgent to him, and treated him republicanly, mindful of the
-heavy mesne profits for the occupation of a continent, and the
-uncounted arrears of blood-money owed by my race to his; yet I find
-no trace of gratitude in my analysis of his character. He seems to be
-composed, selfishness, five hundred parts;--_nil admirari_ coolness,
-five hundred parts;--a well-balanced character, and perhaps one not
-likely to excite enthusiasm in others. I am a steward to him; I purvey
-him also a horse; when we reach the Dalles, I am to pay him for his
-services;--but he is bound to me by no tie of comradery. He has
-caution more highly developed than any quadruped I have met, and will
-not offend me lest I should resign my stewardship, retract Gubbins,
-refuse payment, discharge my guide, and fight through the woods, where
-he sees I am no stranger, alone. He certainly merits a "teapot" for
-his ability in guidance. He has memory and observation unerring; not
-once in all our intricate journey have I found him at fault in any
-fact of space or time. He knows "each lane and every ally green" here,
-accurately as Comus knew his "wild wood."
-
-Moral conceptions exist only in a very limited degree for this type of
-his race. Of God he knows somewhat less than the theologians; that is,
-he is in the primary condition of uninquisitive ignorance, not in the
-secondary, of inquisitive muddle. He has the advantage of no elaborate
-system of human inventions to unlearn. He has no distinct fetichism.
-None of the North American Indians have, in the accurate sense of the
-term; their nomad life and tough struggle with instructive Nature in
-her roughness save them from such elaborate fetichism as may exist in
-more indolent climes and countries.
-
-Loolowcan has his tamanous. It is Talipus, the Wolf, a "hyas skookoom
-tamanous, a very mighty demon," he informs me. He does not worship it;
-that would interfere with his devotions to his real deity, Number One.
-It, in return, does him little service. If he met Talipus, object of
-his superstition, on a fair morning, he would think it a good omen;
-if on a sulky morning, he might be somewhat depressed, but would not
-on that account turn back, as a Roman brave would have done on meeting
-the matinal wolf. In fact, he keeps Talipus, his tamanous, as a kind
-of ideal hobby, very much as a savage civilized man entertains a pet
-bulldog or a tame bear, a link between himself and the rude, dangerous
-forces of nature. Loolowcan has either chosen his protector according
-to the law of likeness, or, choosing it by chance, has become
-assimilated to its characteristics. A wolfish youth is the _protege_
-of Talipus,--an unfaithful, sinister, cannibal-looking son of a
-horse-thief. Wolfish likewise is his appetite; when he asks me for
-more dinner, and this without stint or decorum he does, he glares as
-if, grouse failing, pork and hard-tack gone, he could call to Talipus
-to send in a pack of wolves incarnate, and pounce with them upon me. A
-pleasant companion this for lamb-like me to lie down beside in the den
-of the late Sowee. Yet I do presently, after supper and a pipe, and a
-little jargoning in Chinook with my Wolf, roll into my blankets, and
-sleep vigorously, lulled by the gratifying noise of my graminivorous
-horses cramming themselves with material for leagues of lope
-to-morrow.
-
-No shade of Sowee came to my slumbers with warning against the wolf in
-guise of a Klickatat brave. I had no ghostly incubus to shake off, but
-sprang up recreate in body and soul. Life is vivid when it thus
-awakes. To be is to do.
-
-And to-day much is to be done. Long leagues away, beyond a gorge of
-difficulty, is the open rolling hill country, and again far beyond are
-the lodges of the people of Owhhigh. "To-day," said Loolowcan, "we
-must go copa nika ilihee, to my home, to Weenas."
-
-Forlorn Caudal is hardly yet a frisky quadruped. Yet he is of better
-cheer, perhaps up to the family-nag degree of vivacity. As to the
-others, they have waxed fat, and kick. Klale, the Humorous, kicks
-playfully, elongating in preparatory gymnastics. Gubbins, the average
-horse, kicks calmly at his saddler, merely as a protest. Antipodes,
-the spiteful Blunderer, kicks in a revolutionary manner, rolls under
-his pack-saddle, and will not budge without maltreatment. Ill-educated
-Antipodes views mankind only as excoriators of his back, and general
-flagellants. Klickitats kept him raw in flesh and temper; under me his
-physical condition improves; his character is not yet affected.
-
-Before sunrise we quitted the house of Sowee.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[1] Captain William Henry McNeill and Alexander Caulfield Anderson,
-Hudson's Bay Company men, then at Nisqually House. Captain McNeill was
-master of the famous old steamer _Beaver_. Mr. Anderson was in charge
-of Nisqually House. Both men were honored by having their names given
-to islands in Puget Sound.
-
-[2] Pierre Charles, French Canadian, had been an employee of the
-Hudson's Bay Company.
-
-[3] Simon Plomondon was an employee of the Hudson's Bay Company, who
-retired and settled in the Cowlitz Valley.
-
-[4] Probably the Stone Creek of present usage.
-
-[5] Carbon River.
-
-[6] Meaning up the Carbon River and its branch called South Prairie
-Creek.
-
-[7] Chehalis River.
-
-[8] White River.
-
-[9] White River.
-
-[10] Lieutenant Richard Arnold, in Pacific Railway Reports, Volume
-XII, Part I, page 191, says: "Near the junction of Whitewater and
-Green rivers there is a remarkable peak called La Tete, from a large
-rock on its slope resembling the head and neck of a man. This is an
-important point, as it forms the gate of the mountains on the west."
-Modern maps shift the "water" part of the names. They are now White
-and Greenwater rivers.
-
-[11] White and Greenwater rivers.
-
-[12] This is an error and should read 121 deg. 25' W. as Naches Pass
-is known to be 121 deg. 21' and Lieutenant Johnson's "Little Prairie"
-was a little west of the Pass.
-
-[13] Greenwater branch of White River.
-
-[14] Naches River.
-
-[15] Wenatchee River.
-
-[16] Mount Adams. The two peaks were frequently confused in early
-writings.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: GENERAL AUGUST VALENTINE KAUTZ.
-  United States Army.]
-
-V. FIRST ATTEMPTED ASCENT, 1857
-
-BY LIEUTENANT A. V. KAUTZ, U.S.A.
-
-
-     August Valentine Kautz was born at Ispringen, Baden, Germany,
-     on January 5, 1828. In that same year his parents came to
-     America. On attaining manhood the son entered the army and
-     served as a private soldier in the Mexican War. At its
-     conclusion he was appointed to the Military Academy at West
-     Point. Graduating in 1852, he was assigned to the Fourth
-     Infantry and soon found himself in the Pacific Northwest.
-     After going through the Indian wars here he achieved a
-     brilliant record in the Civil War. Continuing in the army, he
-     reached the rank of brigadier-general and was for a time in
-     command of the Department of the Columbia. He died at Seattle
-     on September 4, 1895.
-
-     It was while, as a lieutenant, he was stationed at Fort
-     Steilacoom that he attempted to ascend Mount Rainier. His
-     account of the trip was published in the Overland Monthly,
-     May, 1875. It is here republished by permission of the
-     editor. While the ascent was claimed to be complete the
-     climber says there was still higher land above him, and it is
-     now difficult to fix the exact altitude attained.
-
-     Professor I. C. Russell declares that Professor George
-     Davidson made a statement before the California Academy of
-     Sciences, on March 6, 1871, to the effect that when
-     Lieutenant Kautz "attempted the ascent of Mount Rainier in
-     1857" he found his way barred by a great glacier. From this,
-     says Professor Russell, it "seems that he first reported the
-     existence of living glaciers in the United States." (See:
-     Israel C. Russell: Glaciers of North America; Boston, Ginn &
-     Company, 1897, p. 62). The portrait of General Kautz was
-     furnished by his daughter, Mrs. Navana Kautz Simpson, of
-     Cincinnati, Ohio.
-
-In the summer of 1857 I was stationed at Fort Steilacoom, Washington
-Territory. This post was located near the village of Steilacoom, on
-the waters of Puget Sound. The post and the village took their names
-from a little stream near by, which is the outlet of a number of
-small lakes and ponds emptying into the sound. Quite a family of
-Indians made their permanent home in the vicinity of this creek in
-former years, and were known as "_Steilacoom Tillicum_." According to
-the Indian pronunciation of the name it should have been spelled
-"Steelacoom," dwelling long on the first syllable.
-
-I was at that time a first-lieutenant, young, and fond of visiting
-unexplored sections of the country, and possessed of a very prevailing
-passion for going to the tops of high places. My quarters fronted
-Mount Rainier, which is about sixty miles nearly east of Fort
-Steilacoom in an air line. On a clear day it does not look more than
-ten miles off, and looms up against the eastern sky white as the snow
-with which it is covered, with a perfectly pyramidal outline, except
-at the top, which is slightly rounded and broken. It is a grand and
-inspiring view, and I had expressed so often my determination to make
-the ascent, without doing it, that my fellow-officers finally became
-incredulous, and gave to all improbable and doubtful events a date of
-occurrence when I should ascend Mount Rainier.
-
-My resolution, however, took shape and form about the first of July.
-Nearly all the officers had been very free to volunteer to go with me
-as long as they felt certain I was not going; but when I was ready to
-go, I should have been compelled to go alone but for the doctor, who
-was on a visit to the post from Fort Bellingham.
-
-I made preparations after the best authorities I could find, from
-reading accounts of the ascent of Mont Blanc and other snow mountains.
-We made for each member of the party an _alpenstock_ of dry ash with
-an iron point. We sewed upon our shoes an extra sole, through which
-were first driven four-penny nails with the points broken off and the
-heads inside. We took with us a rope about fifty feet long, a hatchet,
-a thermometer, plenty of hard biscuit, and dried beef such as the
-Indians prepare.
-
-Information relating to the mountain was exceedingly meagre; no white
-man had ever been near it, and Indians were very superstitious and
-afraid of it. The southern slope seemed the least abrupt, and in that
-direction I proposed to reach the mountain; but whether to keep the
-high ground, or follow some stream to its source, was a question.
-Leshi, the chief of the Nesquallies, was at that time in the
-guard-house, awaiting his execution, and as I had greatly interested
-myself to save him from his fate, he volunteered the information that
-the valley of the Nesqually River was the best approach after getting
-above the falls. He had some hope that I would take him as a guide;
-but finding that out of the question he suggested Wah-pow-e-ty,[17] an
-old Indian of the Nesqually tribe, as knowing more about the Nesqually
-than any other of his people.
-
-Mount Rainier is situated on the western side of the Cascade Range,
-near the forty-seventh parallel. The range to which it belongs
-averages about 7,000 to 8,000 feet in height, and snow may be seen
-along its summit-level the year round, while Rainier, with its immense
-covering of snow, towers as high again above the range. In various
-travels and expeditions in the territory, I had viewed the snow-peaks
-of this range from all points of the compass, and since that time
-having visited the mountain regions of Europe, and most of those of
-North America, I assert that Washington Territory contains mountain
-scenery in quantity and quality sufficient to make half a dozen
-Switzerlands, while there is on the continent none more grand and
-imposing than is presented in the Cascade Range north of the Columbia
-River.
-
-About noon on the 8th of July [1857] we finally started. The party
-consisted of four soldiers--two of them equipped to ascend the
-mountain, and the other two to take care of our horses when we should
-be compelled to leave them. We started the soldiers on the direct
-route, with orders to stop at Mr. Wren's, on the eastern limit of the
-Nesqually plains, ten or twelve miles distant, and wait for us, while
-the doctor and I went by the Nesqually Reservation in order to pick up
-old Wah-pow-e-ty, the Indian guide.
-
-We remained all night at Wren's, and the next morning entered that
-immense belt of timber with which the western slope of the Cascade
-Range is covered throughout its entire length. I had become familiar
-with the Indian trail that we followed, the year previous, in our
-pursuit of Indians. The little patches of prairie are so rare that
-they constitute in that immense forest landmarks for the guidance of
-the traveler. Six miles from Wren's we came to Pawhtummi, a little
-_camas_ prairie about 500 yards long, and 100 in breadth, a resort for
-the Indians in the proper season to gather the _camas_-root. Six miles
-farther we came to a similar prairie, circular in form, not more than
-400 yards in diameter, called Koaptil. Another six or seven miles took
-us to the Tanwut, a small stream with a patch of prairie bordering it,
-where the trail crossed. Ten or twelve miles more brought us to the
-Mishawl Prairie, where we camped for the night, this being the end of
-the journey for our horses, and the limit of our knowledge of the
-country.
-
-This prairie takes its name from the stream near by, and is situated
-between it and the Owhap on a high table-land or bluff, not more than
-one or two miles from where these enter the Nesqually. It is perhaps
-half a mile long, and 200 or 300 yards wide at the widest point. The
-grass was abundant, and it was an excellent place to leave our horses.
-Fifteen months before, I had visited this spot, and camped near by
-with a small detachment of troops, searching for Indians who had
-hidden away in these forests, completely demoralized and nearly
-starving. A family of two or three men, and quite a number of women
-and children, had camped in the fork of the Mishawl and Nesqually,
-about two miles from this prairie, and were making fishtraps to catch
-salmon. When we fell in with them we learned that the Washington
-Territory volunteers had been before us, and with their immensely
-superior force had killed the most of them without regard to age or
-sex. Our own little command in that expedition captured about thirty
-of these poor, half-starved, ignorant creatures, and no act of
-barbarity was perpetrated by us to mar the memory of that success.
-
-We accordingly camped in the Mishawl Prairie. When I was here before
-it was in March, and the rainy season was still prevailing; the
-topographical engineer of the expedition and I slept under the same
-blankets on a wet drizzly night, and next morning treated each other
-to bitter reproaches for having each had more than his share of the
-covering. Now the weather was clear and beautiful, and the scene
-lovely in comparison. I can imagine nothing more gloomy and cheerless
-than a fir-forest in Washington Territory on a rainy winter day. The
-misty clouds hang down below the tops of the tallest trees, and
-although it does not rain, but drizzles, yet it is very wet and cold,
-and penetrates every thread of clothing to the skin. The summers of
-this region are in extraordinary contrast with the winters. Clear,
-beautiful, and dry, they begin in May and last till November; while
-in the winter, although in latitude 47 deg. and 48 deg., it rarely
-freezes or snows--often, however, raining two weeks without stopping a
-permeating drizzle.
-
-On this 9th of July, 1857, the weather was beautiful; it had not
-rained for weeks. The Mishawl--a raging mountain torrent, when last I
-saw it--was now a sluggish rivulet of clear mountain-spring water. We
-started early on our journey, having made our preparations the
-evening before. We calculated to be gone about six days. Each member
-of the party had to carry his own provisions and bedding; everything
-was therefore reduced to the minimum. Each took a blanket, twenty-four
-crackers of hard bread, and about two pounds of dried beef. We took
-Dogue (a German) and Carroll (an Irishman) with us; they were both
-volunteers for the trip; one carried the hatchet and the other the
-rope. I carried a field-glass, thermometer, and a large-sized
-revolver. Wah-pow-e-ty carried his rifle, with which we hoped to
-procure some game. The soldiers carried no arms. Bell and Doneheh were
-left behind to take care of the horses and extra provisions, until our
-return.
-
-We each had a haversack for our provisions, and a tin canteen for
-water. The doctor very unwisely filled his with whisky instead of
-water. Having sounded Wah-pow-e-ty as to the route, we learned he had
-once been on the upper Nesqually when a boy, with his father, and that
-his knowledge of the country was very limited. We ascertained,
-however, that we could not follow the Nesqually at first; that there
-was a fall in the river a short distance above the mouth of the
-Mishawl, and that the mountains came down so abrupt and precipitous
-that we could not follow the stream, and that the mountain must be
-crossed first and a descent made to the river above the fall.
-
-That mountain proved a severer task than we anticipated. There was no
-path and no open country--only a dense forest, obstructed with
-undergrowth and fallen timber. The sun was very hot when it could
-reach us through the foliage; not a breath of air stirred, and after
-we crossed the Mishawl, not a drop of water was to be had until we got
-down to low ground again. We toiled from early morning until three
-o'clock in the afternoon before we reached the summit. As the doctor
-had taken whisky instead of water in his canteen, he found it
-necessary to apply to the other members of the party to quench his
-thirst, and our canteens were speedily empty. The doctor sought relief
-in whisky, but it only aggravated his thirst, and he poured out the
-contents of his canteen. The severe exertion required for the ascent
-brought on painful cramps in his legs, and at one time, about the
-middle of the day, I concluded that we should be obliged to leave him
-to find his way back to camp while we went on without him; but he made
-an agreement with Wah-pow-e-ty to carry his pack for him in addition
-to his own, for ten dollars, and the doctor was thus enabled to go on.
-Here was an illustration of the advantage of training. The doctor was
-large, raw-boned, and at least six feet high, looking as if he could
-have crushed with a single blow the insignificant old Indian, who was
-not much over five feet, and did not weigh more than half as much as
-the doctor; but, inured to this kind of toil, he carried double the
-load that any of the party did, while the doctor, who was habituated
-to a sedentary life, had all he could do, carrying no load whatever,
-to keep up with the Indian.
-
-Early in the afternoon we reached the summit of the first ascent,
-where we enjoyed, in addition to a good rest, a magnificent view of
-the Puget Sound Valley, with Mount Olympus and the Coast Range for a
-background. Here on this summit, too, munching our biscuit of hard
-bread and our dried beef, we enjoyed a refreshing breeze as we looked
-down on the beautiful plains of the Nesqually, with its numerous clear
-and beautiful little lakes. There was nothing definite except
-forest--of which there was a great excess--lakes, and plains of
-limited area, the sound, and a great background of mountains. No
-habitations, farms, or villages were to be seen; not a sign of
-civilization or human life.
-
-After a good rest we pushed on, taking an easterly course, and
-keeping, or trying to keep, on the spur of the mountain; the forest
-was so thick, however, that this was next to an impossibility. We were
-not loth to go down into ravines in the hope of finding some water,
-for we needed it greatly. It was a long time, and we met with many
-disappointments, before we could find enough to quench our thirst. Our
-progress was exceedingly slow on account of the undergrowth. At
-sundown we camped in the grand old forest, the location being chosen
-on account of some water in a partially dry ravine. The distance
-passed over from Mishawl Prairie we estimated at about ten or eleven
-miles. On good roads thirty miles would have wearied us much less.
-
-We started early the next morning, and for a time tried to keep the
-high ground, but found it so difficult that we finally turned down to
-the right, and came upon the Nesqually River about the middle of the
-afternoon. There was no material difference in the undergrowth, but
-there was an advantage gained in having plenty of water to quench our
-thirst. We made about ten miles this day, and camped about sundown.
-There seemed nothing but forest before us; dark, gloomy forest,
-remarkable for large trees, and its terrible solitude. But few living
-things were to be seen. The Nesqually is a very wide muddy torrent,
-fordable in places where the stream is much divided by islands.
-
-We already here began to suffer from the loss of appetite, which was
-to us such a difficulty throughout the entire trip. Even the four
-crackers and two ounces of dried beef, which was our daily limit, we
-found ourselves unable to master, and yet so much was necessary to
-keep up our strength. I have never been able to settle in my mind
-whether this was due to the sameness of the food or the great fatigue
-we underwent.
-
-The third morning we made an early start, and followed up the stream
-in almost a due east direction all day until about five o'clock, when
-the doctor broke down, having been unable to eat anything during the
-day. With considerable cramming I managed to dispose of the most of my
-rations. We kept the north side of the river, and had no streams to
-cross; in fact, there did not appear to be any streams on either side
-putting into the river. The valley seemed several miles in width,
-densely timbered, and the undergrowth a complete thicket. Not more
-than ten miles were made by us. Just before we stopped for the night,
-we passed through a patch of dead timber of perhaps 100 acres, with an
-abundance of blackberries. Opposite our camp, on the south side of the
-river, there was the appearance of quite a tributary coming in from
-the southeast.
-
-We did not get started until about eleven o'clock on the fourth
-morning. After cutting up a deer which Wah-pow-e-ty brought in early
-in the morning, we dried quite a quantity of it by the fire. As we
-anticipated, it proved of much assistance, for we already saw that six
-days would be a very short time in which to make the trip. By night we
-reached a muddy tributary coming in from the north, and evidently
-having its source in the melting snows of Rainier. The summit of the
-mountain was visible from our camp, and seemed close at hand; but
-night set in with promise of bad weather. The valley had become quite
-narrow. Our camp was at the foot of a mountain spur several thousand
-feet high, and the river close at hand. The gloomy forest, the wild
-mountain scenery, the roaring of the river, and the dark overhanging
-clouds, with the peculiar melancholy sighing which the wind makes
-through a fir forest, gave to our camp at this point an awful
-grandeur.
-
-On the fifth morning the clouds were so threatening, and came down so
-low on the surrounding mountains, that we were at a loss what course
-to pursue--whether to follow up the main stream or the tributary at
-our camp, which evidently came from the nearest snow. We finally
-followed the main stream, which very soon turned in toward the
-mountain, the valley growing narrower, the torrent more and more
-rapid, and our progress slower and slower, especially when we were
-compelled to take to the timber. We often crossed the torrent, of
-which the water was intensely cold, in order to avoid the obstructions
-of the forest. Sometimes, however, the stream was impassable, and then
-we often became so entangled in the thickets as almost to despair of
-farther advance. Early in the evening we reached the foot of an
-immense glacier and camped. For several miles before camping the bed
-of the stream was paved with white granite bowlders, and the mountain
-gorge became narrower and narrower. The walls were in many places
-perpendicular precipices, thousands of feet high, their summits hid in
-the clouds. Vast piles of snow were to be seen along the stream--the
-remains of avalanches--for earth, trees, and rocks were intermingled
-with the snow.
-
-As it was near night we camped, thinking it best to begin the ascent
-in the early morning; besides, the weather promised to become worse.
-The foliage of the pine-trees here was very dense, and on such a
-cloudy day it was dark as night in the forest. The limbs of the trees
-drooped upon the ground, a disposition evidently given to them by the
-snow, which must be late in disappearing in this region.
-
-We followed thus far the main branch of the Nesqually, and here it
-emerged from an icy cavern at the foot of an immense glacier. The ice
-itself was of a dark-blue tinge. The water was white, and whenever I
-waded the torrent my shoes filled with gravel and sand. The walls of
-this immense mountain gorge were white granite, and, just where the
-glacier terminated, the immense vein of granite that was visible on
-both sides seemed to form a narrow throat to the great ravine, which
-is much wider both above and below. The water seems to derive its
-color from the disintegration of this granite.[18]
-
-We made our camp under a pine of dense foliage, whose limbs at the
-outer end drooped near the ground. We made our cup of tea, and found
-the water boil at 202 deg. Fahrenheit. Night set in with a drizzling
-rain, and a more solitary, gloomy picture than we presented at that
-camp it is impossible to conceive. Tired, hungry, dirty, clothes all
-in rags--the effects of our struggles with the brush--we were not the
-least happy; the solitude was oppressive. The entire party, except
-myself, dropped down and did not move unless obliged to. I went up to
-the foot of the glacier, and explored a little before night set in. I
-also tried to make a sketch of the view looking up the glacier; but I
-have never looked at it since without being forcibly reminded what a
-failure it is as a sketch.
-
-On the morning of the sixth day we set out again up the glacier. A
-drizzling rain prevailed through the night, and continued this
-morning. We had a little trouble in getting upon the glacier, as it
-terminated everywhere in steep faces that were very difficult to
-climb. Once up, we did not meet with any obstructions or interruptions
-for several hours, although the slippery surface of the glacier, which
-formed inclined planes of about twenty degrees, made it very fatiguing
-with our packs. About noon the weather thickened; snow, sleet, and
-rain prevailed, and strong winds, blowing hither and thither, almost
-blinded us. The surface of the glacier, becoming steeper, began to be
-intersected by immense crevasses crossing our path, often compelling
-us to travel several hundred yards to gain a few feet. We finally
-resolved to find a camp. But getting off the glacier was no easy task.
-We found that the face of the lateral moraine was almost
-perpendicular, and composed of loose stones, sand, and gravel,
-furnishing a very uncertain foothold, besides being about fifty feet
-high. Wah-pow-e-ty and I finally succeeded in getting up, and with the
-aid of the rope we assisted our companions to do the same. When we
-reached the top we were a little surprised to find that we had to go
-down-hill again to reach the mountain side. Here a few stunted pines
-furnished us fuel and shelter, and we rested for the remainder of the
-day. I explored a little in the evening by ascending the ridge from
-the glacier, and discovered that it would be much the best route to
-pursue in ascending to the summit.
-
-When night set in, the solitude of our camp was very oppressive. We
-were near the limit of perpetual snow. The water for our tea we
-obtained from the melting of the ice near by. The atmosphere was very
-different from what it was below, and singularly clear when not
-obstructed by fog, rain, or snow. There were no familiar objects to
-enable one to estimate distance. When I caught a glimpse of the top of
-Rainier through the clouds, I felt certain that we could reach it in
-three hours. The only living things to be seen were some animals, with
-regard to which we still labor under an error. These little creatures
-would make their appearance on the side of the mountain in sight of
-our camp, and feed upon herbage that grew on the soil where the snow
-left it bare. The moment anyone stirred from camp, a sound between a
-whistle and scream would break unexpectedly and from some unknown
-quarter, and immediately all the animals that were in sight would
-vanish in the earth. Upon visiting the spot where they disappeared, we
-would find a burrow which was evidently the creatures' home.
-Everywhere round the entrance we found great numbers of tracks, such
-as a lamb or kid would make. The animals that we saw were about the
-size of kids, and grazed and moved about so much like them, that,
-taken in connection with the tracks we saw, we jumped at once to the
-conclusion that they were mountain sheep, of which we all had heard a
-great deal, but none of our party had ever seen any. My report of
-these animals, which was published in the _Washington Republican_ on
-our return, was severely ridiculed by some of the naturalists who were
-hunting for undescribed insects and animals in that country at the
-time. We are still at a loss to understand the habits of the
-creatures, and to reconcile the split hoofs which the tracks indicated
-with their burrow in the earth.[19]
-
-On the following morning--the seventh day from our camp on the
-Mishawl--the sky showed signs of clear weather, and we began the
-ascent of the main peak. Until about noon we were enveloped in clouds,
-and only occasionally did we get a glimpse of the peak. Soon after
-midday we reached suddenly a colder atmosphere, and found ourselves
-all at once above the clouds, which were spread out smooth and even as
-a sea, above which appeared the snowy peaks of St. Helens, Mount
-Adams, and Mount Hood, looking like pyramidal icebergs above an ocean.
-At first we could not see down through the clouds into the valleys.
-Above, the atmosphere was singularly clear, and the reflection of the
-sun upon the snow very powerful. The summit of Rainier seemed very
-close at hand.
-
-About two o'clock in the afternoon the clouds rolled away like a
-scroll; in a very short time they had disappeared, and the Cascade
-Range lay before us in all its greatness. The view was too grand and
-extensive to be taken in at once, or in the short time we had to
-observe. The entire scene, with few exceptions, was covered with
-forests, with here and there barren rocky peaks that rose up out of
-the ridges; now and then a mountain lake, much more blue than the sky,
-and the Nesqually, winding like a thread of silver through the dark
-forests. From the foot of the glacier for several miles the bed of the
-river was very white, from the granite bowlders that covered the bed
-of the stream. The water, too, was of a decidedly chalkier color near
-its source.
-
-We had no time, however, to study the beauties that lay before us. We
-had already discovered that there was no telling from appearances how
-far we had to go. The travel was very difficult; the surface of the
-snow was porous in some places, and at each step we sunk to our knees.
-Carroll and the Indian gave out early in the afternoon, and returned
-to camp. The doctor began to lag behind. Dogue stuck close to me.
-Between four and five o'clock we reached a very difficult point. It
-proved to be the crest of the mountain, where the comparatively smooth
-surface was much broken up, and inaccessible pinnacles of ice and deep
-crevasses interrupted our progress. It was not only difficult to go
-ahead, but exceedingly dangerous; a false step, or the loss of a
-foot-hold, would have been certain destruction. Dogue was evidently
-alarmed, for every time that I was unable to proceed, and turned back
-to find another passage, he would say, "_I guess, Lieutenant, we
-petter go pack._"
-
-Finally we reached what may be called the top, for although there were
-points higher yet,[20] the mountain spread out comparatively flat, and
-it was much easier to get along. The soldier threw himself down
-exhausted, and said he could go no farther. The doctor was not in
-sight. I went on to explore by myself, but I returned in a quarter of
-an hour without my hat, fully satisfied that nothing more could be
-done. It was after six o'clock, the air was very cold, and the wind
-blew fiercely, so that in a second my hat which it carried away was
-far beyond recovery. The ice was forming in my canteen, and to stay on
-the mountain at such a temperature was to freeze to death, for we
-brought no blankets with us, and we could not delay, as it would be
-impossible to return along the crest of the mountain after dark. When
-I returned to where I had left the soldier, I found the doctor there
-also, and after a short consultation we decided to return.
-
-Returning was far easier and more rapid than going. The snow was much
-harder and firmer, and we passed over in three hours, coming down,
-what required ten in going up. We were greatly fatigued by the day's
-toil, and the descent was not accomplished without an occasional rest
-of our weary limbs. In one place the snow was crusted over, and for a
-short distance the mountain was very steep, and required the skillful
-use of the stick to prevent our going much faster than we desired. The
-soldier lost his footing, and rolled helplessly to the foot of the
-declivity, thirty or forty yards distant, and his face bore the traces
-of the scratching for many a day after, as if he had been through a
-bramble-bush.
-
-We found the Indian and Carroll in the camp. The latter had a long
-story to tell of his wanderings to find camp, and both stated that the
-fatigue was too much for them. There was no complaint on the part of
-any of us about the rarity of the atmosphere. The doctor attributed to
-this cause the fact that he could not go but a few yards at a time,
-near the summit, without resting; but I am inclined to think this was
-due to our exhaustion. My breathing did not seem to be in the least
-affected.
-
-We were much disappointed not to have had more time to explore the
-summit of the mountain. We had, however, demonstrated the feasibility
-of making the ascent. Had we started at dawn of day we should have had
-plenty of time for the journey. From what I saw I should say the
-mountain top was a ridge perhaps two miles in length and nearly half a
-mile in width, with an angle about half-way, and depressions between
-the angle and each end of the ridge which give to the summit the
-appearance of three small peaks as seen from the east or west. When
-viewed from north or south, a rounded summit is all that can be seen;
-while viewed from positions between the cardinal points of the
-compass, the mountain generally has the appearance of two peaks.
-
-The night was very cold and clear after our return. We had some idea
-of making another ascent; but an investigation into the state of our
-provisions, together with the condition of the party generally,
-determined us to begin our return on the morning of the eighth day.
-The two soldiers had eaten all their bread but one cracker each. The
-doctor and I had enough left, so that by a redistribution we had four
-crackers each, with which to return over a space that had required
-seven days of travel coming. We, of course, expected to be a shorter
-time getting back; but let it be ever so short, our prospect for
-something to eat was proportionately much more limited. We had more
-meat than bread, thanks to the deer the Indian had killed, and we
-depended greatly on his killing more game for us going back: but this
-dependence, too, was cut off; the Indian was snow-blind, and needed
-our help to guide him. His groans disturbed us during the night, and
-what was our astonishment in the morning to find his eyelids closed
-with inflammation, and so swollen that he looked as if he had been in
-a free fight and got the worst of it. He could not have told a deer
-from a stump the length of his little old rifle.
-
-Our camp was about 1,000 or 1,500 feet below the last visible shrub;
-water boiled at 199 deg., and, according to an approximate scale we had
-with us, this indicated an elevation of 7,000 feet. We estimated the
-highest peak to be over 12,000 feet high. I greatly regretted not
-being able to get the boiling-point on the top, but it was impossible
-to have had a fire in such a wind as prevailed round the summit.
-
-As we returned we had more leisure to examine and clearer weather to
-see the glacier than we had coming up. There was no medial moraine;
-but an icy ridge parallel to the lateral moraines, and about midway
-between them, extending as far as we ascended the glacier. The lateral
-moraines were not continuous, but were interrupted by the walls of the
-spurs where they projected into the glacier; between these points the
-lateral moraines existed. The glacier sloped away from the ridge to
-the moraines, more or less sharply, and it was no easy matter to get
-off the ice, owing to the steepness of the moraine. The ice melted by
-reflection from the face of the moraine, and formed a difficult
-crevasse between it and the glacier. Bowlders of every shape and size
-were scattered over the face of the glacier. Large ones were propped
-up on pinnacles of ice; these were evidently too thick for the sun to
-heat through. The small bowlders were sunk more or less deeply, and
-surrounded by water in the hot sun; but they evidently froze fast
-again at night.
-
-The noise produced by the glacier was startling and strange. One might
-suppose the mountain was breaking loose, particularly at night.
-Although, so far as stillness was concerned, there was no difference
-between day and night, at night the noise seemed more terrible. It was
-a fearful crashing and grinding that was going on, where the granite
-was powdered that whitened the river below, and where the bowlders
-were polished and partially rounded.
-
-The great stillness and solitude were also very oppressive; no
-familiar sounds; nothing except the whistle of the animal before
-mentioned and the noise of the glacier's motion was to be heard, and
-if these had not occurred at intervals the solitude would have been
-still more oppressive. We were glad to get down again to the
-Nesqually, where we could hear its roar and see its rushing waters.
-The other members of the party were so tired and worn, however, that
-they seemed to observe but little, and as we were now on our homeward
-way, their thoughts were set only on our camp on the Mishawl, with its
-provisions and promise of rest.
-
-The first day we passed two of the camps we had made coming up, and
-reached a point where we remembered to have seen a great quantity of
-blackberries. It was quite dark by the time we reached the little spot
-of dead timber--which seems to be the favorite haunt of the creeping
-bramble in this country--and to gather our supper of berries we built
-a fire at the foot of a large dead tree. Speedily the flames were
-climbing to the top of the withered branches, and casting a cheerful
-light for a hundred yards round. But what we found very convenient for
-gathering berries proved to be a great annoyance when we wanted to
-sleep. During the night we were constantly moving our place of rest,
-at first on account of the falling embers, and finally for fear of the
-tree itself.
-
-Blackberries are refreshing so far as the palate is concerned; but
-they are not very nourishing. We took our breakfast on them, and
-continued down the Nesqually from six in the morning until six in the
-evening, traveling slowly because of the difficult undergrowth and our
-worn-out and exhausted condition. We passed another of our camps, and
-finally stopped at what evidently had been an Indian camp. The cedar
-bark, always to be found in such places, we anticipated would make a
-shelter for us in case of rain, which the clouds promised us.
-
-No rain fell, however, and we resumed our march, continuing down the
-river five or six miles farther than where we first struck it, to a
-point where the hills came close up and overhung the water. There we
-camped, expecting that an easy march on the morrow would enable us to
-reach our camp on the Mishawl. We ate our last morsel, and the next
-morning I was awakened by the conversation of the two soldiers. They
-were evidently discussing the subject of hunger, for the Irishman
-said: "I've often seen the squaws coming about the cook-house picking
-the pitaties out of the slop-barrel, an' I thought it was awful; but I
-giss I'd do it mesilf this mornin'."
-
-The morning of the eleventh day we left the Nesqually to cross over to
-the Mishawl, and traveled on the mountain all day, until we reached
-the stream at night completely exhausted. We should have stopped
-sooner than we did, but we were almost perishing with thirst, not
-having had any water since we left the Nesqually in the morning. What
-we took along in our canteens was exhausted in the early part of the
-day. We were not more than two miles from the camp in the prairie, and
-notwithstanding that we had had nothing to eat all day, except a few
-berries we had picked by the way, we were so exhausted that we lay
-down to sleep as soon as we had quenched our thirst.
-
-We started up-stream the next morning, thinking we had reached the
-Mishawl below our camp; but soon discovering our mistake, we turned
-down. At this point the Irishman's heart sunk within him, he was so
-exhausted. Thinking we were lost, he wanted to lie down in the stream
-and "drownd" himself. He was assured that we should soon be in camp,
-and we arrived there very soon after, before the men left in charge of
-the horses were up.
-
-Our first thought was of something to eat. I cautioned all about
-eating much at first; but from subsequent results am inclined to think
-my advice was not heeded. I contented myself with a half cracker, a
-little butter, and weak coffee; and an hour after, when I began to
-feel the beneficial effects of what I had eaten, I took a little more
-substantial meal, but refrained from eating heartily.
-
-After a short rest we caught our horses, and the doctor and I rode
-into Steilacoom, where we arrived after a hard ride late in the
-afternoon. As we approached the post, we met on the road a number of
-the inhabitants with whom we were well acquainted, and who did not
-recognize us. Nor were we surprised when we got a glimpse of our faces
-in a glass. Haggard and sunburnt, nearly every familiar feature had
-disappeared. Since the loss of my hat, my head-dress was the sleeve of
-a red flannel shirt, tied into a knot at the elbow, with the point at
-the arm-pit for a visor. Our clothes were in rags; one of the doctor's
-pantaloon-legs had entirely disappeared, and he had improvised a
-substitute out of a coffee-sack. In our generally dilapidated
-condition none of our acquaintances recognized us until we got to the
-post. We passed for Indians until we arrived there, where we were
-received by the officers with a shout at our ludicrous appearance.
-They were all sitting under the oak-trees in front of quarters,
-discussing what had probably become of us, and proposing means for our
-rescue, when we came up.
-
-I felt the effects of the trip for many days, and did not recover my
-natural condition for some weeks. The doctor and I went to the village
-next morning, where the people were startled at our emaciated
-appearance. We found that the doctor had lost twenty-one pounds in
-weight in fourteen days, and I had lost fourteen pounds in the same
-time. The doctor, while we were in the village, was taken with violent
-pains in his stomach, and returned to his post quite sick. He did not
-recover his health again for three months.
-
-The two soldiers went into the hospital immediately on their return,
-and I learned that for the remainder of their service they were in the
-hospital nearly all the time. Four or five years after, Carroll
-applied to me for a certificate on which to file an application for a
-pension, stating that he had not been well since his trip to the
-mountain. The Indian had an attack of gastritis, and barely escaped
-with his life after a protracted sickness. I attribute my own escape
-from a lingering illness to the precautions I took in eating when
-satisfying the first cravings of hunger, on our return to camp.
-
-We are not likely to have any competitors in this attempt to explore
-the summit of Mount Rainier. Packwood and McAllister, two citizens of
-Pierce County, Washington Territory, explored up the Nesqually, and
-crossed over to the head of the Cowlitz River, and thence by what was
-called Cowlitz Pass (since called Packwood Pass), to the east side of
-the mountains, searching for a trail to the mining regions of the
-upper Columbia. More recently, surveyors in the employ of the Pacific
-Railroad Company have been surveying through the same route for a
-railway passage.
-
-When the locomotive is heard in that region some day, when American
-enterprise has established an ice-cream saloon at the foot of the
-glacier, and sherry-cobblers may be had at twenty-five cents half-way
-up to the top of the mountain, attempts to ascend that magnificent
-snow-peak will be quite frequent. But many a long year will pass away
-before roads are sufficiently good to induce any one to do what we did
-in the summer of 1857.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[17] His name is honored in Wapowety Cleaver overlooking the Kautz
-Glacier.
-
-[18] I have no doubt that the south branch of the Nachess, which flows
-to the east into the Columbia, and that the Puyallup and White rivers,
-which flow west into Puget Sound, have similar sources in glaciers,
-from the fact that in July they are all of a similar character with
-the Nesqually, muddy, white torrents, at a time when little rain has
-fallen for months.--Kautz.
-
-[19] The burrow was made by the marmot and the split-hoof tracks in
-the loose earth were made by mountain goats.
-
-[20] He here gives evidence that he had not reached the summit.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: GENERAL HAZARD STEVENS.]
-
-VI. FIRST SUCCESSFUL ASCENT, 1870
-
-BY GENERAL HAZARD STEVENS
-
-
-     General Hazard Stevens was born at Newport, Rhode Island, on
-     June 9, 1842. His father was Major General Isaac I. Stevens,
-     and his mother, Margaret (Hazard) Stevens, was a
-     granddaughter of Colonel Daniel Lyman of the Revolution. In
-     1854 and 1855, while the son was only thirteen years of age,
-     he accompanied his father, then the first governor of
-     Washington Territory, on treaty-making expeditions among the
-     Indian tribes. Later he accompanied his father into the Union
-     Army as an officer on his father's staff. He was severely
-     wounded in the same battle where his father was killed while
-     leading the charge at Chantilly, September 1, 1862.
-
-     Hazard Stevens continued in the army, and at the end of the
-     war he was mustered out as a brigadier general of volunteers.
-     He then returned to Washington Territory and went to work to
-     support his mother and sisters. On August 17, 1870, he and P.
-     B. Van Trump made the first successful ascent of Mount
-     Rainier.
-
-     In 1874, he followed the other members of the family back to
-     Boston where he remained until his mother's death, a few
-     months ago. He then returned to Puget Sound, and is now a
-     successful farmer near Olympia.
-
-     His companion on the ascent, P. B. Van Trump, remained in
-     Washington. For a number of years he was a ranger at Indian
-     Henry's Hunting Ground in the Mount Rainier National Park.
-     There he was a quaint and attractive figure to all visitors.
-     In 1915, he returned East to live among kinsfolk in New York
-     State.
-
-     The names of both Stevens and Van Trump have been generously
-     bestowed upon glaciers, creeks, ridges, and canyons within the
-     Mount Rainier National Park.
-
-     General Stevens prefers to call the mountain Takhoma. The
-     full account of the ascent was published by him under the
-     title of "The Ascent of Mount Takhoma" in the Atlantic
-     Monthly for November, 1876. It is here reproduced by
-     permission of the editor of that magazine.
-
-     Mr. Van Trump made several ascents after that first one, and
-     in 1905 General Stevens also made a second ascent. He
-     searched in vain for the relics he had deposited at the
-     summit thirty-five years earlier. The rocks that were bare in
-     1870 were under snow and ice in 1905.
-
-When Vancouver, in 1792, penetrated the Straits of Fuca and explored
-the unknown waters of the Mediterranean of the Pacific, wherever he
-sailed, from the Gulf of Georgia to the farthest inlet of Puget Sound,
-he beheld the lofty, snow-clad barrier range of the Cascades
-stretching north and south and bounding the eastern horizon. Towering
-at twice the altitude of all others, at intervals of a hundred miles
-there loomed up above the range three majestic, snowy peaks that
-
-          "Like giants stand
-    To sentinel enchanted land."
-
-In the matter-of-fact spirit of a British sailor of his time, he named
-these sublime monuments of nature in honor of three lords of the
-English admiralty, Hood, Rainier, and Baker. Of these Rainier is the
-central, situated about half-way between the Columbia River and the
-line of British Columbia, and is by far the loftiest and largest. Its
-altitude is 14,444 feet, while Hood is 11,025 feet, and Baker is
-10,810 feet high. The others, too, are single cones, while Rainier, or
-Takhoma,[21] is an immense mountain-mass with three distinct peaks, an
-eastern, a northern, and a southern; the two last extending out and up
-from the main central dome, from the summit of which they stand over a
-mile distant, while they are nearly two miles apart from each other.
-
-Takhoma overlooks Puget Sound from Olympia to Victoria, one hundred
-and sixty miles. Its snow-clad dome is visible from Portland on the
-Willamette, one hundred and twenty miles south, and from the
-table-land of Walla Walla, one hundred and fifty miles east. A region
-two hundred and fifty miles across, including nearly all of Washington
-Territory, part of Oregon, and part of Idaho, is commanded in one
-field of vision by this colossus among mountains.
-
-Takhoma had never been ascended. It was a virgin peak. The
-superstitious fears and traditions of the Indians, as well as the
-dangers of the ascent, had prevented their attempting to reach the
-summit, and the failure of a gallant and energetic officer, whose
-courage and hardihood were abundantly shown during the rebellion, had
-in general estimation proved it insurmountable.
-
-For two years I had resolved to ascend Takhoma, but both seasons the
-dense smoke overspreading the whole country had prevented the attempt.
-Mr. Philomon Beecher Van Trump, humorous, generous, whole-souled, with
-endurance and experience withal, for he had roughed it in the mines,
-and a poetic appreciation of the picturesque and the sublime, was
-equally eager to scale the summit. Mr. Edward T. Coleman, an English
-gentleman of Victoria, a landscape artist and an Alpine tourist, whose
-reputed experience in Switzerland had raised a high opinion of his
-ability above the snow-line, completed the party.
-
-Olympia, the capital of Washington Territory, is a beautiful,
-maple-embowered town of some two thousand inhabitants, situated at the
-southernmost extremity of Puget Sound, and west of Takhoma, distant in
-an air line seventy-five miles. The intervening country is covered
-with dense fir forests, almost impenetrable to the midday sun, and
-obstructed with fallen trees, upturned roots and stumps, and a perfect
-jungle of undergrowth, through which the most energetic traveler can
-accomplish but eight or nine miles a day. It was advisible to gain the
-nearest possible point by some trail, before plunging into the
-unbroken forest. The Nisqually River, which rises on the southern and
-western slopes of Takhoma, and empties into the sound a few miles
-north of Olympia, offered the most direct and natural approach. Ten
-years before, moreover, a few enterprising settlers had blazed out a
-trail across the Cascade Range, which followed the Nisqually nearly up
-to its source, thence deflected south to the Cowlitz River, and
-pursued this stream in a northeastern course to the summit of the
-range, thus turning the great mountain by a wide circuit. The
-best-informed mountain men represented the approaches on the south and
-southeast as by far the most favorable. The Nisqually-Cowlitz trail,
-then, seemed much the best, for the Nisqually, heading in the south
-and southwest slopes, and the Cowlitz, in the southeastern, afforded
-two lines of approach, by either of which the distance to the
-mountain, after leaving the trail, could not exceed thirty miles.
-
-One August afternoon, Van Trump and I drove out to Yelm Prairie,
-thirty miles east of Olympia, and on the Nisqually River. We dashed
-rapidly on over a smooth, hard, level road, traversing wide reaches of
-prairie, passing under open groves of oaks and firs, and plunging
-through masses of black, dense forest in ever-changing variety. The
-moon had risen as we emerged upon Yelm Prairie; Takhoma, bathed in
-cold, white, spectral light from summit to base, appeared startlingly
-near and distinct. Our admiration was not so noisy as usual. Perhaps a
-little of dread mingled with it. In another hour we drove nearly
-across the plain and turned into a lane which conducted us up a
-beautiful rising plateau, crowned with a noble grove of oaks and
-overlooking the whole prairie. A comfortable, roomy house with a wide
-porch nestled among the trees, and its hospitable owner, Mr. James
-Longmire, appeared at the door and bade us enter.
-
-The next morning we applied to Mr. Longmire for a guide, and for his
-advice as to our proposed trip. He was one of the few who marked out
-the Nisqually-Cowlitz trail years ago. He had explored the mountains
-about Takhoma as thoroughly, perhaps, as any other white man. One of
-the earliest settlers, quiet, self-reliant, sensible, and kindly, a
-better counselor than he could not have been found. The trail, he
-said, had not been traveled for four years, and was entirely illegible
-to eyes not well versed in woodcraft, and it would be folly for any
-one to attempt to follow it who was not thoroughly acquainted with the
-country. He could not leave his harvest, and moreover in three weeks
-he was to cross the mountains for a drove of cattle. His wife, too,
-quietly discouraged his going. She described his appearance on his
-return from previous mountain trips, looking as haggard and thin as
-though he had just risen from a sick-bed. She threw out effective
-little sketches of toil, discomfort, and hardship incident to mountain
-travel, and dwelt upon the hard fare. The bountiful country breakfast
-heaped before us, the rich cream, fresh butter and eggs, snowy,
-melting biscuits, and broiled chicken, with rich, white gravy,
-heightened the effect of her words.
-
-But at length, when it appeared that no one else who knew the trail
-could be found, Mr. Longmire yielded to our persuasions, and consented
-to conduct us as far as the trail led, and to procure an Indian guide
-before leaving us to our own resources. As soon as we returned home we
-went with Mr. Coleman to his room to see a few indispensable
-equipments he had provided, in order that we might procure similar
-ones. The floor was literally covered with his traps, and he exhibited
-them one by one, expatiating upon their various uses. There was his
-ground-sheet, a large gum blanket equally serviceable to Mr. Coleman
-as a tent in camp and a bathtub at the hotel. There was a strong rope
-to which we were all to be tied when climbing the snow-fields, so that
-if one fell into a chasm the others could hold him up. The "creepers"
-were a clumsy, heavy arrangement of iron spikes made to fasten on the
-foot with chains and straps, in order to prevent slipping on the ice.
-He had an ice-axe for cutting steps, a spirit-lamp for making tea on
-the mountains, green goggles for snow-blindness, deer's fat for the
-face, Alpine staffs, needles and thread, twine, tacks, screws,
-screwdriver, gimlet, file, several medical prescriptions, two boards
-for pressing flowers, sketching materials, and in fact every article
-that Mr. Coleman in his extensive reading had found used or
-recommended by travelers. Every one of these he regarded as
-indispensable. The Alpine staff was, he declared, most important of
-all, a great assistance in traveling through the woods as well as on
-the ice; and he illustrated on his hands and knees how to cross a
-crevasse in the ice on two staffs. This interview naturally brought to
-mind the characteristic incident related of Packwood, the mountain man
-who, as hunter and prospector, had explored the deepest recesses of
-the Cascades. He had been engaged to guide a railroad surveying party
-across the mountains, and just as the party was about to start he
-approached the chief and demanded an advance to enable him to buy his
-outfit for the trip. "How much do you want?" asked the chief, rather
-anxiously, lest Packwood should overdraw his prospective wages. "Well,
-about two dollars and a half," was the reply; and at the camp-fire
-that evening, being asked if he had bought his outfit, Packwood,
-thrusting his hand into his pocket, drew forth and exhibited with
-perfect seriousness and complacency his entire outfit,--a jack-knife
-and a plug of tobacco.
-
-Half a dozen carriages rattled gayly out of Olympia in the cool of the
-morning, filled with a laughing, singing, frolicking bevy of young
-ladies and gentlemen. They were the Takhoma party starting on their
-adventurous trip, with a chosen escort accompanying them to their
-first camp. They rested several hours at Longmire's during the heat
-of the day, and the drive was then continued seven miles farther, to
-the Lacamas, an irregular-shaped prairie two miles in length by half a
-mile in breadth. Here live two of Mr. Longmire's sons. Their farms
-form the last settlement, and at the gate of Mr. Elkane Longmire's
-house the road ends. A wooded knoll overlooking the prairie, with a
-spring of water at its foot, was selected as the camp-ground. Some of
-the party stretched a large sail between the trees as a tent, others
-watered and fed the horses, and others busied themselves with the
-supper. Two eager sportsmen started after grouse, while their more
-practical companions bought half a dozen chickens, and had them soon
-dressed and sputtering over the fire. The shades of night were falling
-as the party sat down on the ground and partook of a repast fit for
-the Olympians, and with a relish sharpened by the long journey and a
-whole day's fast.
-
-Early in the morning Mr. Longmire arrived in camp with two mules and a
-pack-horse, and our mountain outfit was rapidly made up into suitable
-bales and packed upon the horse and one of the mules, the other mule
-being reserved for Longmire's own riding. We assembled around the
-breakfast with spirits as gay and appetites as sharp as ever. Then,
-with many good-bys and much waving of handkerchiefs, the party broke
-up. Four roughly clad pedestrians moved off in single file, leading
-their pack animals, and looking back at every step to catch the last
-glimpse of the bright garments and fluttering cambrics, while the
-carriages drove rapidly down the road and disappeared in the dark,
-sullen forest.
-
-We stepped off briskly, following a dim trail in an easterly course,
-and crossing the little prairie entered the timber. After winding over
-hilly ground for about three miles, we descended into the Nisqually
-bottom and forded a fine brook at the foot of the hill. For the next
-ten miles our route lay across the bottom, and along the bank of the
-river, passing around logs, following old, dry beds of the river and
-its lateral sloughs, ankle-deep in loose sand, and forcing our way
-through dense jungles of vine-maple. The trail was scarcely visible,
-and much obstructed by fallen trees and underbrush, and its
-difficulties were aggravated by the bewildering tracks of Indians who
-had lately wandered about the bottom in search of berries or rushes.
-We repeatedly missed the trail, and lost hours in retracing our steps
-and searching for the right course. The weather was hot and sultry,
-and rendered more oppressive by the dense foliage; myriads of gnats
-and mosquitoes tormented us and drove our poor animals almost frantic;
-and our thirst, aggravated by the severe and unaccustomed toil, seemed
-quenchless. At length we reached the ford of the Nisqually. Directly
-opposite, a perpendicular bluff of sand and gravel in alternate strata
-rose to the height of two hundred and fifty feet, its base washed by
-the river and its top crowned with firs. The stream was a hundred
-yards wide, waist-deep, and very rapid. Its waters were icy cold, and
-of a milk-white hue. This color is the characteristic of glacial
-rivers. The impalpable powder of thousands of tons of solid rocks
-ground up beneath the vast weight and resistless though imperceptible
-flow of huge glaciers, remains in solution in these streams, and
-colors them milk-white to the sea. Leading the animals down the bank
-and over a wide, dry bar of cobblestones, we stood at the brink of the
-swift, turbulent river, and prepared to essay its passage. Coleman
-mounted behind Van Trump on the little saddle-mule, his long legs
-dangling nearly to the ground, one hand grasping his Alpine staff, the
-other the neck-rope of the pack-mule, which Longmire bestrode.
-Longmire led in turn the pack-horse, behind whose bulky load was
-perched the other member of the party. The cavalcade, linked together
-in this order, had but just entered the stream when Coleman dropped
-the neckrope he was holding. The mule, bewildered by the rush and
-roar of the waters, turned directly down-stream, and in another
-instant our two pack animals, with their riders, would have been swept
-away in the furious rapids, had not Longmire with great presence of
-mind turned their erratic course in the right direction and safely
-brought them to the opposite shore. Following the bottom along the
-river for some distance, we climbed up the end of the bluff already
-mentioned, by a steep zigzag trail, and skirted along its brink for a
-mile. Far below us on the right rushed the Nisqually. On the left the
-bluff fell off in a steep hillside thickly clothed with woods and
-underbrush, and at its foot plowed the Owhap, a large stream emptying
-into the Nisqually just below our ford. Another mile through the woods
-brought us out upon the Mishell Prairie, a beautiful, oval meadow of a
-hundred acres, embowered in the tall, dense fir forest, with a grove
-of lofty, branching oaks at its farther extremity, and covered with
-green grass and bright flowers. It takes its name from the Mishell
-River, which empties into the Nisqually a mile above the prairie.
-
-We had marched sixteen miles. The packs were gladly thrown off beneath
-a lofty fir; the animals were staked out to graze. A spring in the
-edge of the woods afforded water, and while Mr. Coleman busied himself
-with his pipe, his flask, his note-book, his sketch-book, and his
-pouch of multifarious odds and ends, the other members of the party
-performed the duties incident to camp-life: made the fire, brought
-water, spread the blankets, and prepared supper. The flags attached to
-our Alpine staffs waved gayly overhead, and the sight of their bright
-folds fluttering in the breeze deepened the fixed resolve to plant
-them on Takhoma's hoary head, and made failure seem impossible. Mr.
-Coleman announced the altitude of Mishell Prairie as eight hundred
-feet by barometer. By an unlucky fall the thermometer was broken.
-
-The march was resumed early next morning. As we passed the lofty oaks
-at the end of the little prairie, "On that tree," said Longmire,
-pointing out one of the noblest, "Maxon's company hanged two Indians
-in the war of '56. Ski-hi and his band, after many depredations upon
-the settlements, were encamped on the Mishell, a mile distant, in
-fancied security, when Maxon and his men surprised them and cut off
-every soul except the two prisoners whom they hanged here."
-
-For eight miles the trail led through thick woods, and then, after
-crossing a wide "burn," past a number of deserted Indian wigwams,
-where another trail from the Nisqually plains joined ours, it
-descended a gradual slope, traversed a swampy thicket and another mile
-of heavy timber, and debouched on the Mishell River. This is a fine,
-rapid, sparkling stream, knee-deep and forty feet wide, rippling and
-dashing over a gravelly bed with clear, cold, transparent water. The
-purity of the clear water, so unlike the yeasty Nisqually, proves that
-the Mishell is no glacial river. Rising in an outlying range to the
-northwest of Takhoma, it flows in a southwest course to its confluence
-with the Nisqually near our previous night's camp. We unsaddled for
-the noon-rest. Van Trump went up the stream, fishing; Longmire crossed
-to look out the trail ahead, and Coleman made tea solitaire.
-
-An hour passed, and Longmire returned. "The trail is blind," said he,
-"and we have no time to lose." Just then Van Trump returned; and the
-little train was soon in readiness to resume the tramp. Longmire rode
-his mule across the stream, telling us to drive the pack-animals after
-him and follow by a convenient log near by. As the mule attempted to
-climb a low place in the opposite bank, which offered an apparently
-easy exit from the river, his hind legs sank in a quicksand, he sat
-down quickly, if not gracefully, and, not fancying that posture, threw
-himself clear under water. His dripping rider rose to his feet, flung
-the bridle-rein over his arm, and, springing up the bank at a more
-practicable point, strode along the trail with as little delay and as
-perfect unconcern as though an involuntary ducking was of no more
-moment than climbing over a log.
-
-The trail was blind. Longmire scented it through thickets of salal,
-fern, and underbrush, stumbling over roots, vines, and hollows hidden
-in the rank vegetation, now climbing huge trunks that the animals
-could barely scramble over, and now laboriously working his way around
-some fallen giant and traveling two hundred yards in order to gain a
-dozen yards on the course. The packs, continually jammed against trees
-and shaken loose by this rough traveling, required frequent
-repacking--no small task. At the very top of a high, steep hill, up
-which we had laboriously zigzagged shortly after crossing the Mishell,
-the little packhorse, unable to sustain the weight of the pack, which
-had shifted all to one side, fell and rolled over and over to the
-bottom. Bringing up the goods and chattels one by one on our own
-shoulders to the top of the hill, we replaced the load and started
-again. The course was in a southerly direction, over high rolling
-ground of good clay soil, heavily timbered, with marshy swales at
-intervals, to the Nisqually River again, a distance of twelve miles.
-We encamped on a narrow flat between the high hill just descended and
-the wide and noisy river, near an old ruined log-hut, the former
-residence of a once famed Indian medicine man, who, after the laudable
-custom of his race, had expiated with his life his failure to cure a
-patient.
-
-Early next morning we continued our laborious march along the right
-bank of the Nisqually. Towards noon we left the river, and after
-thridding in an easterly course a perfect labyrinth of fallen timber
-for six miles, and forcing our way with much difficulty through the
-tangled jungle of an extensive vine-maple swamp, at length crossed
-Silver Creek and gladly threw off the packs for an hour's rest.
-
-A short distance after crossing Silver Creek the trail emerged upon
-more open ground, and for the first time the Nisqually Valley lay
-spread out in view before us. On the left stretched a wall of steep,
-rocky mountains, standing parallel to the course of the river and
-extending far eastward, growing higher and steeper and more rugged as
-it receded from view. At the very extremity of this range Takhoma
-loomed aloft, its dome high above all others and its flanks extending
-far down into the valley, and all covered, dome and flanks, with snow
-of dazzling white, in striking contrast with the black basaltic
-mountains about it. Startlingly near it looked to our eyes, accustomed
-to the restricted views and gloom of the forest.
-
-After our noon rest we continued our journey up the valley, twisting
-in and out among the numerous trunks of trees that encumbered the
-ground, and after several hours of tedious trudging struck our third
-camp on Copper Creek, the twin brother to Silver Creek, just at dusk.
-We were thoroughly tired, having made twenty miles in thirteen hours
-of hard traveling.
-
-Starting at daylight next morning, we walked two miles over rough
-ground much broken by ravines, and then descended into the bed of the
-Nisqually at the mouth of Goat Creek, another fine stream which
-empties here. We continued our course along the river bed, stumbling
-over rocky bars and forcing our way through dense thickets of willow,
-for some distance, then ascended the steep bank, went around a high
-hill over four miles of execrable trail, and descended to the river
-again, only two miles above Goat Creek. At this point the Takhoma
-branch or North Fork joins the Nisqually. This stream rises on the
-west side of Takhoma, is nearly as large as the main river, and like
-it shows its glacial origin by its milk-white water and by its icy
-cold, terribly swift and furious torrent. Crossing the Takhoma branch,
-here thirty yards wide, we kept up the main river, crossing and
-recrossing the stream frequently, and toiling over rocky bars for four
-miles, a distance which consumed five hours, owing to the difficulties
-of the way. We then left the Nisqually, turning to the right and
-traveling in a southerly course, and followed up the bed of a swampy
-creek for half a mile, then crossed a level tract much obstructed with
-fallen timber, then ascended a burnt ridge, and followed it for two
-miles to a small, marshy prairie in a wide canyon or defile closed in
-by rugged mountains on either side, and camped beside a little rivulet
-on the east side of the prairie. This was Bear Prairie, the altitude
-of which by the barometer was 2630 feet. The canyon formed a low pass
-between the Nisqually and Cowlitz rivers, and the little rivulet near
-which we camped flowed into the latter stream. The whole region had
-been swept by fire: thousands of giant trunks stood blackened and
-lifeless, the picture of desolation.
-
-As we were reclining on the ground around the campfire, enjoying the
-calm and beatific repose which comes to the toil-worn mountaineer
-after his hearty supper, one of these huge trunks, after several
-warning creaks, came toppling and falling directly over our camp. All
-rushed to one side or another to avoid the impending crash. As one
-member of the party, hastily catching up in one hand a frying-pan
-laden with tin plates and cups, and in the other the camp kettle half
-full of boiling water, was scrambling away, his foot tripped in a
-blackberry vine and he fell outstretched at full length, the
-much-prized utensils scattering far and wide, while the falling tree
-came thundering down in the rear, doing no other damage, however, than
-burying a pair of blankets.
-
-The following day Longmire and the writer went down the canyon to its
-junction with the Cowlitz River, in search of a band of Indians who
-usually made their headquarters at this point, and among whom Longmire
-hoped to find some hunter familiar with the mountains who might guide
-us to the base of Takhoma. The tiny rivulet as we descended soon
-swelled to a large and furious torrent, and its bed filled nearly the
-whole bottom of the gorge. The mountains rose on both sides
-precipitously, and the traces of land-slides which had gouged vast
-furrows down their sides were frequent. With extreme toil and
-difficulty we made our way, continually wading the torrent, clambering
-over broken masses of rock which filled its bed, or clinging to the
-steep hillsides, and reached the Cowlitz at length after twelve miles
-of this fatiguing work, but only to find the Indian camp deserted.
-Further search, however, was rewarded by the discovery of a rude
-shelter formed of a few skins thrown over a framework of poles,
-beneath which sat a squaw at work upon a half-dressed deerskin. An
-infant and a naked child of perhaps four years lay on the ground near
-the fire in front. Beside the lodge and quietly watching our approach,
-of which he alone seemed aware, stood a tall, slender Indian clad in
-buckskin shirt and leggings, with a striped woolen breech-clout, and a
-singular head garniture which gave him a fierce and martial
-appearance. This consisted of an old military cap, the visor thickly
-studded with brassheaded nails, while a large circular brass article,
-which might have been the top of an oil-lamp, was fastened upon the
-crown. Several eagle feathers stuck in the crown and strips of fur
-sewed upon the sides completed the edifice, which, notwithstanding its
-components, appeared imposing rather than ridiculous. A long Hudson
-Bay gun, the stock also ornamented with brass-headed tacks, lay in the
-hollow of the Indian's shoulder.
-
-He received us with great friendliness, yet not without dignity,
-shaking hands and motioning us to a seat beneath the rude shelter,
-while his squaw hastened to place before us suspicious-looking cakes
-of dried berries, apparently their only food. After a moderate
-indulgence in this delicacy, Longmire made known our wants. The
-Indian spoke fluently the Chinook jargon, that high-bred lingo
-invented by the old fur-traders. He called himself "Sluiskin," and
-readily agreed to guide us to Rainier, known to him only as Takhoma,
-and promised to report at Bear Prairie the next day. It was after
-seven in the evening when we reached camp, thoroughly fagged.
-
-Punctual to promise, Sluiskin rode up at noon mounted upon a stunted
-Indian pony, while his squaw and pappooses followed upon another even
-more puny and forlorn. After devouring an enormous dinner, evidently
-compensating for the rigors of a long fast, in reply to our inquiries
-he described the route he proposed to take to Takhoma. Pointing to the
-almost perpendicular height immediately back or east of our camp,
-towering three thousand feet or more overhead, the loftiest mountain
-in sight, "We go to the top of that mountain to-day," said he, "and
-to-morrow we follow along the high, backbone ridge of the mountains,
-now up, now down, first on one side and then on the other, a long
-day's journey, and at last, descending far down from the mountains
-into a deep valley, reach the base of Takhoma." Sluiskin illustrated
-his Chinook with speaking signs and pantomime. He had frequently
-hunted the mountain sheep upon the snow-fields of Takhoma, but had
-never ascended to the summit. It was impossible to do so, and he put
-aside as idle talk our expressed intention of making the ascent.
-
-We had already selected the indispensable articles for a week's tramp,
-a blanket apiece, the smallest coffee-pot and frying-pan, a scanty
-supply of bacon, flour, coffee, etc., and had made them up into
-suitable packs of forty pounds each, provided with slings like a
-knapsack, and had piled together under the lee of a huge fallen trunk
-our remaining goods. Longmire, who although impatient to return home,
-where his presence was urgently needed, had watched and directed our
-preparations during the forenoon with kindly solicitude, now bade us
-good-by: mounted on one mule and leading the other, he soon
-disappeared down the trail on his lonely, homeward way. He left us the
-little pack-horse, thinking it would be quite capable of carrying our
-diminished outfit after our return from Takhoma.
-
-Sluiskin led the way. The load upon his shoulders was sustained by a
-broad band, passing over his head, upon which his heavy, brass-studded
-rifle, clasped in both hands, was poised and balanced. Leaving behind
-the last vestige of trail, we toiled in single file slowly and
-laboriously up the mountain all the afternoon. The steepness of the
-ascent in many places required the use of both hand and foot in
-climbing, and the exercise of great caution to keep the heavy packs
-from dragging us over backwards. Coleman lagged behind from the start,
-and at intervals his voice could be heard hallooing and calling upon
-us to wait. Towards sunset we reached a level terrace, or bench, near
-the summit, gladly threw off our packs, and waited for Coleman, who,
-we supposed, could not be far below. He not appearing, we hallooed
-again and again. No answer! We then sent Sluiskin down the mountain to
-his aid. After an hour's absence the Indian returned. He had
-descended, he said, a long distance, and at last caught sight of
-Coleman. He was near the foot of the mountain, had thrown away his
-pack, blankets and all, and was evidently returning to camp. And
-Sluiskin finished his account with expressions of contempt for the
-"cultus King George man." What was to be done? Coleman carried in his
-pack all our bacon, our only supply of meat, except a few pounds of
-dried beef. He also had the barometer, the only instrument that had
-survived the jolts and tumbles of our rough trip. But, on the other
-hand, he had been a clog upon our march from the outset. He was
-evidently too infirm to endure the toil before us, and would not only
-be unable to reach, still less ascend Takhoma, but might even impede
-and frustrate our own efforts. Knowing that he would be safe in camp
-until our return, we hastily concluded to proceed without him,
-trusting to our rifles for a supply of meat.
-
-Sluiskin led us along the side of the ridge in a southerly direction
-for two miles farther, to a well-sheltered, grassy hollow in the
-mountain-top, where he had often previously encamped. It was after
-dark when we reached this place. The usual spring had gone dry, and,
-parched with thirst we searched the gulches of the mountain-side for
-water an hour, but without success. At length the writer, recalling a
-scanty rill which trickled across their path a mile back, taking the
-coffee-pot and large canteen, retraced his steps, succeeded in filling
-these utensils after much fumbling in the dark and consequent delay,
-and returned to camp. He found Van Trump and the Indian, anxious at
-the long delay, mounted on the crest of the ridge some two hundred
-yards from camp, waving torches and shouting lustily to direct his
-steps. The mosquitoes and flies came in clouds, and were terribly
-annoying. After supper of coffee and bread, we drank up the water,
-rolled ourselves in our blankets, and lay down under a tree with our
-flags floating from under the boughs overhead. Hot as had been the
-day, the night was cold and frosty, owing, doubtless, to the altitude
-of our camp.
-
-At the earliest dawn next morning we were moving on without breakfast,
-and parched with thirst. Sluiskin led us in a general course about
-north-northeast, but twisting to nearly every point of the compass,
-and climbing up and down thousands of feet from mountain to mountain,
-yet keeping on the highest backbone between the headwaters of the
-Nisqually and Cowlitz rivers. After several hours of this work we came
-to a well-sheltered hollow, one side filled with a broad bed of snow,
-at the foot of which nestled a tiny, tranquil lakelet, and gladly
-threw off our heavy packs, assuaged our thirst, and took
-breakfast,--bread and coffee again. Early as it was, the chill of the
-frosty night still in the air, the mosquitoes renewed their attacks,
-and proved as innumerable and vexatious as ever.
-
-Continuing our march, we crossed many beds of snow, and drank again
-and again from the icy rills which flowed out of them. The mountains
-were covered with stunted mountain-ash and low, stubby firs with
-short, bushy branches, and occasionally a few pines. Many slopes were
-destitute of trees but covered with luxuriant grass and the greatest
-profusion of beautiful flowers of vivid hues. This was especially the
-case with the southern slopes, while the northern sides of the
-mountains were generally wooded. We repeatedly ate berries, and an
-hour afterwards ascended to where berries of the same kind were found
-scarcely yet formed. The country was much obscured with smoke from
-heavy fires which had been raging on the Cowlitz the last two days.
-But when at length, after climbing for hours an almost perpendicular
-peak,--creeping on hands and knees over loose rocks, and clinging to
-scanty tufts of grass where a single slip would have sent us rolling a
-thousand feet down to destruction,--we reached the highest crest and
-looked over, we exclaimed that we were already well repaid for all our
-toil. Nothing can convey an idea of the grandeur and ruggedness of the
-mountains. Directly in front, and apparently not over two miles
-distant, although really twenty, old Takhoma loomed up more gigantic
-than ever. We were far above the level of the lower snow-line on
-Takhoma. The high peak upon which we clung seemed the central core or
-focus of all the mountains around, and on every side we looked down
-vertically thousands of feet, deep down into vast, terrible defiles,
-black and fir-clothed, which stretched away until lost in the distance
-and smoke. Between them, separating one from another, the
-mountain-walls rose precipitously and terminated in bare, columnar
-peaks of black basaltic or volcanic rock, as sharp as needles. It
-seemed incredible that any human foot could have followed out the
-course we came, as we looked back upon it.
-
-After a few hours more of this climbing, we stood upon the summit of
-the last mountain-ridge that separated us from Takhoma. We were in a
-saddle of the ridge; a lofty peak rose on either side. Below us
-extended a long, steep hollow or gulch filled with snow, the farther
-extremity of which seemed to drop off perpendicularly into a deep
-valley or basin. Across this valley, directly in front, filling up the
-whole horizon and view with an indescribable aspect of magnitude and
-grandeur, stood the old leviathan of mountains. The broad, snowy dome
-rose far among and above the clouds. The sides fell off in vertical
-steeps and fearful black walls of rock for a third of its altitude;
-lower down, vast, broad, gently sloping snow-fields surrounded the
-mountain, and were broken here and there by ledges or masses of the
-dark basaltic rock protruding above them. Long, green ridges projected
-from this snow-belt at intervals, radiating from the mountain and
-extending many miles until lost in the distant forests. Deep valleys
-lay between these ridges. Each at its upper end formed the bed of a
-glacier, which closed and filled it up with solid ice. Below the
-snow-line bright green grass with countless flowers, whose vivid
-scarlet, blue, and purple formed bodies of color in the distance,
-clothed the whole region of ridges and valleys, for a breadth of five
-miles. The beautiful balsam firs, about thirty feet in height, and of
-a purple, dark-green color, stood scattered over the landscape, now
-singly, now in groves, and now in long lines, as though planted in
-some well-kept park. Farther down an unbroken fir forest surrounded
-the mountain and clad the lower portions of the ridges and valleys. In
-every sheltered depression or hollow lay beds of snow with tiny brooks
-and rivulets flowing from them. The glaciers terminated not gradually,
-but abruptly, with a wall of ice from one to five hundred feet high,
-from beneath which yeasty torrents burst forth and rushed roaring and
-tumbling down the valleys. The principal of these, far away on our
-left front, could be seen plunging over two considerable falls, half
-hidden in the forest, while the roar of waters was distinctly audible.
-
-At length we cautiously descended the snow-bed, and, climbing at least
-fifteen hundred feet down a steep but ancient land-slide by means of
-the bushes growing among the loose rocks, reached the valley, and
-encountered a beautiful, peaceful, limpid creek. Van Trump could not
-resist the temptation of unpacking his bundle, selecting one of his
-carefully preserved flies, and trying the stream for trout, but
-without a single rise. After an hour's rest and a hearty repast we
-resumed our packs, despite Sluiskin's protests, who seemed tired out
-with his arduous day's toil and pleaded hard against traveling
-farther. Crossing the stream, we walked through several grassy glades,
-or meadows, alternating with open woods. We soon came to the foot of
-one of the long ridges already described, and ascending it followed it
-for several miles through open woods, until we emerged upon the
-enchanting emerald and flowery meads which clothe these upper regions.
-Halting upon a rising eminence in our course, and looking back, we
-beheld the ridge of mountains we had just descended stretching from
-east to west in a steep, rocky wall; a little to the left, a beautiful
-lake, evidently the source of the stream just crossed, which we called
-Clear Creek, and glimpses of which could be seen among the trees as it
-flowed away to the right, down a rapidly descending valley along the
-foot of the lofty mountain-wall. Beyond the lake again, still farther
-to the left, the land also subsided quickly. It was at once evident
-that the lake was upon a summit, or divide, between the waters of the
-Nisqually and Cowlitz rivers. The ridge which we were ascending lay
-north and south, and led directly up to the mountain.
-
-We camped, as the twilight fell upon us, in an aromatic grove of
-balsam firs. A grouse, the fruit of Sluiskin's rifle, broiled before
-the fire, and impartially divided gave a relish to the dry bread and
-coffee. After supper we reclined upon our blankets in front of the
-bright, blazing fire, well satisfied. The Indian, when starting from
-Bear Prairie, had evidently deemed our intention of ascending Takhoma
-too absurd to deserve notice. The turning back of Mr. Coleman only
-deepened his contempt for our prowess. But his views had undergone a
-change with the day's march. The affair began to look serious to him,
-and now in Chinook, interspersed with a few words of broken English
-and many signs and gesticulations, he began a solemn exhortation and
-warning against our rash project.
-
-Takhoma, he said, was an enchanted mountain, inhabited by an evil
-spirit, who dwelt in a fiery lake on its summit. No human being could
-ascend it or even attempt its ascent, and survive. At first, indeed,
-the way was easy. The broad snow-fields, over which he had so often
-hunted the mountain goat, interposed no obstacle, but above them the
-rash adventurer would be compelled to climb up steeps of loose,
-rolling rocks, which would turn beneath his feet and cast him
-head-long into the deep abyss below. The upper snow-slopes, too, were
-so steep that not even a goat, far less a man, could get over them.
-And he would have to pass below lofty walls and precipices whence
-avalanches of snow and vast masses of rocks were continually falling;
-and these would inevitably bury the intruder beneath their ruins.
-Moreover, a furious tempest continually swept the crown of the
-mountain, and the luckless adventurer, even if he wonderfully escaped
-the perils below, would be torn from the mountain and whirled through
-the air by this fearful blast. And the awful being upon the summit,
-who would surely punish the sacrilegious attempt to invade his
-sanctuary,--who could hope to escape his vengeance? Many years ago, he
-continued, his grandfather, a great chief and warrior, and a mighty
-hunter, had ascended part way up the mountain, and had encountered
-some of these dangers, but he fortunately turned back in time to
-escape destruction; and no other Indian had ever gone so far.
-
-Finding that his words did not produce the desired effect, he assured
-us that, if we persisted in attempting the ascent, he would wait three
-days for our return, and would then proceed to Olympia and inform our
-friends of our death; and he begged us to give him a paper (a written
-note) to take to them, so that they might believe his story.
-Sluiskin's manner during this harangue was earnest in the extreme, and
-he was undoubtedly sincere in his forebodings. After we had retired to
-rest, he kept up a most dismal chant, or dirge, until late in the
-night. The dim, white, spectral mass towering so near, the roar of the
-torrents below us, and the occasional thunder of avalanches, several
-of which fell during the night, added to the weird effect of
-Sluiskin's song.
-
-The next morning we moved two miles farther up the ridge and made camp
-in the last clump of trees, quite within the limit of perpetual snow.
-Thence, with snow-spikes upon our feet and Alpine staff in hand, we
-went up the snow-fields to reconnoiter the best line of ascent. We
-spent four hours, walking fast, in reaching the foot of the steep,
-abrupt part of the mountain. After carefully scanning the southern
-approaches, we decided to ascend on the morrow by a steep, rocky ridge
-that seemed to lead up to the snowy crown.
-
-Our camp was pitched on a high knoll crowned by a grove of balsam
-firs, near a turbulent glacial torrent. About nine o'clock, after we
-had lain down for the night, the firs round our camp took fire and
-suddenly burst out in a vivid conflagration. The night was dark and
-windy, and the scene--the vast, dim outlines of Takhoma, the white
-snow-fields, the roaring torrent, the crackling blaze of the burning
-trees--was strikingly wild and picturesque.
-
-In honor of our guide we named the cascade at our feet Sluiskin's
-Falls; the stream we named Glacier Creek, and the mass of ice whence
-it derives its source we styled the Little Nisqually Glacier.
-
-Before daylight the next morning, Wednesday, August 17, 1870, we were
-up and had breakfasted, and at six o'clock we started to ascend
-Takhoma. Besides our Alpine staffs and creepers, we carried a long
-rope, an ice-axe, a brass plate inscribed with our names, our flags, a
-large canteen, and some luncheon. We were also provided with gloves,
-and green goggles for snow-blindness, but found no occasion to use the
-latter. Having suffered much from the heat of the sun since leaving
-Bear Prairie, and being satisfied from our late reconnoissance that we
-could reach the summit and return on the same day, we left behind our
-coats and blankets. In three hours of fast walking we reached the
-highest point of the preceding day's trip, and commenced the ascent by
-the steep, rocky ridge already described as reaching up to the snowy
-dome. We found it to be a very narrow, steep, irregular backbone,
-being solid rock, while the sides were composed of loose broken rocks
-and debris. Up this ridge, keeping upon the spine when possible, and
-sometimes forced to pick our way over the loose and broken rocks at
-the sides, around columnar masses which we could not directly climb
-over, we toiled for five hundred yards, ascending at an angle of
-nearly forty-five degrees. Here the ridge connected, by a narrow neck
-or saddle, with a vast square rock, whose huge and distinct outline
-can be clearly perceived from a distance of twenty-five miles. This,
-like the ridge, is a conglomerate of basalt and trap, in well-defined
-strata, and is rapidly disintegrating and continually falling in
-showers and even masses of rocks and rubbish, under the action of
-frost by night and melting snow by day. It lies imbedded in the side
-of the mountain, with one side and end projected and overhanging deep,
-terrible gorges, and it is at the corner or junction of these two
-faces that the ridge joined it at a point about a thousand feet below
-its top. On the southern face the strata were inclined at an angle of
-thirty degrees. Crossing by the saddle from the ridge, despite a
-strong wind which swept across it, we gained a narrow ledge formed by
-a stratum more solid than its fellows, and creeping along it, hugging
-close to the main rock on our right, laboriously and cautiously
-continued the ascent. The wind was blowing violently. We were now
-crawling along the face of the precipice almost in mid-air. On the
-right the rock towered far above us perpendicularly. On the left it
-fell sheer off, two thousand feet, into a vast abyss. A great glacier
-filled its bed and stretched away for several miles, all seamed or
-wrinkled across with countless crevasses. We crept up and along a
-ledge, not of solid, sure rock, but one obstructed with the loose
-stones and debris which were continually falling from above, and we
-trod on the upper edge of a steep slope of this rubbish, sending the
-stones at every step rolling and bounding into the depth below.
-Several times during our progress showers of rocks fell from the
-precipice above across our path, and rolled into the abyss, but
-fortunately none struck us.
-
-Four hundred yards of this progress brought us to where the rock
-joined the overhanging edge of the vast neve or snow-field that
-descended from the dome of the mountain and was from time to time, as
-pressed forward and downward, breaking off in immense masses, which
-fell with a noise as of thunder into the great canyon on our left. The
-junction of rock and ice afforded our only line of ascent. It was an
-almost perpendicular gutter, but here our ice-axe came into play, and
-by cutting steps in the ice and availing ourselves of every crevice or
-projecting point of the rock, we slowly worked our way up two hundred
-yards higher. Falling stones were continually coming down, both from
-the rock on our right and from the ice in front, as it melted and
-relaxed its hold upon them. Mr. Van Trump was hit by a small one, and
-another struck his staff from his hands. Abandoning the rock, then, at
-the earliest practicable point, we ascended directly up the ice,
-cutting steps for a short distance, until we reached ice so
-corrugated, or drawn up in sharp pinnacles, as to afford a foothold.
-These folds or pinnacles were about two or three feet high, and half
-as thick, and stood close together. It was like a very violent chop
-sea, only the waves were sharper. Up this safe footing we climbed
-rapidly, the side of the mountain becoming less and less steep, and
-the ice waves smaller and more regular, and, after ascending about
-three hundred yards, stood fairly upon the broad dome of mighty
-Takhoma. It rose before us like a broad, gently swelling headland of
-dazzling white, topped with black, where the rocky summit projected
-above the neve. Ascending diagonally towards the left, we continued
-our course. The snow was hard and firm under foot, crisp and light for
-an inch or two, but solidified into ice a foot or less beneath the
-surface. The whole field was covered with the ice-waves already
-described, and intersected by a number of crevasses which we crossed
-at narrow places without difficulty. About half-way up the slope, we
-encountered one from eight to twenty feet wide and of profound depth.
-The most beautiful vivid emerald-green color seemed to fill the abyss,
-the reflection of the bright sunlight from side to side of its pure
-ice walls. The upper side or wall of the crevasse was some twelve feet
-above the lower, and in places overhung it, as though the snow-field
-on the lower side had bodily settled down a dozen feet. Throwing a
-bight of the rope around a projecting pinnacle on the upper side, we
-climbed up, hand over hand, and thus effected a crossing. We were now
-obliged to travel slowly, with frequent rests. In that rare
-atmosphere, after taking seventy or eighty steps, our breath would be
-gone, our muscles grew tired and strained, and we experienced all the
-sensations of extreme fatigue. An instant's pause, however, was
-sufficient to recover strength and breath, and we would start again.
-The wind, which we had not felt while climbing the steepest part of
-the mountain, now again blew furiously, and we began to suffer from
-the cold. Our course,--directed still diagonally towards the left,
-thus shunning the severe exertion of climbing straight up the dome,
-although at an ordinary altitude the slope would be deemed
-easy,--brought us first to the southwest peak. This is a long,
-exceedingly sharp, narrow ridge, springing out from the main dome for
-a mile into mid-air. The ridge affords not over ten or twelve feet of
-foothold on top, and the sides descend almost vertically. On the right
-side the snow lay firm and smooth for a few feet on top, and then
-descended in a steep, unbroken sheet, like an immense, flowing
-curtain, into the tremendous basin which lies on the west side of the
-mountain between the southern and northern peaks, and which is
-inclosed by them as by two mighty arms. The snow on the top and left
-crest of the ridge was broken into high, sharp pinnacles, with cracks
-and fissures extending to the rocks a few feet below. The left side,
-too steep for the snow to lie on, was vertical, bare rock. The wind
-blew so violently that we were obliged to brace ourselves with our
-Alpine staffs and use great caution to guard against being swept off
-the ridge. We threw ourselves behind the pinnacles or into the cracks
-every seventy steps, for rest and shelter against the bitter, piercing
-wind. Hastening forward in this way along the dizzy, narrow, and
-precarious ridge, we reached at length the highest point. Sheltered
-behind a pinnacle of ice we rested a moment, took out our flags and
-fastened them upon the Alpine staffs, and then, standing erect in the
-furious blast, waved them in triumph with three cheers. We stood a
-moment upon that narrow summit, bracing ourselves against the tempest
-to view the prospect. The whole country was shrouded in a dense sea
-of smoke, above which the mountain towered two thousand feet in the
-clear, cloudless ether. A solitary peak far to the southeast,
-doubtless Mount Adams, and one or two others in the extreme northern
-horizon, alone protruded above the pall. On every side of the mountain
-were deep gorges falling off precipitously thousands of feet, and from
-these the thunderous sound of avalanches would rise occasionally. Far
-below were the wide-extended glaciers already described. The wind was
-now a perfect tempest, and bitterly cold; smoke and mist were flying
-about the base of the mountain, half hiding, half revealing its
-gigantic outlines; and the whole scene was sublimely awful.
-
-It was now five P.M. We had spent eleven hours of unremitted toil in
-making the ascent, and, thoroughly fatigued, and chilled by the cold,
-bitter gale, we saw ourselves obliged to pass the night on the summit
-without shelter or food, except our meagre lunch. It would have been
-impossible to descend the mountain before nightfall, and sure
-destruction to attempt it in darkness. We concluded to return to a
-mass of rocks not far below, and there pass the night as best we
-could, burrowing in the loose debris.
-
-The middle peak of the mountain, however, was evidently the highest,
-and we determined to first visit it. Retracing our steps along the
-narrow crest of Peak Success, as we named the scene of our triumph, we
-crossed an intervening depression in the dome, and ascended the middle
-peak, about a mile distant and two hundred feet higher than Peak
-Success. Climbing over a rocky ridge which crowns the summit, we found
-ourselves within a circular crater two hundred yards in diameter,
-filled with a solid bed of snow, and inclosed with a rim of rocks
-projecting above the snow all around. As we were crossing the crater
-on the snow, Van Trump detected the odor of sulphur, and the next
-instant numerous jets of steam and smoke were observed issuing from
-the crevices of the rocks which formed the rim on the northern side.
-Never was a discovery more welcome! Hastening forward, we both
-exclaimed, as we warmed our chilled and benumbed extremities over one
-of Pluto's fires, that here we would pass the night, secure against
-freezing to death, at least. These jets were from the size of that of
-a large steampipe to a faint, scarcely perceptible emission, and
-issued all along the rim among the loose rocks on the northern side
-for more than half the circumference of the crater. At intervals they
-would puff up more strongly, and the smoke would collect in a cloud
-until blown aside and scattered by the wind, and then their force
-would abate for a time.
-
-A deep cavern, extending into and under the ice, and formed by the
-action of heat, was found. Its roof was a dome of brilliant green ice
-with long icicles pendent from it, while its floor, composed of the
-rocks and debris which formed the side of the crater, descended at an
-angle of thirty degrees. Forty feet within its mouth we built a wall
-of stones, inclosing a space five by six feet around a strong jet of
-steam and heat. Unlike the angular, broken rocks met with elsewhere,
-within the crater we found well-rounded bowlders and stones of all
-sizes worn as smooth by the trituration of the crater as by the action
-of water. Nowhere, however, did we observe any new lava or other
-evidences of recent volcanic action excepting these issues of steam
-and smoke. Inclosed within the rude shelter thus hastily constructed,
-we discussed our future prospects while we ate our lunch and warmed
-ourselves at our natural register. The heat at the orifice was too
-great to bear for more than an instant, but the steam wet us, the
-smell of sulphur was nauseating, and the cold was so severe that our
-clothes, saturated with the steam, froze stiff when turned away from
-the heated jet. The wind outside roared and whistled, but it did not
-much affect us, secure within our cavern, except when an occasional
-gust came down perpendicularly. However, we passed a most miserable
-night, freezing on one side, and in a hot steam-sulphur-bath on the
-other.
-
-The dawn at last slowly broke, cold and gray. The tempest howled still
-wilder. As it grew light, dense masses of driven mist went sweeping by
-overhead and completely hid the sun, and enveloped the mountain so as
-to conceal objects scarce a hundred feet distant. We watched and
-waited with great anxiety, fearing a storm which might detain us there
-for days without food or shelter, or, worse yet, snow, which would
-render the descent more perilous, or most likely impossible. And when,
-at nine A.M., an occasional rift in the driving mist gave a glimpse of
-blue sky, we made haste to descend. First, however, I deposited the
-brass plate inscribed with our names in a cleft in a large bowlder on
-the highest summit,--a huge mount of rocks on the east side of our
-crater of refuge, which we named Crater Peak,--placed the canteen
-alongside, and covered it with a large stone. I was then literally
-freezing in the cold, piercing blast, and was glad to hurry back to
-the crater, breathless and benumbed.
-
-We left our den of refuge at length, after exercising violently to
-start the blood through our limbs, and, in attempting to pass around
-the rocky summit, discovered a second crater, larger than the first,
-perhaps three hundred yards in diameter. It is circular, filled with a
-bed of snow, with a rocky rim all around and numerous jets of steam
-issuing from the rocks on the northern side. Both craters are
-inclined--the first to the west, and the latter to the east with a
-much steeper inclination, about thirty degrees. The rim of the second
-crater is higher, or the snow-field inside lower, than that of the
-first, and upon the east side rises in a rocky wall thirty feet above
-the snow within. From the summit we obtained a view of the northern
-peak, still partially enveloped in the driving mist. It appeared about
-a mile distant, several hundred feet lower than the center peak, and
-separated from it by a deeper, more abrupt depression or gap than
-that separating Crater and Success peaks. Like the latter, too, it is
-a sharp, narrow ridge springing out from the main mountain, and swept
-bare of snow on its summit by the wind. The weather was still too
-threatening, the glimpses of the sun and sky through the thick, flying
-scud were too few and fugitive, to warrant us in visiting this peak,
-which we named Peak Takhoma, to perpetuate the Indian name of the
-mountain.
-
-Our route back was the same as on the ascent. At the steepest and most
-perilous point in descending the steep gutter where we had been forced
-to cut steps in the ice, we fastened one end of the rope as securely
-as possible to a projecting rock, and lowered ourselves down by it as
-far as it reached, thereby passing the place with comparative safety.
-We were forced to abandon the rope here, having no means of
-unfastening it from the rock above. We reached the foot of the rocky
-ledge or ridge, where the real difficulties and dangers of the ascent
-commenced, at 1.30 P.M., four and a half hours after leaving the
-crater. We had been seven and a half hours in ascending from this
-point to the summit of Peak Success, and in both cases we toiled hard
-and lost no time.
-
-We now struck out rapidly and joyfully for camp. When nearly there Van
-Trump, in attempting to descend a snowbank without his creepers, which
-he had taken off for greater ease in walking, fell, shot like
-lightning forty feet down the steep incline, and struck among some
-loose rocks at its foot with such force as to rebound several feet
-into the air; his face and hands were badly skinned, and he received
-some severe bruises and a deep, wide gash upon his thigh. Fortunately
-the camp was not far distant, and thither with great pain and very
-slowly he managed to hobble. Once there I soon started a blazing fire,
-made coffee, and roasted choice morsels of a marmot, Sluiskin having
-killed and dressed four of these animals during our absence. Their
-flesh, like the badger's, is extremely muscular and tough, and has a
-strong, disagreeable, doggy odor.
-
-Towards the close of our repast, we observed the Indian approaching
-with his head down, and walking slowly and wearily as though tired by
-a long tramp. He raised his head as he came nearer, and, seeing us for
-the first time, stopped short, gazed long and fixedly, and then slowly
-drew near, eying us closely the while, as if to see whether we were
-real flesh and blood or disembodied ghosts fresh from the evil demon
-of Takhoma. He seemed both astonished and delighted to find us safe
-back, and kept repeating that we were strong men and had brave hearts:
-"Skookum tilicum, skookum tumtum." He expected never to see us again,
-he said, and had resolved to start the next morning for Olympia to
-report our destruction.
-
-The weather was still raw and cold. A dense cloud overhung and
-shrouded the triple crown of Takhoma and made us rejoice at our timely
-descent. The scanty shelter afforded by the few balsam firs about our
-camp had been destroyed by the fire, and the situation was terribly
-exposed to the chilly and piercing wind that blew from the great
-ice-fields. Van Trump, however, was too badly hurt to think of moving
-that night. Heating some large stones we placed them at our feet, and
-closely wrapped in our blankets slept soundly upon the open ground,
-although we awoke in the morning benumbed and chilled.
-
-We found many fresh tracks and signs of the mountain-sheep upon the
-snowfields, and hair and wool rubbed off upon rocks, and places where
-they had lain at night. The mountain-sheep of Takhoma is much larger
-than the common goat, and is found only upon the loftiest and most
-secluded peaks of the Cascade Range. Even Sluiskin, a skillful hunter
-and accustomed to the pursuit of this animal for years, failed to kill
-one, notwithstanding he hunted assiduously during our entire stay
-upon the mountain, three days. Sluiskin was greatly chagrined at his
-failure, and promised to bring each of us a sheep-skin the following
-summer, a promise which he faithfully fulfilled.
-
-The glacial system of Takhoma is stupendous. The mountain is really
-the focal centre and summit of a region larger than Massachusetts, and
-the five large rivers which water this region all find their sources
-in its vast glaciers. They are the Cowlitz, which empties into the
-Columbia; the White, Puyallup, and Nisqually rivers, which empty into
-Puget Sound sixty, forty, and twelve miles respectively north of
-Olympia; and the Wenass, which flows eastward through the range and
-empties into the Yakima, which joins the Columbia four hundred miles
-above its mouth. These are all large streams from seventy to a hundred
-miles in length. The White, Puyallup, and Cowlitz rivers are each
-navigable for steamboats for some thirty miles, and like the Nisqually
-show their glacial origin by their white and turgid water, which
-indeed gives the former its name.
-
-The southwestern sides of the mountain furnish the glaciers which form
-the sources of the Nisqually, and one of these, at Sluiskin's Falls,
-has been already described. The main Nisqually glacier issues from the
-deep abyss overhung by the vast rock along the face of which our route
-of ascent lay, and extends in a narrow and somewhat crooked canyon for
-two miles. The ice at its extremity rises in an abrupt wall five
-hundred feet high, and a noisy torrent pours out with great force from
-beneath. This feature is characteristic of every glacier. The main
-Cowlitz glacier issues from the southeast side, just to the right of
-our ridge of ascent. Its head fills a deep gorge at the foot of the
-eastern front or face of the great mass of rock just referred to, and
-the southern face of which overhangs the main Nisqually glacier. Thus
-the heads of these glaciers are separated only by this great rock, and
-are probably not more than half a mile apart, while their mouths are
-three miles apart. Several smaller glaciers serve to swell the waters
-of the Cowlitz. In like manner the glaciers from the western side form
-the Puyallup, and those from the northern and northwestern sides the
-White River. The principal White River glacier is nearly ten miles
-long, and its width is from two to four miles. Its depth, or the
-thickness of its ice, must be thousands of feet. Streams and rivulets
-under the heat of the sun flow down its surface until swallowed by the
-crevasses, and a lakelet of deep blue water an eighth of a mile in
-diameter has been observed upon the solid ice. Pouring down from the
-mountain, the ice by its immense weight and force has gouged out a
-mass upon the northeastern side a mile in thickness. The geological
-formation of Takhoma poorly resists the eroding power of these mighty
-glaciers, for it seems to be composed not of solid rock, but of a
-basaltic conglomerate in strata, as though the volcanic force had
-burst through and rent in pieces some earlier basaltic outflow, and
-had heaped up this vast pile from the fragments in successive strata.
-On every side the mountain is slowly disintegrating.
-
-What other peak can offer to scientific examination or to the
-admiration of tourists fourteen living glaciers of such magnitude,
-issuing from every side, or such grandeur, beauty, and variety of
-scenery?
-
-At daylight we broke up our camp at Sluiskin's Falls, and moved
-slowly, on account of Van Trump's hurt, down the ridge about five
-miles to Clear Creek, where we again regaled ourselves upon a hearty
-repast of marmots, or "raw dog," as Van Trump styled them in derision
-both of the viand and of the cookery. I was convinced from the lay of
-the country that Clear Creek flowed into the Nisqually, or was,
-perhaps, the main stream itself, and that the most direct and feasible
-route back to Bear Prairie would be found by following down the valley
-of these streams to the trail leading from the Nisqually to Bear
-Prairie. Besides, it was evidently impossible for Van Trump, in his
-bruised and injured state, to retrace our rough route over the
-mountains. Leaving him as comfortable as possible, with all our scanty
-stock of flour and marmots, sufficient to last him nearly a week in
-case of need, I started immediately after dinner, with Sluiskin
-leading the way, to explore this new route. The Indian had opposed the
-attempt strenuously, insisting with much urgency that the stream
-flowed through canyons impossible for us to traverse. He now gradually
-veered away from the course of the stream, until ere-long he was
-leading directly up the steep mountain range upon our former route,
-when I called him back peremptorily, and kept him in the rear for a
-little distance. Traveling through open timber, over ground rapidly
-descending, we came at the end of two miles to where the stream is
-hemmed in between one of the long ridges or spurs from Takhoma and the
-high mountain-chain on the south. The stream, receiving many affluents
-on both sides, its clear waters soon discolored by the yeasty glacial
-torrents, here loses its peaceful flow, and for upwards of three miles
-rushes furiously down a narrow, broken, and rocky bed in a succession
-of falls and cascades of great picturesque beauty. With much toil and
-difficulty we picked our way over a wide "talus" of huge, broken
-granite blocks and bowlders, along the foot of a vast mountain of
-solid granite on the south side of the river, until near the end of
-the defile, then crossed the stream, and soon after encountered a
-still larger branch coming from the north, direct from Takhoma, the
-product, doubtless, of the glaciers on the southern and southwestern
-sides. Fording this branch just above its confluence with the other,
-we followed the general course of the river, now unmistakably the
-Nisqually, for about four miles; then, leaving it, we struck off
-nearly south through the forest for three miles, and emerged upon the
-Bear Prairie. The distance was about thirteen miles from where we
-left Van Trump, and we were only some six hours in traveling it, while
-it took seventeen hours of terribly severe work to make the
-mountain-route under Sluiskin's guidance.
-
-Without his help on the shorter route, too, it would have taken me
-more than twice the time it did. For the manner in which, after
-entering the defile of the Nisqually, Sluiskin again took the lead and
-proceeded in a direct and unhesitating course, securing every
-advantage of the ground, availing himself of the wide, rocky bars
-along the river, crossing and recrossing the milky flood which rushed
-along with terrific swiftness and fury, and occasionally forcing his
-way through the thick timber and underbrush in order to cut off wide
-bends of the river, and at length leaving it and striking boldly
-through the forest to Bear Prairie, proved him familiar with every
-foot of the country. His objections to the route evidently arose from
-the jealousy so common with his people of further exploration of the
-country by the whites. As long as they keep within the limits already
-known and explored, they are faithful and indefatigable guides, but
-they invariably interpose every obstacle their ingenuity can suggest
-to deter the adventurous mountaineer from exposing the few last hidden
-recesses that remain unexplored.
-
-Mr. Coleman was found safe in camp, and seemed too glad to see us to
-think of reproaching us for our summary abandonment. He said that in
-attempting to follow us he climbed up so precipitous a place that,
-encumbered with his heavy pack, he could neither advance nor recede.
-He was compelled, therefore, to throw off the pack, which rolled to
-the very bottom of the mountain, and being thus delivered of his
-necessary outfit, he was forced to return to camp. He had been unable
-to find his pack, but having come across some cricketer's spikes among
-his remaining effects, he was resolved to continue his trip to, and
-make the ascent of, Rainier by himself; he had just completed his
-preparations, and especially had deposited on top of the lofty
-mountain which overlooked the prairie two caches, or stores, of
-provisions.
-
-At daylight next morning, Sluiskin, with his little boy riding one of
-his own ponies, himself riding our little calico-colored pack-horse,
-now well rested and saucy, started back for Van Trump, with directions
-to meet us at the trail on the Nisqually. A heavy, drizzling rain set
-in soon afterwards; Mr. Coleman, who had gone early to bring in the
-contents of his mountain-top caches, returned about noon with a very
-small bundle, and, packing our traps upon Sluiskin's other pony, we
-moved over to the rendezvous, pitched Coleman's large gum-sheet as a
-partial shelter, made a rousing fire, and tried to be comfortable.
-Late in the afternoon the pony set up a violent neighing, and in a few
-minutes Van Trump, and Sluiskin with his little boy behind him, rode
-up, drenched to the skin. By following the bed of the river,
-frequently crossing and recrossing, the Indian had managed to ride to
-the very foot of the Nisqually defile, when, leaving the horses in
-this boy's care, he hastened to Van Trump and carefully led and
-assisted him down. Despite the pain of his severe hurts, the latter
-was much amused at Sluiskin's account of our trip, and of finding Mr.
-Coleman safe in camp making tea, and for long after would repeat as an
-excellent joke Sluiskin's remark on passing the point where he had
-attempted to mislead me, "Skookum tenas man hiyu goddam."
-
-We sent the horses back by the Indian to Bear Prairie for grass, there
-being no indications of the rain ceasing. The storm indeed lasted
-three days, during which we remained sheltered beneath the gum-sheet
-as far as possible, and endeavored to counteract the rain by heaping
-up our fire in front. About eight o'clock on the second morning,
-Sluiskin reported himself with our horse, which he returned, he said,
-because he was about to return to his lodge on the Cowlitz, being
-destitute of shelter and food for his family on Bear Prairie. He
-vigorously replenished the fire, declined breakfast, jeered Coleman
-for turning back, although probably the latter did not comprehend his
-broken lingo, and departed.
-
-Sluiskin was an original and striking character. Leading a solitary
-life of hardships amidst these wilds, yet of unusual native
-intelligence, he had contrived, during rare visits to the settlements,
-to acquire the Chinook jargon, besides a considerable stock of English
-words, while his fund of general information was really wonderful. He
-was possessed of a shrewd, sarcastic wit, and, making no pretense to
-the traditional gravity of his race, did not scruple to use it freely.
-Yet beneath this he cherished a high sense of pride and personal
-independence. Although of the blood of the numerous and powerful
-Yakimas, who occupied the country just east of the Cascades, he
-disdained to render allegiance to them or any tribe, and undoubtedly
-regarded the superintendent of Indian affairs, or even the great
-father at Washington himself, with equally contemptuous indifference.
-
-As the last rays of the sun, one warm, drowsy summer afternoon, were
-falling aslant the shady streets of Olympia, Mr. Longmire's well-worn
-family carry-all, drawn by two fat, grass-fed horses, came rattling
-down the main street at a most unusual pace for them; two bright flags
-attached to Alpine staffs, one projecting from each door, fluttered
-gayly overhead, while the occupants of the carriage looked eagerly
-forth to catch the first glimpse of welcoming friends. We returned
-after our tramp of two hundred and forty miles with visages tanned and
-sun-scorched, and with forms as lean and gaunt as greyhounds, and were
-received and lionized to the full, like veterans returning from an
-arduous and glorious campaign. For days afterward, in walking along
-the smooth and level pavements, we felt a strong impulse to step high,
-as though still striding over the innumerable fallen logs and boughs
-of the forest, and for weeks our appetites were a source of
-astonishment to our friends and somewhat mortifying to ourselves. More
-than two months had elapsed before Mr. Van Trump fully recovered from
-his hurts. We published at the time short newspaper accounts of the
-ascent, and, although an occasional old Puget Sounder will still
-growl, "They say they went on top of Mount Rainier, but I'd like to
-see them prove it," we were justly regarded as the first, and as I
-believe the only ones up to the present time, who have ever achieved
-the summit of Takhoma.
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[21] Tak-ho'ma or Ta-ho'ma among the Yakimas, Klickitats, Puyallups,
-Nisquallys, and allied tribes of Indians, is the generic term for
-mountain, used precisely as we use the word "mount," as Takhoma
-Wynatchie, or Mount Wynatchie. But they all designate Rainier simply
-as Takhoma, or The Mountain, just as the mountain men used to call it
-the "Old He." (Note in the original article.)
-
-
-
-
-VII. INDIAN WARNING AGAINST DEMONS
-
-BY SLUISKIN, INDIAN GUIDE
-
-
-     The beautiful Sluiskin Falls, at the head of Paradise Valley,
-     have been admired by countless visitors to the Mount Rainier
-     National Park. The name was bestowed upon them by Stevens and
-     Van Trump after their return from what the Indian guide
-     believed was sure death. Before they had left him at the camp
-     near the falls and started to climb over the snow and ice, he
-     delivered an eloquent plea in the Chinook jargon accompanied
-     by natural but effective gestures.
-
-     The speech was remembered and repeated by the white men when
-     they returned among their friends. One of those who committed
-     it to memory was former Congressman M. C. George of Oregon.
-     He furnished a copy. General Stevens in 1915 revised it, but
-     added: "My Chinook I have somewhat lost, so the rendering is
-     probably not so correct as it might be."
-
-     However, the Indian speech and the translation by General
-     Stevens will likely be cherished as here reproduced.
-
-Kloshe nanich, mesika kloshe tilikum. Nika tikigh wawa kopa mesika.
-
-Mesika tikegh klatawa saghalie Takhoma, hyiu pelton. Halo tilikum
-mamook okoke pe mitlite. Hyas tyee mitlite kopa saghalie illahee kopa
-hyiu piah. Wake tikigh tilikum chako kopa yahka illahee.
-
-Ahnkuttie nika papa yahka papa, hyas skookum tyee kopa konaway Yakima
-tilikum, klatawa wake siah yahka la tet. Alta nanich piah chuck pe
-keekwulee tyee chako mimoluse yahka pe hyak klatawa keekwulee saghalie
-illahee, pe hyiu kloshe tumtum. Yahka wake mamook alta, halo ikt
-siwash mamook klatawa.
-
-Kloshe mesika klatawa, kloshe mamook. Hyiu snow, kloshe klatawa snow
-illahee, ahnkuttie nika mimoluse Takhoma mowich kloshe ooakut. Alta
-mesika nanich klatawa hyiu stone, wake kloshe klatawa pe mesika
-teahwit tseepie alta mesika klatawa keekwulee pe mimoluse, keekwulee
-pe mimoluse. Mesika klatawa hyas mesachie snow pe keekwulee hyas
-mesachie illahee yahka Takhoma mowich halo klatawa. Mesika klatawa
-hyas saghalie illahee hyiu stone chako, hyiu stone chako, pe mesika
-mimoluse pe kokshut mesika.
-
-Spose mesika klatawa kopa okoke saghalie illahee alta mesika hyiu
-skookum pe cole wind alta yahka mahsh mesika kopa keekwulee illahee pe
-mimoluse mesika. Spose mesika mitlite mesachie iktas hyas keekwulee
-tyee mitlite Takhoma mesika mimoluse pe mesika mahsh okoke piah chuck.
-
-Wake mesika klatawa!
-
-Mesika mamook nika tumtum kwass, spose mesika klatawa Takhoma
-saghalie. Mesika mimoluse mesika spose klatawa Takhoma. Mesika
-mimoluse pe mesika tilikum sollecks kopa nika.
-
-Wake klatawa!
-
-Wake klatawa!
-
-Spose mesika klatawa, nika mitlite mokst sun pe alta nika klatawa kopa
-Olympia pe wawa kopa mesika tilikum alta mesika mimoluse siah saghalie
-Takhoma. Mesika potlatch pehpah kopa nika mamook kumtuks mesika
-mimoluse wake nika mesachie.
-
-Kopet wawa nika.
-
-
-    TRANSLATION BY GENERAL STEVENS
-
-Listen to me, my good friends. I must talk to you.
-
-Your plan to climb Takhoma is all foolishness. No one can do it and
-live. A mighty chief dwells upon the summit in a lake of fire. He
-brooks no intruders.
-
-Many years ago my grandfather, the greatest and bravest chief of all
-the Yakima, climbed nearly to the summit. There he caught sight of the
-fiery lake and the infernal demon coming to destroy him, and he fled
-down the mountain, glad to escape with his life. Where he failed, no
-other Indian ever dared make the attempt.
-
-At first the way is easy, the task seems light. The broad snowfields,
-over which I have often hunted the mountain goat, offer an inviting
-path. But above them you will have to climb over steep rocks
-overhanging deep gorges where a misstep would hurl you far down--down
-to certain death. You must creep over steep snow banks and cross deep
-crevasses where a mountain goat could hardly keep his footing. You
-must climb along steep cliffs where rocks are continually falling to
-crush you, or knock you off into the bottomless depths.
-
-And if you should escape these perils and reach the great snowy dome,
-then a bitterly cold and furious tempest will sweep you off into space
-like a withered leaf. But if by some miracle you should survive all
-these perils the mighty demon of Takhoma will surely kill you and
-throw you into the fiery lake.
-
-Don't you go!
-
-You make my heart sick when you talk of climbing Takhoma. You will
-perish if you try to climb Takhoma. You will perish and your people
-will blame me.
-
-Don't go!
-
-Don't go!
-
-If you will go, I will wait here two days, and then go to Olympia and
-tell your people that you perished on Takhoma. Give me a paper to them
-to let them know that I am not to blame for your death.
-
-My talk is ended.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: SAMUEL FRANKLIN EMMONS.]
-
-VIII. SECOND SUCCESSFUL ASCENT, 1870
-
-By S. F. EMMONS
-
-
-     Later in the same year, 1870, when Stevens and Van Trump made
-     their first successful ascent, the achievement was also
-     accomplished by S. F. Emmons and A. D. Wilson of the
-     Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel. Samuel
-     Franklin Emmons was born at Boston on March 29, 1841. He died
-     painlessly and unexpectedly on the eve of his seventieth
-     birthday, March 28, 1911.
-
-     George F. Becker gave him a fervent eulogy which appeared in
-     the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining
-     Engineers for 1911. He says: "There is not a geological
-     society or even a mining camp from Arctic Finland to the
-     Transvaal, or from Alaska to Australia, where Emmons's name
-     is not honored and his authority recognized." With all his
-     fame and ability, the biographer declares, he was modest to
-     diffidence.
-
-     His account of the ascent is in the form of a letter to his
-     chief, Clarence King, who published it in the American
-     Journal of Science for March, 1871. It is here reproduced
-     from that source. The photograph of Mr. Emmons was obtained
-     from the United States Geological Survey. It will be noticed
-     that Mr. Emmons calls the mountain Tachoma.
-
-     The Mountain's largest glacier, to which he refers with
-     enthusiasm, was for a long time known by the name of White
-     River which it feeds. It is peculiarly appropriate that that
-     glacier should bear the name given it on the official map of
-     the United States Geological Survey--Emmons Glacier.
-
-The glaciers of Mt. Tachoma, or Rainier as it is more commonly called,
-form the principal sources of four important rivers of Washington
-Territory, viz: the Cowlitz, which flows into the Columbia, and the
-Nisqually, Puyallup and White rivers which empty into Puget Sound. In
-accordance with your instructions, Mr. A. D. Wilson and I visited this
-mountain in the early part of October, 1870, and carried the work of
-making its complete survey, both geological and topographical, as far
-as the lateness of the season and the means at our disposal would
-permit. As the topographical work has not yet been plotted, the
-figures given in my notes are merely estimates, and liable to
-subsequent correction. I herewith transmit an abstract from my notes
-upon the glaciers, embracing those of rather more than half the slopes
-of the mountain, those on the eastern side, from the extreme southern
-to the extreme northern point.
-
-The summit of Tachoma is formed by three peaks, a southern, an
-eastern, and a northwestern: of these the eastern is the highest;
-those on the south and northwest, being apparently a few hundred feet
-lower, are distant about a mile and a half to two miles from this, and
-separated by deep valleys. The eastern peak, which would seem to have
-formed originally the middle of the mountain mass, is a crater about a
-quarter of a mile in diameter of very perfect circular form. Its sides
-are bare for about 60 feet from the rim, below which they are covered
-by a _neve_ having a slope of from 28 deg. to 31 deg. This _neve_
-extending from the shoulders of the southwestern peak to those of the
-northern, a width of several miles, descends to a vertical distance of
-about 2000 feet below the crater rim, an immense sheet of white granular
-ice, having the general form of the mountain surface, and broken only
-by long transverse crevasses, one of those observed being from one to
-two miles in length: it is then divided up by the several jutting
-rock-masses or shoulder of the mountain into the Nisqually, Cowlitz
-and White River glaciers, falling in distinct ice cascades for about
-3000 feet at very steep angles, which sometimes approach the
-perpendicular. From the foot of these cascades flow the glaciers
-proper, at a more gentle angle, growing narrower and sinking deeper
-into the mountain as they descend. From the intervening spurs, which
-slope even more gradually, they receive many tributary glaciers,
-while some of these secondary glaciers form independent streams, which
-only join the main river many miles below the end of the glaciers.
-
-The Nisqually, the narrowest of the three main glaciers above
-mentioned, has the most sinuous course, varying in direction from
-southwest to south, while its lower extremity is somewhat west of
-south of the main peak: it receives most of its tributaries from the
-spur to the east, and has a comparatively regular slope in its whole
-length below the cascades. There are some indications of dirt-bands on
-its surface, when seen from a considerable elevation. Toward its lower
-end it is very much broken up by transverse and longitudinal
-crevasses: this is due to the fact, that it has here cut through the
-more yielding strata of volcanic rock, and come upon an underlying and
-unconformable mass of syenite. The ice front at its base is about 500
-feet in height, and the walls of lava which bound its sides rise from
-1000 to 1500 feet above the surface of the ice, generally in sheer
-precipices.
-
-The bed of the Cowlitz glacier is generally parallel to that of the
-Nisqually, though its curves are less marked: the ice cascades in
-which each originates, fall on either side of a black cliff of bedded
-lava and breccia scarcely a thousand feet in horizontal thickness,
-while the mouths of the glaciers, if I may be allowed the expression,
-are about three miles apart. From the jutting edge of this cliff hang
-enormous icicles from 75 to 100 feet in length. The slope of this
-glacier is less regular, being broken by subordinate ice cascades.
-Like the Nisqually its lower extremity stretches out as it were into
-the forest, the slopes on either side, where not too steep, being
-covered with the mountain fir (_Picea nobilis_) for several hundred
-feet above the level of the ice, while the _Pinus flexilis_ grows at
-least 2000 feet higher than the mouth of the glacier.
-
-The general course of this glacier is south, but at its extremity it
-bends to the eastward, apparently deflected from its course by a
-cliff of older felsitic rock, more resisting than the lava. The
-consequence of this deflection is a predominance of longitudinal over
-transverse crevasses at this point, and an unusually large moraine at
-its western side, which rises several hundred feet above the surface
-of the glaciers, and partakes of the character of both lateral and
-terminal moraines: the main medial moraine of the glacier joins this
-near its lower end. This medial moraine proceeds from the cliff which
-bounds the ice cascade source of the glacier on the north, and brings
-down a dark porous lava which is only found high up on the mountain
-near the crater. The position of the medial moraine on the glacier
-would indicate that at least half its mass came from the spur on the
-east, which is probably the case.
-
-This spur, comprehending the whole mass between the Cowlitz and White
-Rivers glaciers, has the shape of a triangle whose apex is formed by a
-huge pinnacle of rock, which, as its bedding indicates, once formed
-part of the crust of the mountain, but now stands isolated, a jagged
-peak rising about 3000 feet above the glaciers at its foot, so steep
-that neither ice nor snow rest upon it. One of the tributaries to the
-Cowlitz glacier from this spur brings down with it a second medial
-moraine, which is traceable to the mouth of the glacier, though in
-general these tributary glaciers bring no medial moraines.
-
-On the eastern slopes of this spur between the two above named
-glaciers, spread secondary glaciers, frequently of great width, but
-owing to the limited height of their initial points, of inconsiderable
-length. These end generally in perpendicular cliffs overhanging the
-rocky amphitheaters at the heads of the smaller streams which flow
-eastward into the Cowlitz. Looking up from the bottom of one of these
-amphitheaters one sees a semi-circular wall of nearly 2000 feet of
-sheer rock, surmounted by about 500 feet of ice, from under which
-small streams of water issue, falling in silvery cascades on to the
-green bottom below.
-
-A ridge of high jagged peaks connects this spur with the main range of
-the Cascade Mts. in the east, and forms the water-shed between the
-White and Cowlitz rivers. From the connecting saddle one can look
-northward across the brink of six glaciers, which all contribute to
-the White River; of these the first four come from the triangular spur
-already mentioned and are of comparatively little extent. The first
-two are, however, interesting from the vein structure which they
-exhibit; they both originate in an irregularly oblong basin, having
-the shape somewhat of an inclined ellipse, turning on its longer
-diameter, the outlets of the glacier being opposite the foci. Seen
-from a high point the veins form concentric lines generally parallel
-to the sides of the basin; the ends of those towards the center
-gradually bend round, until they join together in the form of a figure
-8, and finally just above the outlets form two small ellipses. They
-thus constantly preserve a direction at right angles to that of the
-pressure exerted, downward by the movement of the ice mass, and upward
-by the resistance to this movement of the rock mass between the two
-outlets.
-
-The main White River glacier, the grandest of the whole,[22] pours
-straight down from the rim of the crater in a northeasterly direction,
-and pushes its extremity farther out into the valley than any of the
-others. Its greatest width on the steep slope of the mountain must be
-four or five miles, narrowing towards its extremity to about a mile
-and a half; its length can be scarcely less than ten miles. The great
-eroding power of glacial ice is strikingly illustrated in this
-glacier, which seems to have cut down and carried away on the
-northeastern side of the mountain, fully a third of its mass. The
-thickness of rock cut away as shown by the walls on either side, and
-the isolated peak at the head of the triangular spur, in which the
-bedding of the successive flows of lava, forming the original mountain
-crust, is very regular and conformable, may be roughly estimated at
-somewhat over a mile. Of the thickness of the ice of the glacier I
-have no data for making estimates, though it may probably be reckoned
-in thousands of feet.
-
-It has two principal medial moraines, which, where crossed by us,
-formed little mountain ridges having peaks nearly 100 feet high. The
-sources of these moraines are cliffs on the steeper mountain slope,
-which seem mere black specks in the great white field above: between
-these are great cascades, and below immense transverse crevasses,
-which we had no time or means to visit. The surface water flows in
-rills and brooks, on the lower portion of the glacier, and _moulins_
-are of frequent occurrence. We visited one double _moulin_ where two
-brooks poured into two circular wells, each about ten feet in
-diameter, joined together at the surface but separated below: we could
-not approach near enough the edge to see the bottom of either, but, as
-stones thrown in sent back no sound, judged they must be very deep.
-
-This glacier forks near the foot of the steeper mountain slope, and
-sends off a branch to the northward, which forms a large stream
-flowing down to join the main stream fifteen or twenty miles below.
-Looking down on this from a high overhanging peak, we could see, as it
-were, under our feet, a little lake of deep blue water, about an
-eighth of a mile in diameter, standing in the brown gravel-covered ice
-of the end of the glacier. On the back of the rocky spur, which
-divides these two glaciers, a secondary glacier has scooped out a
-basin-shaped bed, and sends down an ice stream, having all the
-characteristics of a true glacier, but its ice disappears several
-miles above the mouths of the large glaciers on either side. Were
-nothing known of the movement of glaciers, an instance like this
-would seem to afford sufficient evidence that such movement exists,
-and that gravity is the main motive power. From our northern and
-southern points we could trace the beds of several large glaciers to
-the west of us, whose upper and lower portions only were visible, the
-main body of the ice lying hidden by the high intervening spurs.
-
-Ten large glaciers observed by us, and at least half as many more
-hidden by the mountain from our view, proceeding thus from an isolated
-peak, form a most remarkable system, and one worthy of a careful and
-detailed study.
-
-FOOTNOTE:
-
-[22] It is a pleasure to note that this fine glacier now bears the
-name of Emmons.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: BAILEY WILLIS.
-  From a photograph taken in 1883.]
-
-IX. EXPLORATIONS ON THE NORTHERN SLOPES, 1881-1883
-
-BY BAILEY WILLIS
-
-
-     The Northwest for April, 1883, which was Number 2 of Volume I
-     of that magazine, contained an article by Bailey Willis,
-     Assistant Geologist of the Northern Transcontinental Survey.
-     The article is entitled "Canyons and Glaciers. A Journey to
-     the Ice Fields of Mount Tacoma." Mr. Willis was born at
-     Idlewild-on-Hudson, New York, on May 31, 1857. It speaks well
-     for his skill and training that he should have attained to
-     such a position at twenty-four years of age.
-
-     Since then he has worked out a great career in the United
-     States Geological Survey, in China and in other parts of the
-     world. He is now Professor of Geology at Stanford University.
-     He has kindly revised for this publication the product of his
-     younger years. And there has also been found a photograph of
-     the geologist as he appeared when the surveys were made.
-
-     To this day, people who visit the northern slopes and parks
-     of the mountain become familiar with the Bailey Willis trail
-     and from Moraine Park they get a view of the wonderful Willis
-     Wall named in his honor.
-
-The Puyallup River, which empties into Puget Sound near New Tacoma,
-heads in three glaciers on Mount Tacoma. During the summer months,
-when the ice and snow on the mountains are thawing, the water is
-discolored with mud from the glaciers and carries a large amount of
-sediment out to Commencement Bay. If the Coast Survey charts are
-correct, soundings near the centre of the bay have changed from one
-hundred fathoms and "no bottom" in 1867, to eighty fathoms and "gray
-mud" in 1877. But when the nights in the hills begin to be frosty, the
-stream becomes clearer, and in winter the greater volume of spring
-water gives it a deep green tint.
-
-For twenty miles from the Sound the valley is nearly level. The bluffs
-along the river are of coarse gravel, the soil is alluvium, and a well
-sunk a hundred feet at the little town of Puyallup passed through
-gravel and sand to tide mud and brackish water. From the foot-hills to
-its mouth the river meanders over an old valley of unknown depth, now
-filled with material brought down by its several branches. About
-eighteen miles above its mouth the river forks, and the northern
-portion takes the name of Carbon River; the southern was formerly
-called the South Fork, but it should retain the name of Puyallup to
-its next division far up in the mountains. A short distance above
-their junction both Carbon River and the Puyallup escape from narrow,
-crooked canyons, whose vertical sides, one hundred to three hundred
-feet high, are often but fifty feet apart. From these walls steep,
-heavily timbered slopes rise two hundred to eight hundred feet to the
-summits of the foot-hills. These canyons link the buried river basin
-of the lower stream with the upper river valleys. The latter extend
-from the heads of the canyons to the glaciers. They are apparently the
-deserted beds of mightier ice rivers, now shrunk to the very foot of
-Mount Tacoma.
-
-From New Tacoma the entire course of the Puyallup and part of Carbon
-River are in view. Across Commencement Bay are the tide marshes of the
-delta; back from these salt meadows the light green of the
-cottonwoods, alder and vine-maple mark the river's course, till it is
-lost in the dark monotone of the fir forest. No break in the evergreen
-surface indicates the place of the river canyons; but far out among the
-foot-hills a line of mist hangs over the upper valley of Carbon River,
-which winds away eastward, behind the rising ground, to the northern
-side of Mount Tacoma. Milk Creek, one of its branches, drains the
-northwest spur, and on the western slope the snows accumulate in two
-glaciers, from which flow the North and South Forks of the Puyallup.
-These streams meet in a level valley at the base of three singular
-peaks, and plunge united into the dark gateway of the canyon.
-
-A trip to the grand snow peak from which these rivers spring was
-within a year a very difficult undertaking. There was no trail through
-the dense forest, no supply depot on the route. No horse nor donkey
-could accompany the explorer, who took his blankets and provisions on
-his back, and worked his way slowly among the towering tree trunks,
-through underbrush luxuriant as a tropic jungle. But last summer a
-good horse trail was built from Wilkeson to Carbon River, crossing it
-above the canyon, sixteen miles below the glacier, and during the
-autumn it was extended to the head of the Puyallup. Wilkeson is
-reached by a branch railroad from New Tacoma. It is on a small
-tributary of Carbon River, called Fletts Creek, at a point where the
-brook runs from a narrow gorge into a valley about a quarter of a mile
-wide. Coal mines are opened at this point. The horse trail climbs at
-once from Wilkeson to the first terrace, four hundred feet above the
-valley; then winds a quarter of a mile back through the forest to the
-second ascent of a hundred feet, and then a mile over the level to the
-third. Hidden here beneath the thick covering of moss and undergrowth
-of the primeval forest, fourteen hundred feet above the present ocean
-level, are ancient shore lines of the sea, which has left its trace in
-similar terraces in all the valleys about the Sound.[23] Thence the
-trail extends southward over a level plateau. Carbon River Canyon is
-but half a mile away on the west, and five miles from Wilkeson the
-valley above the canyon is reached. The descent to the river is over
-three miles along the hillside eastward.
-
-From Wilkeson to the river the way is all through a belt of forest,
-where the conditions of growth are very favorable. The fir trees are
-massive, straight and free from limbs to a great height. The larger
-ones, eight to twelve feet in diameter on a level with a man's head,
-carry their size upward, tapering very gradually, till near the top
-they shoot out a thick mat of foliage and the trunk in a few feet
-diminishes to a point. One such was measured; it stands like a huge
-obelisk 180 feet, without a limb, supporting a crown of but forty feet
-more. The more slender trees are, curiously enough, the taller;
-straight, clear shafts rise 100 to 150 feet, topped with foliage whose
-highest needles would look down on Trinity spire. Cedars, hemlocks,
-spruce and white fir mingle with these giants, but they do not compete
-with them in height; they fill in the spaces in the vast colonnades.
-Below is the carpet of deep golden green moss and glossy ferns, and
-the tangle of vines and bushes that cover the fallen trunks of the
-fathers of the forest.
-
-The silence of these mountains is awesome, the solitude oppressive.
-The deer, the bear, the panther are seldom met; they see and hear
-first and silently slip away, leaving only their tracks to prove their
-numbers. There are very few birds. Blue jays, and their less showy
-gray, but equally impudent, cousins, the "whiskey jacks," assemble
-about a camp; but in passing through the forest one may wander a whole
-day and see no living thing save a squirrel, whose shrill chatter is
-startling amid the silence. The wind plays in the tree tops far
-overhead, but seldom stirs the branches of the smaller growth. The
-great tree trunks stand immovable. The more awful is it when a gale
-roars through the timber; when the huge columns sway in unison and
-groan with voices strangely human. It is fearful to lie in the utter
-darkness of a stormy night, listening to the pulsating rush of the
-wind, the moan of the forest and the crash of uprooted giants upon
-the ground--listening with bated breath for the report which may
-foretell the fall of yonder tall decaying shaft, whose thick, deep
-cleft bark blazed so brightly on the now dying camp fire. The effect
-of one such storm is seen in Carbon River Valley, above and below
-where the trail crosses. The blast followed the stream and the
-mountain slope on the south side; over an area eight miles long and a
-half a mile to a mile wide the forest is prostrate. Single trees stand
-gaunt and charred by a recent fire, but their comrades are piled like
-jackstraws, the toys of the tornado. Over and under each other they
-lie, bent and interlaced, twenty, thirty feet deep. Pigmy man strained
-his eyes to see their tops, when they stood erect; now he vainly
-stands on tiptoe to look over them in their fallen majesty.
-
-To the head of Carbon River from the bridge, on which the trail
-crosses it, is about sixteen miles. The rocky bed of the river is 100
-to 200 yards wide, a gray strip of polished boulders between sombre
-mountain slopes, that rise sharply from it. The stream winds in
-ever-shifting channels among the stones. About six miles above the
-bridge Milk Creek dashes down from its narrow gorge into the river.
-The high pinnacles of the spur from which it springs are hidden by the
-nearer fir-clad ridges. Between their outlines shines the northern
-peak of Mount Tacoma, framed in dark evergreen spires. Its snow fields
-are only three miles distant, but Carbon River has come a long way
-round. For six miles eastward the undulating lines of the mountains
-converge, then those on the north suddenly cross the view, where the
-river canyon turns sharply southward.
-
-Three miles from this turn is Crescent Mountain, its summit a
-semi-circular gray wall a thousand feet high.[24] At sunset the light
-from the west streams across the head of Milk Creek and Carbon River,
-illuminating these cliffs as with the glow of volcanic fires, while
-twilight deepens in the valley. The next turn of the river brings
-Mount Tacoma again in view. Close on the right a huge buttress towers
-up, cliff upon cliff, 2,500 feet, a single one of the many imposing
-rock masses that form the Ragged Spur between Carbon River and Milk
-Creek. The more rapid fall of the river, the increasing size of the
-boulders, show the nearness of the glacier. Turning eastward to the
-south of Crescent Mountain, you pass the group of trees that hide it.
-
-This first sight is a disappointment. The glacier is a very dirty one.
-The face is about 300 feet long and thirty to forty feet high. It
-entirely fills the space between two low cliffs of polished gray
-rock. Throughout the mass the snows of successive winters are
-interstratified with the summers' accumulations of earth and rock.
-From a dark cavern, whose depths have none of the intense blue color
-so beautiful in crevasses in clear ice, Carbon River pours out, a
-muddy torrent. The top of the glacier is covered with earth about six
-inches deep, contributed to its mass by the cliffs on either side and
-by an island of rock, where a few pines grow, entirely surrounded by
-the ice river. The eye willingly passes over this dirty mass to the
-gleaming northeast spur of the mountain, where the sunlight lingers
-after the chill night wind has begun to blow from the ice fields.
-
-The disappointment of this view of the glacier leaves one unprepared
-for the beauty of that from Crescent Mountain. The ascent from a point
-a short distance down the river is steep, but not dangerous. The lower
-slopes are heavily timbered, but at an elevation of 4,000 feet juniper
-and dwarf pine are dotted over the grassy hillside. Elk, deer and
-white mountain goats find here a pleasant pasture; their trails look
-like well trodden sheep paths on a New England hill. A curious
-badger-like animal, sitting erect on his hind legs, greets one with a
-long shrill whistle that would make a schoolboy envious, but trots
-quickly away on nearer approach. The crest of the southwest rim of the
-amphitheater is easily gained, and the grandeur of the view bursts
-upon you suddenly. Eastward are the cliffs and canyons of the Cascade
-Range. Northward forest-covered hill and valley reach to Mount Baker
-and the snow peaks that break the horizon line. Westward are the blue
-waters of the Sound, the snow-clad Olympics and a faint soft line
-beyond; it may be the ocean or a fog bank above it. Southward, 9,000
-feet above you, so near you must throw your head back to see its
-summit, is grand Mount Tacoma; its graceful northern peak piercing the
-sky, it soars single and alone. Whether touched by the glow of early
-morning or gleaming in bright noonday, whether rosy with sunset light
-or glimmering ghost-like, in the full moon, whether standing out clear
-and cloudless or veiled among the mists it weaves from the warm south
-winds, it is always majestic and inspiring, always attractive and
-lovely. It is the symbol of an awful power clad in beauty.
-
-This northern slope of the mountain is very steep, and the
-consolidated snow begins its downward movement from near the top.
-Little pinnacles of rock project through the mass and form eddies in
-the current. A jagged ridge divides it, and part descends into the
-deep unexplored canyon of White River, probably the deepest chasm in
-the flanks of Mount Tacoma. The other part comes straight on toward
-the southern side of Crescent Mountain, a precipice 2,000 feet high;
-diverted, it turns in graceful flowing curves, breaks into a thousand
-ice pyramids and descends into the narrow pass, where its beauty is
-hidden under the ever-falling showers of rock.
-
-This rim you stand upon is very narrow; a hundred feet wide, sometimes
-less, between the cliff that rises 2,000 feet above the glacier and
-the descent of a thousand feet on the other side. Snow lies upon part
-of this slope; stones, started from the edge, leap in lengthening
-bounds over its firm surface and plunge with a splash into the throat
-of the lakelet that lies in the amphitheater. The ice slope, dipping
-into the clear water, passes from purest white to deepest blue as it
-passes out of sight in the depths of the basin.
-
-A two days' visit to this trackless region sufficed only to see a
-small part of the magnificent scenery. White River Canyon, the cliffs
-of Ragged Spur, the northern slope of Mount Tacoma, where the climber
-is always tempted upward, might occupy him for weeks. Across the snow
-fields, where Milk Creek rises, is the glacier of the North Fork of
-the Puyallup, and the end of the horse trail we left at Carbon River
-is within six miles of its base. When a trail is built up Carbon
-River, the way across this divide will be found, and, with comfortable
-stopping places on the two rivers, the tourist can pass a delightful
-week amid scenery we now cross the ocean to Switzerland to see.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[23] The terraces to which reference is here made are not the work of
-the sea, but of lakes whose waters gathered between the mountain
-slopes and retreating glaciers of the ice period. See the article by
-H. I. Bretz. Geol. Survey of Wash., Bull. 8, 1912.
-
-[24] The amphitheaters which the young geologist mistook for craters
-are now known to be glacier basins eroded by ice.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: MAJOR EDWARD STURGIS INGRAHAM.]
-
-X. DISCOVERY OF CAMP MUIR, 1888
-
-BY MAJOR E. S. INGRAHAM
-
-
-     Major Edward Sturgis Ingraham has visited the mountain
-     annually since 1888. He has ascended to the summit seven
-     times and has spent as many nights in the crater. It was he
-     who gave to a number of the prominent features of the Park
-     their beautiful and enduring names.
-
-     On his first ascent in 1888 the party included John Muir,
-     most famous naturalist of the Pacific Slope. Since he found a
-     sheltered pumice patch and suggested camping there for the
-     night, Major Ingraham called it Camp Muir, now well known to
-     all climbers.
-
-     Major Ingraham prepared an account of the ascent which was
-     published in The Puget Sound Magazine for October, 1888. That
-     magazine has long since ceased to be issued. It was edited by
-     the editor of this present work, who has rescued the article
-     from the rare and almost forgotten files.
-
-     After an extensive career as superintendent of schools,
-     printer, militia officer and miner, Major Ingraham has been
-     devoting his later years to the boy scout work, in which his
-     love for the mountains plays an important part.
-
-     A glacier on the mountain bears the name of Ingraham. How
-     that came to be, is related by him as follows: "One time when
-     I was on the mountain encamped at the Camp of the Clouds,
-     Professor I. C. Russell and another man, both in their shirt
-     sleeves, came tottering into my camp at early morning. They
-     had been caught upon the summit and had spent a shivering
-     night in the crater. I treated them the best I knew how and
-     they departed. When their maps came out I found that a
-     beautiful glacier had been named for me--Ingraham Glacier."
-
-Mount Rainier, one of Nature's masterpieces, is the most striking
-object of grandeur and beauty amidst the unsurpassed scenery of
-Washington Territory. Occupying nearly a central position
-geographically in the Territory, it is alike an object of pride to the
-inhabitants of the Great Plain of the Columbia and to the dwellers
-on Puget Sound. There are other peaks that command our attention, but
-it is to the old monarch that we turn with unfeigned pride and
-exclaim, "Behold a masterpiece!"
-
-The height of Mount Rainier, as estimated by triangulation, is 14,444
-feet. This height was verified by barometer in the hands of one party
-that reached the summit in the month of August of the present year.
-From many points of view it appears a single peak; but in reality it
-is composed of three peaks of nearly the same height. These peaks may
-be designated as northern, crater and southern. They are not in direct
-line, but occupy apexes of an obtuse-angled triangle. The northern
-peak is a cone, with its apex about two miles from the summit of
-crater peak; the southern peak is somewhat flattened on top, and is
-about one and one-half miles from crater peak. Crater peak, as the
-name suggests, has two large craters, with well-defined rims--one
-sloping slightly towards the northeast, and the other towards the
-southwest. The culminating point of this peak is a sugarloaf-shape
-mass of pure snow, about one hundred feet above all adjacent points.
-The northern and southern peaks are inaccessible, except from crater
-peak, owing to the precipitous condition of their sides, which are so
-steep that snow will not cling to them except in small patches. Down
-these sides, during some seasons of the year, avalanches go thundering
-almost hourly with a roar that makes the tourist shudder with fear.
-
-The volcanic condition of Mount Rainier is everywhere apparent. For
-miles before the base is reached vast quantities of ashes, forming the
-greater part of the soil of that region, plainly tell of extensive
-eruptions; the immediate foothills are covered with masses of red and
-black lava; while pumice is found in great abundance upon some of the
-ridges. All these evidences suggest that, long ages ago, Rainier was
-the scene of volcanic activity of immense magnitude. Ascend to the
-top, behold the two well-defined craters, with their rims perfect;
-descend those walls, and try to count the many jets of steam
-constantly puffing forth their sulphurous odors, and one is led to
-believe that Rainier has been active at a comparatively recent period.
-
-Mount Rainier, with its many glaciers, is the source of the principal
-rivers of Western Washington. From the summit of the three peaks the
-snow forges its way downward until it is compressed into ice; the ice
-in turn is compressed until it assumes that peculiar blue tint that
-characterizes ice under great pressure. These ice streams move slowly
-down the valleys, about one foot in twenty-four hours, conforming to
-their beds. Where the bed is inclined, the glacier breaks into
-innumerable masses, somewhat regular, with great yawning crevasses
-between. While crossing one of the White River glaciers below an
-ice-fall I had to stand clear of a dozen bowlders that came rolling
-down from the brink, telling very forcibly that the glacier was
-moving. These glaciers plow their way down the valleys to an elevation
-of between 3000 and 4000 feet, and there dissolve into water. Some of
-them terminate in a gentle incline; others present a high wall of
-clear ice, with the river issuing from an immense cave; still others
-deposit vast quantities of stones and earth, forming what is called
-the "terminal moraine." The glaciers of the northern peak, five in
-number, form the Puyallup and its principal tributary, the Carbon; the
-twelve glaciers of the eastern slope of crater peak yield the icy
-waters of the White and Cowlitz; the glaciers of the southern peak
-form the several sources of the Nisqually. The glaciers are from one
-to two miles in width, and from six to twelve miles in length. Like
-the rivers which they form, they themselves have tributaries. When two
-glaciers unite, their inside lateral moraines join and form a medial
-moraine.
-
-The ascent of Mount Rainier is difficult and dangerous. Three
-different parties have reached the summit from the south side--namely,
-Hazard Stevens and P. B. Van Trump in 1870; P. B. Van Trump, James
-Longmire and Mr. Bailey, in 1883; and a party of seven, of which the
-writer was the projector, in August of the present year. A party of
-three from Snohomish claim to have reached the summit by the northeast
-side in the summer of 1884. Several others and myself have made two
-attempts to reach the summit from that side, but came to an impassable
-crevasse at an elevation of about 14,000 feet on both occasions.
-
-On the morning of the 10th of last August a party of eight gentlemen
-left Seattle for Yelm with the necessary equipments and provisions for
-a two weeks' sojourn among the eternal hills. At Yelm we secured the
-necessary horses to convey our outfit to the snow line on the south
-side. The day at Yelm was clear and beautiful--Mount Rainier never
-looked so grand before. Its three peaks stood out in bold relief
-against the sky, while its walls of ice sparkled with resplendent
-beauty. During the morning and evening the play of colors around its
-base, extending in graduated bands far towards the zenith, made our
-artist groan aloud because of his inability to transfer them to
-canvas. It took us three days from the time we left Yelm to reach the
-Longmire Mineral Springs. These springs were discovered by Mr. James
-Longmire in 1883. They number twenty-five or more, and are heavily
-charged with carbon dioxide and other gases that combine to make the
-water a very pleasant drink as well as a health-giving beverage.
-Around each spring is an incrustation of soda compounds deposited by
-the water. One spring, over which a rude bath-house has been
-constructed, pours forth a large quantity of water at a temperature of
-85 deg. Fahr. A bath in this water is pleasant and invigorating. The
-view from the springs is very beautiful. On the right is the swift
-flowing Nisqually; on the left, a solid white wall of basaltic rock
-rises to a height of nearly one thousand feet; while in front, seeming
-only a mile away, Mount Rainier stands in silent majesty. There were
-several visitors at the springs. In the near future these springs will
-be sought by hundreds of invalids. We would gladly have remained at the
-springs for several days, but, with the old monarch so near, we could
-not delay. The next day found all of the party but two on the tramp.
-That day's work was to ascend to Camp of the Clouds, distant about
-five miles from the springs. It was no small task. The trail is steep
-and rugged, and has been traveled but little. About three miles from
-the springs it crosses the Nisqually. From that point for a mile it is
-one of the steepest trails I have ever traveled. When the top was
-reached we were regaled by the sight and odor of flowers that
-surpassed description in odor and variety. From this point to Camp of
-the Clouds, two miles further on, our path was literally strewed with
-beautiful flowers. This entire region is a paradise for the botanist,
-and the flowers deserve a much fuller description.
-
-At last, after four days of hard tramping, we have reached permanent
-camp at an elevation of about 6,000 feet. Here we unpack, pitch our
-tent and turn our jaded horses loose. Here we wish all our friends
-with us, and here we would gladly remain a month in deep enjoyment of
-the grandeur and beauty around us, but our time is limited and our
-friends far away.
-
-Monday noon, August 14th, we carefully prepare for the ascent. It is
-light artillery now--a pair of blankets, a small supply of provisions,
-principally chocolate, and our Alpine staves complete the outfit. With
-cheerful hearts and steady nerves we begin the climb. It is our
-purpose to ascend to a height of about 10,000 feet and there make camp
-for the night. Soon we pass the timber line. Our pathway now lies over
-the eternal snow, broken only by a projecting spur of the mountain.
-After five hours of hard climbing, we come to a ridge covered with
-sand and pumice. From the presence of the latter we know it to be a
-spot comparatively free from wind, for, on account of the lightness of
-the pumice, it is easily blown away. Here we decide to camp. Two by
-two we go to work preparing our beds. This we do by clearing away the
-loose stones from a space about three by six feet, stirring the sand
-up with our pikes and making a wall of rocks around the cleared place.
-After a half hour's toil we declare our beds prepared. Hastily
-partaking of a little chocolate and hardtack, we "turn in," although
-the hour is early; but the wind is rising and the sharp, stinging cold
-is upon us. After passing a miserable night, we break camp at 4:30
-o'clock. Throwing aside our blankets and part of our provisions, we
-begin the final ascent. Our course takes us along the crest of a rocky
-ridge and beneath a perpendicular wall of basalt over a thousand feet
-in height. Here the courage of one of the party failed him, and he
-concluded to go no farther. The most dangerous part of the ascent is
-along the base of this cliff. The earth pitches at an angle of 35 deg.
-from its base, and at three particular places this incline is not over
-six feet wide, ending in a perpendicular jump-off of fifteen hundred
-feet to the Nisqually glacier below. After a half hour's crouching and
-crawling we get past this dangerous part of our undertaking. We must
-now ascend almost perpendicularly one thousand feet to the top of this
-wall. Ordinarily steps have to be cut in the snow and ice, but on this
-occasion the snow lay in little drifts that served as steps. Up this
-ladder of snow and ice, prepared by the winds, we climb, pausing every
-few steps "to take breath." The top is reached at last. Upon
-consulting our barometer we find we are 12,000 feet above the sea
-level. A halt is ordered to put six steel brads in the sole of each
-boot, to prevent us from slipping on the ice and hard snow that we
-must now encounter.
-
-From the crest of this cliff the incline of the mountain to the summit
-is less than at any other point and consequently fewer crevasses, the
-terror of the mountaineer. Bracing ourselves for the final effort, we
-resumed the march. On account of the continuous ascent and the rarity
-of the atmosphere we have to rest every twenty or thirty steps. Still
-ascending, avoiding the crevasses by a zigzag path, we at last reach
-the last one, or what might more properly be called the first
-crevasse. This crevasse is formed by the first breaking off of the
-snow as it begins to slide down the mountain. The upper side is often
-a perpendicular wall of hard snow from ten to fifty feet high. This
-same crevasse, for it extends half way round the mountain, prevented
-our further progress on two previous occasions, when attempting to
-reach the summit from the northeast slope. Luckily on this occasion we
-found a bridge that afforded us a safe passage over. From this point
-we can see a clear path to the summit. Upward we climb to where the
-rim of the crater seems but a few hundred feet away. Look! there is a
-jet of steam right ahead; one grand effort and I sit upon the rim of
-the crater. I shout a word of triumph which sounds strangely shrill to
-my companions below, who, one by one, soon gain my exalted position.
-The feeling of triumph that filled the heart of each one as he gained
-that sublime height can be realized by no one who has not been in a
-similar position.
-
-Space precludes an extensive description of the view from our elevated
-position; Washington, Oregon and the Sound and sea lay below us. A
-roll of clouds extending entirely around the horizon somewhat
-obstructed the prospect, yet added to the beauty of the scene. Mts.
-Baker, Adams, Hood, St. Helens, and Jefferson appeared above the
-clouds; the Cascade and Olympic ranges, Puget Sound and numerous river
-basins appeared below, while the smoke of distant cities completed
-the scene. Reluctantly turning from this grand panorama of nature, I
-gave my attention to an examination of the craters. There are two,
-elliptical in shape, and from one-half to three-fourths of a mile
-across. Their rims are bare outside, and in to an average depth of
-thirty feet from the crest. This is owing to the internal heat and
-escaping steam, which issues from a hundred jets within the
-circumference of the craters. The steam escapes in intermittent jets
-from little orifices about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The
-walls of the crater in some places are quite warm, all of which
-plainly indicates that Mount Rainier is a volcano, not extinct but
-slumbering.
-
-The amount of steam that escapes from the crater at any one time
-varies with the atmospheric pressure. In fact, Mount Rainier is a
-reliable barometer, foretelling a storm with certainty. Everyone who
-has noted the appearance of the mountain from time to time is familiar
-with the peculiar white cloud that is frequently seen suspended just
-above the summit, while no other clouds are in sight. This peculiar
-cloud, caused by the condensation of escaping steam, is called
-"Rainier's cap," and is the forerunner of a storm. There was
-considerable snow in the craters, but it had the appearance of having
-recently fallen. I believe, should it cease to snow for two or three
-months, the crater would become entirely bare inside; but this is not
-possible, for it snows on Mount Rainier even in midsummer.
-
-Our party spent about two hours on the summit. We would gladly have
-tarried longer, but the clouds were gradually approaching from all
-points, and we did not care to take the chance of spending a night in
-the crater. Our descent in some places was even more dangerous than
-the ascent, owing to the falling rock. I recall with a shudder the
-successful dodging of a shower of bowlders on their way down from the
-top of a cliff two thousand feet above. They were singing as merrily
-as a cannon ball just shot from a thirty-pounder as they passed my
-head.
-
-Our party left the summit about two o'clock, and some of us reached
-"Camp of the Clouds" by six o'clock, descending in four hours the same
-distance that we were twelve hours in covering on the upward climb.
-The names of the party making this very successful ascent are: John
-Muir, P. B. Van Trump, A. C. Warner, D. W. Bass, N. O. Booth, C. V.
-Piper and E. S. Ingraham.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: PROFESSOR ISRAEL COOK RUSSELL.]
-
-XI. EXPLORING THE MOUNTAIN AND ITS GLACIERS, 1896
-
-BY PROFESSOR I. C. RUSSELL
-
-
-     The name of Professor Israel Cook Russell is permanently
-     associated with Mount Rainier. He was one of America's noted
-     geologists. He was born near Garrattsville, New York, on
-     December 10, 1852. Graduating from the University of the City
-     of New York in 1872, he at once began his career in science.
-     In 1874, he was a member of the United States party at
-     Queenstown, New Zealand, to observe the transit of Venus.
-     From 1878 to 1892, he wrought valuable work in geology for
-     the United States Geological Survey. This took him to Alaska
-     and various other parts of the country. He succeeded
-     Alexander Winchell as Professor of Geology in the University
-     of Michigan in 1892 and continued to spend his summers in
-     field work. One of his trips was to the West Indies during
-     the eruption of Mount Pelee.
-
-     Most of his summer trips were devoted to the mountains and
-     valleys of Oregon and Washington. It was during one of these
-     trips, in the summer of 1896, that he made the explorations
-     of Mount Rainier the extensive record of which, fully
-     illustrated, appeared in the Eighteenth Annual Report of the
-     United States Geological Survey for 1896-1897. The essential
-     portions of that record are here reproduced by permission of
-     Director George Otis Smith of the Survey, who also kindly
-     furnished a portrait of his former colleague.
-
-     Professor Russell was honored with the Doctor of Laws degree
-     by his alma mater and by the University of Wisconsin. He died
-     suddenly at the zenith of his power in 1906, leaving a widow,
-     Mrs. J. Augusta (Olmstead) Russell and three daughters. An
-     earnest appreciation of his character and work by G. K.
-     Gilbert was published in The Journal of Geology, Volume XIV,
-     number 8, November-December, 1906. When The Mountaineers Club
-     ascended the mountain in 1909 they named in his honor Russell
-     Cliff, a majestic crest near the summit and overlooking the
-     Winthrop and Emmons glaciers, and later a glacier on the
-     northern slope, near Carbon Glacier, was named Russell
-     Glacier.
-
-The reconnaissance during which the notes for this essay were obtained
-began [1896] at Carbonado, a small coal-mining town about 20 miles
-southeast of Tacoma, with which it is connected by a branch of the
-Union [Northern] Pacific Railroad. Carbonado is situated on the border
-of the unbroken forest. Eastward to beyond the crest of the Cascade
-Mountains is a primeval forest, the density and magnificence of which
-it is impossible adequately to describe to one who is not somewhat
-familiar with the Puget Sound region. From Carbonado a trail, cut
-through the forest under the direction of Willis in 1881, leads to
-Carbon River, a stream flowing from Mount Rainier, which it formerly
-crossed by a bridge that is now destroyed, and thence continues to the
-west of the mountain to Busywild. A branch of this trail leads
-eastward to the north side of the mountain, making accessible a
-beautiful region near the timber line, known as Spray Park.
-
-Our party consisted of Bailey Willis, geologist in charge, George Otis
-Smith and myself, assistants, and F. H. Ainsworth, Fred Koch, William
-B. Williams, and Michael Autier, camp hands.
-
-From Carbonado we proceeded with pack animals along the Willis trail,
-already mentioned, to the crossing of Carbon River. We then left the
-main trail and went up the right bank of the river by a trail recently
-cut as far as the mouth of Chenuis Creek. At that locality our party
-was divided; Willis and myself, taking blankets, rations, etc., and
-crossing the river, proceeded up its bowlder-strewn left bank to the
-foot of Carbon Glacier. The remainder of the party cut a trail along
-the right bank, and in the course of a few days succeeded in making a
-depot of supplies near where the river emerges from beneath the
-extremity of the glacier. The pack train was then taken back to near
-Carbonado for pasture.
-
-The tramp from Carbonado to the foot of the Carbon Glacier was full
-of interest, as it revealed the characteristics of a great region,
-covered with a dense forest, which is a part of the deeply dissected
-Tertiary peneplain surrounding Mount Rainier. The rocks from Carbonado
-to Carbon River crossing are coal bearing. Extensive mines are worked
-at Carbonado, and test shafts have been opened at a few localities
-near the trail which we followed. At Carbonado the river flows through
-a steep-sided canyon about 300 feet deep. Near where the Willis trail
-crosses the stream the canyon broadens, is deeply filled with
-bowlders, and is bordered by forest-covered mountains fully 3,000 feet
-in elevation. On account of the dense forests, the scenery throughout
-the region traversed is wild and picturesque. At a few localities
-glimpses were obtained of the great snow-clad dome of Mount Rainier,
-rising far over the intervening tree-covered foothills.
-
-The forests of the Puget Sound region are the most magnificent on the
-continent. The moist atmosphere and genial climate have led to a
-wonderfully luxuriant growth, especially of evergreens. Huge fir trees
-and cedars stand in close-set ranks and shoot upward straight and
-massive to heights which frequently exceed 250 feet, and sometimes are
-even in excess of 300 feet. The trees are frequently 10 to 12 feet or
-more in diameter at the height of one's head and rise in massive
-columns without a blemish to the first branches, which are in many
-instances 150 feet from the ground. The soil beneath the mighty trees
-is deeply covered with mosses of many harmonious tints, and decked
-with rank ferns, whose gracefully bending fronds attain a length of 6
-to 8 feet. Lithe, slender maples, termed vine-maples from their habit
-of growth, are plentiful, especially along the small water courses. In
-many places the broad leaves of the devil's club (_Fatsia horrida_)
-give an almost tropical luxuriance to the shadowy realm beneath the
-lofty canopies formed by the firs and cedars.
-
-     [A quotation from Bailey Willis is omitted, as the whole
-     article is published in this work--Chapter IX.]
-
-The mighty forest through which we traveled from Carbonado to the
-crossing of Carbon River extends over the country all about Mount
-Rainier and clothes the sides of the mountain to a height of about
-6,000 feet. From distant points of view it appears as an unbroken
-emerald setting for the gleaming, jewel-like summit of the
-snow-covered peak.
-
-In spite of the many attractions of the forest, it was with a sense of
-relief that we entered the canyon of Carbon River and had space to see
-about us. The river presents features of geographical interest,
-especially in the fact that it is filling in its valley. The load of
-stone contributed by the glaciers, from which the stream comes as a
-roaring turbid flood, is greater than it can sweep along, and much of
-its freight is dropped by the way. The bottom of the canyon is a
-desolate, flood-swept area of rounded bowlders, from 100 to 200 yards
-broad. The stream channel is continually shifting, and is frequently
-divided by islands of bowlders, heaped high during some period of
-flood. Many of the stream channels leading away from Mount Rainier are
-known to have the characteristics of the one we ascended, and show
-that the canyons were carved under different conditions from those now
-prevailing. The principal amount of canyon cutting must have been done
-before the streams were overloaded with debris contributed by
-glaciers--that is, the deep dissection of the lower slope of Mount
-Rainier and of the platform on which it stands must have preceded the
-Glacial epoch.
-
-After a night's rest in the shelter of the forest, lulled to sleep by
-the roar of Carbon River in its tumultuous course after its escape
-from the ice caverns, we climbed the heavily moraine-covered extremity
-of Carbon Glacier. At night, weary with carrying heavy packs over the
-chaos of stones that cover the glaciers, we slept on a couch of moss
-beautified with lovely blossoms, almost within the spray of Philo
-Falls, a cataract of clear icy water that pours into the canyon of
-Carbon Glacier from snow fields high up on the western wall of the
-canyon.
-
-I will ask the reader to defer the study of the glaciers until we have
-made a reconnaissance of the mountain and climbed to its summit, as he
-will then be better prepared to understand the relation of the
-glaciers, neves, and other features with which it will be necessary to
-deal. In this portion of our fireside explorations let us enjoy a
-summer outing, deferring until later the more serious task of
-questioning the glaciers.
-
-From Philo Falls we ascended still higher, by following partially
-snow-filled lanes between the long lateral moraines that have been
-left by the shrinking of Carbon Glacier, and found three parallel,
-sharp-crested ridges about a mile long and from 100 to 150 feet high,
-made of bowlders and stones of all shapes, which record the former
-positions of the glacier. Along the western border of the oldest and
-most westerly of these ridges there is a valley, perhaps 100 yards
-wide, intervening between the abandoned lateral moraine and the
-western side of the valley, which rises in precipices to
-forest-covered heights at least 1,000 feet above. Between the morainal
-ridges there are similar narrow valleys, each of which at the time of
-our visit, July 15, was deeply snow-covered. The ridges are clothed
-with spruce and cedar trees, together with a variety of shrubs and
-flowering annuals. The knolls rising through the snow are gorgeous
-with flowers. A wealth of purple Bryanthus, resembling purple heather,
-and of its constant companion, if not near relative, the Cassiope,
-with white, waxy bells, closely simulating the white heather, make
-glorious the mossy banks from which the lingering snow has but just
-departed. Acres of meadow land, still soft with snow water and musical
-with rills and brooks flowing in uncertain courses over the deep, rich
-turf, are beautiful with lilies, which seemed woven in a cloth of gold
-about the borders of the lingering snow banks. We are near the upper
-limit of timber growth, where park-like openings, with thickets of
-evergreens, give a special charm to the mountain side. The morainal
-ridge nearest the glacier is forest-covered on its outer slope, while
-the descent to the glacier is a rough, desolate bank of stones and
-dirt. The glacier has evidently but recently shrunk away from this
-ridge, which was formed along its border by stones brought from a bold
-cliff that rises sheer from the ice a mile upstream. Standing on the
-morainal ridge overlooking the glacier, one has to the eastward an
-unobstructed view of the desolate and mostly stone and dirt covered
-ice. Across the glacier another embankment can be seen, similar to the
-one on the west, and, like it, recording a recent lowering of the
-surface of the glacier of about 150 feet. Beyond the glacier are
-extremely bold and rugged mountains, scantily clothed with forests
-nearly to their summits. The position of the timber line shows that
-the bare peaks above are between 8,000 and 9,000 feet high. Looking
-southward, up the glacier, we have a glimpse into the wild
-amphitheater in which it has its source. The walls of the great hollow
-in the mountain side rise in seemingly vertical precipices about 4,000
-feet high. Far above is a shining, snow-covered peak, which Willis
-named the Liberty Cap. It is one of the culminating points of Mount
-Rainier, but not the actual summit. Its elevation is about 14,300 feet
-above the sea. Toward the west the view is limited by the
-forest-covered morainal ridges near at hand and by the precipitous
-slopes beyond, which lead to a northward-projecting spur of Mount
-Rainier, known as the Mother Mountains. This, our first view of Mount
-Rainier near at hand, has shown that the valley down which Carbon
-Glacier flows, as well as the vast amphitheater in which it has its
-source, is sunk in the flanks of the mountain. To restore the northern
-slope of the ancient volcano as it existed when the mountain was young
-we should have to fill the depression in which the glacier lies at
-least to the height of its bordering ridges. On looking down the
-glacier we see it descending into a vast gulf bordered by steep
-mountains, which rise at least 3,000 feet above its bottom. This is
-the canyon through which the water formed by the melting of the
-glacier escapes. To restore the mountain this great gulf would also
-have to be filled. Clearly the traveler in this region is surrounded
-by the records of mighty changes. Not only does he inquire how the
-volcanic mountain was formed, but how it is being destroyed. The study
-of the glaciers will do much toward making clear the manner in which
-the once smooth slopes have been trenched by radiating valleys,
-leaving mountain-like ridges between.
-
-Another line of inquiry which we shall find of interest as we advance
-is suggested by the recent shrinkage of Carbon Glacier. Are all of the
-glaciers that flow from the mountain wasting away? If we find this to
-be the case, what climatic changes does it indicate?
-
-From our camp among the morainal ridges by the side of Carbon Glacier
-we made several side trips, each of which was crowded with
-observations of interest. One of these excursions, made by Mr. Smith
-and myself, was up the snow fields near camp; past the prominent
-outstanding pinnacles known as the Guardian Rocks, one red and the
-other black; and through Spray Park, with its thousands of groves of
-spire-like evergreens, with flower-enameled glades between. On the
-bare, rocky shoulder of the mountain, where the trees now grow, we
-found the unmistakable grooves and striations left by former glaciers.
-The lines engraved in the rock lead away from the mountain, showing
-that even the boldest ridges were formerly ice-covered. Our route took
-us around the head of the deep canyon through which flows Cataract
-Creek. In making this circuit we followed a rugged saw-tooth crest,
-and had some interesting rock-climbing. Finally, the sharp divide
-between Cataract Creek and a small stream flowing westward to Crater
-Lake was reached, and a slide on a steep snow slope took us quickly
-down to where the flowers made a border of purple and gold about the
-margins of the snow. Soon we were in the forest, and gaining a rocky
-ledge among the trees, could look down on Crater Lake, deeply sunk in
-shaggy mountains which still preserve all of their primitive freshness
-and beauty. Snow lay in deep drifts beneath the shelter of the forest,
-and the lake was ice-covered except for a few feet near the margin.
-This was on July 20. I have been informed that the lake is usually
-free of ice before this date, but the winter preceding our visit was
-of more than usual severity, the snowfall being heavy, and the coming
-of summer was therefore much delayed.
-
-The name Crater Lake implies that its waters occupy a volcanic crater.
-Willis states that Nature has here placed an emerald seal on one of
-Pluto's sally ports; but that the great depression now water-filled is
-a volcanic crater is not so apparent as we might expect. The basin is
-in volcanic rock, but none of the characteristics of a crater due to
-volcanic explosions can be recognized. The rocks, so far as I saw
-them, are massive lavas, and not fragmental scoriae or other products
-of explosive eruptions. On the bold, rounded rock ledges down which we
-climbed in order to reach the shore, there were deep glacial scorings,
-showing that the basin was once deeply filled with moving ice. My
-observations were not sufficiently extended to enable me to form an
-opinion as to the origin of the remarkable depression, but whatever
-may have been its earlier history, it has certainly been profoundly
-modified by ice erosion.
-
-Following the lake shore southward, groping our way beneath the thick,
-drooping branches which dip in the lake, we reached the notch in the
-rim of the basin through which the waters escape and start on their
-journey to Mowich River and thence to the sea. We there found the
-branch of the Willis trail leading to Spray Park, and turned toward
-camp. Again we enjoyed the luxury of following a winding pathway
-through silent colonnades formed by the moss-grown trunks of noble
-trees. On either side of the trail worn in the brown soil the ferns
-and flowering shrubs were bent over in graceful curves, and at times
-filled the little-used lane, first traversed fifteen years before.
-
-The trail led us to Eagle Cliff, a bold, rocky promontory rising as
-does El Capitan from the Yosemite, 1,800 feet from the forest-lined
-canyon of Mowich River. From Eagle Cliff one beholds the most
-magnificent view that is to be had in all the wonderful region about
-Mount Rainier. The scene beheld on looking eastward toward the mighty
-mountain is remarkable alike for its magnificence and for the artistic
-grouping of the various features of the sublime picture. In the vast
-depths at one's feet the tree-tops, through which the mists from
-neighboring cataracts are drifting, impart a somber tone and make the
-valley's bottom seem far more remote than it is. The sides of the
-canyon are formed by prominent serrate ridges, leading upward to the
-shining snow fields of the mighty dome that heads the valley. Nine
-thousand feet above our station rose the pure white Liberty Cap, the
-crowning glory of the mountain as seen from the northward. The snow
-descending the northwest side of the great central dome is gathered
-between the ridges forming the sides of the valley, and forms a white
-neve from which flows Willis Glacier. In looking up the valley from
-Eagle Cliff the entire extent of the snow fields and of the
-river-like stream of ice flowing from them is in full view. The ice
-ends in a dirt-covered and rock-strewn terminus, just above a huge
-rounded dome that rises in its path. In 1881 the ice reached nearly to
-the top of the dome and broke off in an ice cliff, the detached blocks
-falling into the gulf below. The glacier has now withdrawn its
-terminus well above the precipice where it formerly fell as an ice
-cascade, and its surface has shrunk away from well-defined moraines in
-much the same manner as has already been noted in the case of Carbon
-Glacier. A more detailed account of the retreat of the extremity of
-Willis Glacier[25] will be given later.
-
-From Eagle Cliff we continued our tramp eastward along the trail
-leading to Spray Park, climbed the zigzag pathway up the face of a
-cliff in front of Spray Falls, and gained the picturesque and
-beautiful parklike region above. An hour's tramp brought us again near
-the Guardian Rocks. A swift descent down the even snow fields enabled
-us to reach camp just as the shadows of evening were gathering in the
-deeper canyons, leaving the silent snow fields above all aglow with
-reflected sunset tints.
-
-Taking heavy packs on our backs on the morning of July 21, we
-descended the steep broken surface of the most recent moraine
-bordering Carbon Glacier in its middle course, and reached the solid
-blue ice below. Our course led us directly across the glacier, along
-the lower border of the rapidly melting covering of winter snow. The
-glacier is there about a mile across. Its central part is higher than
-its border, and for the most part the ice is concealed by dirt and
-stones. Just below the neve, however, we found a space about half a
-mile long in which melting had not led to the concentration of
-sufficient debris to make traveling difficult. Farther down the
-glacier, where surface melting was more advanced, the entire glacier,
-with the exception of a few lanes of clear ice between the
-ill-defined medial moraines, was completely concealed beneath a
-desolate sheet of angular stones. On reaching the east side of the
-glacier we were confronted with a wall of clay and stones, the inner
-slope of a moraine similar in all respects to the one we had descended
-to reach the west border of the glacier. A little search revealed a
-locality where a tongue of ice in a slight embayment projected some
-distance up the wall of morainal material, and a steep climb of 50 or
-60 feet brought us to the summit. The glacier has recently
-shrunk--that is, its surface has been lowered from 80 to 100 feet by
-melting.
-
-On the east side of the glacier we found several steep, sharp-crested
-ridges, clothed with forest trees, with narrow, grassy, and
-flower-strewn dells between, in which banks of snow still lingered.
-The ridges are composed of bowlders and angular stones of a great
-variety of sizes and shapes, and are plainly lateral moraines
-abandoned by the shrinking of the glacier. Choosing a way up one of
-the narrow lanes, bordered on each side by steep slopes densely
-covered with trees and shrubs, we found secure footing in the hard
-granular snow, and soon reached a more open, parklike area, covered
-with mossy bosses of turf, on which grew a great profusion of
-brilliant flowers. Before us rose the great cliffs which partially
-inclose the amphitheater in which Carbon Glacier has its source. These
-precipices, as already stated, have a height of about 4,000 feet, and
-are so steep that the snow does not cling to them, but descends in
-avalanches. Above the cliffs, where the inclination is less
-precipitous, the snow lies in thick layers, the edges of which are
-exposed in a vertical precipice rising above the avalanche-swept
-rock-slope below. Far above, and always the central object in the wild
-scenery surrounding us, rose the brilliant white Liberty Cap, one of
-the pinnacles on the rim of the great summit crater. Our way then
-turned eastward, following the side of the mountain, and led us
-through a region just above the timber line, which commands far
-reaching views to the wild and rugged mountains to the northeast. This
-open tract, leading down to groves of spruce trees and diversified by
-charming lakelets, bears abundant evidence of having formerly been
-ice-covered, and is known as Moraine Park.
-
-In order to retain our elevation we crossed diagonally the steep snow
-slopes in the upper portion of the Moraine Park. Midway over the snow
-we rested at a sharp crest of rock, and found that it is composed of
-light-colored granite. Later we found that much of the area between
-the Carbon and Winthrop glaciers is composed of this same kind of
-rock. Granite forms a portion of the border of the valley through
-which flow the glaciers just named, and furnished them with much
-granitic debris, which is carried away as moraines and later worked
-over into well-rounded bowlders by the streams flowing from the ice.
-The presence of granite pebbles in the course of Carbon and White
-rivers, far below the glaciers, is thus accounted for.
-
-A weary tramp of about 4 miles from the camp we had left brought us to
-the border of Winthrop Glacier. In the highest grove of trees, which
-are bent down and frequently lie prone on the ground, although still
-living, we selected a well-sheltered camping-place. Balsam boughs
-furnished luxuriant beds, and the trees killed by winter storms
-enabled us to have a roaring camp fire. Fresh trail of mountain goats
-and their but recently abandoned bed showed that this is a favorite
-resort for those hardy animals. Marmots were also abundant, and
-frequently awakened the echoes with their shrill, whistling cries. The
-elevation of our camp was about 8,000 feet.
-
-From our camp on the cliffs above the west border of Winthrop Glacier
-we made excursions across that glacier and to its heavily
-moraine-covered extremity. The snow mantle that is spread over the
-region about Mount Rainier each winter melts first on the rugged
-plateau surrounding the base of the mountain, and, as the summer's
-heat increases, gradually withdraws up the mountain sides, but never
-so as to uncover the more elevated region. The snow line--that is, the
-position to which the lower border of the mantle of perennial snow
-withdraws late in summer--has an elevation of about 9,000 feet. The
-lower margin of the wintry covering is always irregular, however,
-extending farthest down on the glaciers and retreating highest on the
-rocks. At the time of our visit the snow had melted off of nearly all
-the region below our camp, leaving only dirt-stained snow banks in the
-more completely sheltered recesses and in deeply shaded dells in the
-adjacent forests. On the glaciers all the region at a greater
-elevation than our camp was white and free from dirt and stones, while
-the hard glacial ice was abundantly exposed at lower altitudes and
-ended in a completely moraine-covered terminus. Above us all was
-barren, white, and wintry; below lay the flowery vales and grass
-parks, warm and inviting, leading to the welcome shade of noble
-forests. Our course led upward into the frozen region.
-
-On leaving the camp on the border of Winthrop Glacier we began our
-alpine work. There were five in the party selected for the difficult
-task of scaling Mount Rainier; namely: Willis, Smith, Ainsworth,
-Williams, and myself. Taking our blankets, a small supply of rations,
-an alcohol lamp, alpenstocks, a rope 100 feet long to serve as a life
-line, and a few other articles necessary for traveling above timber
-line, we began the ascent of Winthrop Glacier early on the morning of
-July 23. Our route was comparatively easy at the start, but became
-steeper and steeper as we advanced. The snow was firm and, except for
-the numerous crevasses, presented no great difficulties to be
-overcome. In several places the neve rises in domes as if forced up
-from beneath, but caused in reality by bosses of rock over which the
-glacier flows. These domes are broken by radiating crevasses which
-intersect in their central portions, leaving pillars and castle-like
-masses of snow with vertical sides. At one locality, in attempting to
-pass between two of these shattered domes, we found our way blocked by
-an impassable crevasse. Considerable time was lost in searching for a
-practicable upward route, but at length, by making a detour to the
-right, we found a way which, although steep, allowed us to pass the
-much crevassed area and gain the sharp ridge of rock which divides the
-neve snow flowing from the central dome of the mountain, and marks the
-separation between Winthrop and Emmons glaciers. This prow-like
-promontory, rising some 500 feet above the glaciers on either hand, we
-named The Wedge. This is the upward pointing, acute angle of a great
-V-shaped portion of the lower slope of the mountain, left in bold
-relief by the erosion of the valleys on either side. As will be
-described later, there are several of these remnants about the sides
-of the mountain at the same general horizon, which record a somewhat
-definite stage in the destruction of the mountain by ice erosion.
-
-On reaching The Wedge we found it an utterly desolate rocky cape in a
-sea of snow. We were at an altitude of about 10,000 feet, and far
-above timber. Water was obtained by spreading snow on smooth rocks or
-on rubber sheets, and allowing it to melt by the heat of the afternoon
-sun. Coffee was prepared over the alcohol lamp, sheltered from the
-wind by a bed sheet supported by alpenstocks. After a frugal lunch, we
-made shelf-like ledges in a steep slope of earth and stones and laid
-down our blankets for the night. From sheltered nooks amid the rocks,
-exposed to the full warmth of the declining sun, we had the icy slopes
-of the main central dome of the mountain in full view and chose what
-seemed the most favorable route for the morrow's climb.
-
-Surrounded as we were by the desolation and solitude of barren rocks,
-on which not even a lichen had taken root, and pure white snow fields,
-we were much surprised to receive passing visits from several
-humming-birds which shot past us like winged jewels. They came up the
-valley occupied by the Emmons Glacier, turned sharply at The Wedge,
-and went down the way of the Winthrop Glacier. What tempts these
-children of the sunlight and the flowers into the frozen regions seems
-a mystery. That the humming-birds are bold explorers was not new to
-me, for the reason that on several occasions in previous years, while
-on the snow-covered slopes of Mount St. Elias, far above all vestiges
-of vegetation, my heart had been gladdened by glimpses of their
-brilliant plumage.
-
-When the sun declined beyond the great snow-covered dome that towered
-above us, and the blue shadows crept down the previously dazzling
-cliffs, the air became cold and a strong wind made our perch on the
-rocks uncomfortable. Wrapping ourselves in our blankets we slept until
-the eastern sky began to glow with sunrise tints.
-
-Early on the morning of July 24 [1896] we began the climb of the steep
-snow slopes leading to the summit of the mountain. Roped together as
-we had been on the previous day, we slowly worked our way upward, in a
-tortuous course, in order to avoid the many yawning crevasses. The way
-was steep and difficult. Some members of the party felt the effects of
-the rarefied air, and as we lacked experience in true alpine work our
-progress was slow and laborious. Many of the crevasses that our course
-crossed were of the nature of faults. Their upper rims stood several
-feet above their lower margins, and thus added to the difficulty of
-passing them. Our aim at first was to traverse the neve of Emmons
-Glacier and gain the less rugged slope bordering it on the south, but
-the intervening region was greatly broken and, as we found after
-several approaches to it, utterly impassable. The climb presented no
-special difficulties other than the extreme fatigue incident to
-climbing steep snow slopes, especially while attached to a life line,
-and the delays necessitated by frequently turning and retracing our
-steps in order to get around wide crevasses.
-
-Once while crossing a steep snow slope diagonally, and having a wide
-crevasse below us, Ainsworth, who was next to the rear of the line,
-lost his footing and slid down the slope on his back. Unfortunately,
-at that instant, Williams, who was at the rear of the line, removed
-his alpenstock from the snow, was overturned by the pull on the line,
-and shot headfirst down the slope and disappeared over the brink of
-the crevasse. A strong pull came on the members of the party who were
-in advance, but our alpenstocks held fast, and before assistance could
-be extended to the man dangling in midair, he climbed the taut rope
-and stood unhurt among us once more. The only serious result of the
-accident was the loss of an alpenstock.
-
-Pressing on toward the dark rim of rock that we could now and then
-catch glimpses of at the head of the snow slopes and which we knew to
-be the outer portion of the summit crater, we crossed many frail snow
-bridges and climbed precipitous slopes, in some of which steps had to
-be cut. As we neared the summit we met a strong westerly gale that
-chilled us and benumbed our fingers. At length, weary and faint on
-account of the rarity of the air, we gained the lower portion of the
-rim of stones marking the position of the crater. While my companions
-rested for a few moments in the shelter of the rocks, I pressed on up
-the rugged slope and gained the top of the rim.
-
-The stones exposed at the summit are bare of snow, possibly on account
-of the heat from below, and are rounded and their exposed surfaces
-polished. The smooth, black bowlders shine in the sunlight much the
-same as the sand-burnished stones in desert regions. Here on the
-mountain's brow, exposed to an almost continuous gale, the rocks have
-been polished by drifting snow crystals. The prevailing rounded form
-that the stones present may be the result of weathering, or possibly
-is due to the manner in which the fragments were ejected from the
-volcano. My hasty examinations suggested the former explanation.
-
-Descending into the crater, I discovered crevices from which steam was
-escaping, and on placing my hands on the rocks was rejoiced to find
-them hot. My companions soon joined me, and we began the exploration
-of the crater, our aim being to find the least uncomfortable place in
-which to take refuge from the freezing blast rather than to make
-scientific discoveries.
-
-The crater that we had entered is one of the smaller and more recent
-ones in the truncated summit of the peak, and is deeply filled with
-snow, but the rim is bare and well defined. The steam and heat from
-the rocks have melted out many caverns beneath the snow. In one of
-these we found shelter.
-
-The cavern we chose in which to pass the night, although irregular,
-was about 60 feet long by 40 wide, and had an arched ceiling some 20
-feet high. The snow had been melted out from beneath, leaving a roof
-so thin that a diffused blue light penetrated the chamber. The floor
-sloped steeply, and on the side toward the center of the crater there
-was a narrow space between the rocks and the descending roof which led
-to unexplored depths. As a slide into this forbidding gulf would have
-been exceedingly uncomfortable, if not serious, our life line was
-stretched from crag to crag so as to furnish a support and allow us to
-walk back and forth during the night without danger of slipping. Three
-arched openings or doorways communicated with other chambers, and
-through these drafts of cold air were continually blowing. The icy air
-chilled the vapor rising from the warm rocks and filled the chamber
-with steam which took on grotesque forms in the uncertain, fading
-light. In the central part of the icy chamber was a pinnacle of rock,
-from the crevices of which steam was issuing with a low hissing sound.
-Some of the steam jets were too hot to be comfortable to the ungloved
-hand. In this uninviting chamber we passed the night. The muffled roar
-of the gale as it swept over the mountain could be heard in our
-retreat and made us thankful for the shelter the cavern afforded.
-
-The floor of our cell was too uneven and too steeply inclined to admit
-of lying down. Throughout the night we leaned against the hot rocks or
-tramped wearily up and down holding the life line. Cold blasts from
-the branching ice chambers swept over us. Our clothes were saturated
-with condensed steam. While one side of the body resting against the
-rocks would be hot, the strong drafts of air with a freezing
-temperature chilled the other side. After long hours of intense
-darkness the dome of snow above us became faintly illuminated, telling
-that the sun was again shining. After a light breakfast and a cup of
-tea, prepared over our alcohol lamp, we resumed our exploration, none
-the worse for the exposures of the night.
-
-Following the inner rim of the crater so as to be sheltered from the
-gale still blowing steadily from the west, we gained its northern
-border and climbed to the topmost pinnacle, known as Columbia's Crest.
-This pinnacle rises about 50 feet above the general level of the
-irregular rim of the crater, and is the highest point on the mountain.
-Its elevation, as previously stated, is 14,526 feet.[26]
-
-The magnificent view described by former visitors to this commanding
-station, which we had hoped would reward our efforts, was concealed
-beneath a canopy of smoke that covered all of the region about the
-mountain to a depth of about 10,000 feet. The surface of the layer of
-smoke was sharply defined, and appeared like an undulating sea
-surrounding the island on which we stood. Far to the northward rose
-the regular conical summit of Mount Baker, like an isolated sea-girt
-island. A few of the rugged and more elevated summits, marking the
-course of the Cascade Mountains, could be discerned to the eastward.
-The summits of Mount Adams and Mount St. Helens were in plain view and
-seemingly near at hand. All of the forest-covered region between these
-elevated summits was blotted out by the dense, heavy layer of smoke,
-which rose until it met the westerly gale of the upper regions.
-
-During the ascent of Mount Rainier by Emmons and Wilson, previously
-referred to, more favorable atmospheric conditions prevailed than at
-the time of my visit, and the region about the base of the mountain
-was clearly revealed. In describing the view from the summit Emmons
-says:
-
-     From the northeastern rim of the crater we could look down an
-     unbroken slope of nearly 10,000 feet to the head of the White
-     River, the upper half or two-thirds of which was so steep
-     that one had the feeling of looking over a perpendicular
-     wall. [It was up this slope that the climb briefly described
-     above was made.] The systems of glaciers and the streams
-     which flowed from them lay spread out as on a map at our
-     feet; radiating out in every direction from the central mass,
-     they all with one accord curve to the westward to send their
-     waters down toward Puget Sound or the Lower Columbia.
-     [Attention has already been directed to the westward
-     curvature of the streams from Mount Rainier on reaching the
-     tilted peneplain on which the mountain stands, and the
-     explanation has been suggested that they are consequent
-     streams the direction of which was determined by the original
-     slope of the now deeply dissected plateau.]
-
-     Looking to the more distant country, the whole stretch of
-     Puget Sound, seeming like a pretty little lake embowered in
-     green, could be seen in the northwest, beyond which the
-     Olympic Mountains extend out into the Pacific Ocean. The
-     Cascade Mountains, lying dwarfed at our feet, could be traced
-     northward into British Columbia, and southward into Oregon,
-     while above them, at comparatively regular intervals, rose
-     the ghost-like forms of our companion volcanoes. To the
-     eastward the eye ranged for hundreds of miles over chain on
-     chain of mountain ridges, which gradually disappeared in the
-     dim, blue distance.
-
-In the truncated summit of Mount Rainier there are three craters. The
-largest one, partially filled by the building of the two others, is
-the oldest, and has suffered so greatly from subsequent volcanic
-explosions and erosion that no more than its general outline can be
-traced. Peak Success and Liberty Cap are prominent points on the rim
-of what remains of this huge crater. Its diameter, as nearly as can be
-judged, is about 2-1/2 miles. Within the great crater, in the
-formation of which the mountain was truncated and, as previously
-stated, lost fully 2,000 feet of its summit, there are two much
-smaller and much more recent craters. The larger of these, the one in
-which we took refuge, is about 300 yards in diameter, and the second,
-which is an incomplete circle, its rim having been broken by the
-formation of its more recent companion, is perhaps 200 yards across.
-The rim of each now partially snow-filled bowl is well defined, and
-rises steeply from within to a sharp crest. The character of the inner
-slopes shows that much rocky material has been detached and has fallen
-into the cavities from which it was ejected. The rock in the crater
-walls is in fragments and masses, some of them well rounded and
-probably of the nature of volcanic bombs. In each of the smaller
-craters there are numerous steam jets. These show that the rock below
-is still hot, and that water percolating downward is changed to steam.
-These steam jets evidently indicate the presence of residual heat and
-not an actual connection with a volcanic center deep below the
-surface. All the evidence available tends to show that Rainier is an
-extinct volcano. It belongs, however, to the explosive type of
-volcanoes, of which Vesuvius is the best-known example, and there is
-no assurance that its energies may not be reawakened.
-
-In descending we chose the south side of the mountain, knowing from
-the reports of many excursionists who had ascended the peak from that
-direction that a practicable route could probably be found. Threading
-our way between numerous crevasses we soon came in sight of a bold,
-outstanding rock mass, which we judged to be Gibraltar, and succeeded
-in reaching it with but little difficulty. On gaining the junction of
-the rock with the snow fields rising above it, we found evidences of a
-trail, which was soon lost, however, and only served to show that our
-general course was the right one. A deep, narrow space between the
-border of Nisqually Glacier and the precipitous side of Gibraltar,
-from which the snow and ice had been melted by the heat reflected from
-the cliffs on our left, led us down to a shelf on the lower side of
-the promontory, which proved a safe and easy way to the crest of a
-rocky rib on the mountain side which extended far down toward the dark
-forests in view below.
-
-Gibraltar is a portion of the cone of Rainier built before the
-explosion which truncated the mountain. It is an outstanding and very
-prominent rock mass, left in bold relief by the ice excavation which
-has carved deep valleys on each side. The rock divides the descending
-neve in the same manner as does The Wedge, and causes a part of the
-snow drainage to flow to the Cowlitz and the other part to be
-tributary to the Nisqually Glacier. The rocks forming Gibraltar
-consist largely of fragments ejected from the crater above, but
-present a rude stratification due to the presence of lava flows. When
-seen from the side and at a convenient distance, it is evident that
-the planes of bedding, if continued upward at the same angle, would
-reach above the present summit of the mountain. Gibraltar, like The
-Wedge, and several other secondary peaks on the sides of Mount
-Rainier, are, as previously explained, the sharp, upward-pointing
-angles of large V-shaped masses of the original volcanic cone, left in
-bold relief by the excavation of deep valleys radiating from the
-central peak. On the backs, so to speak, of these great V-shaped
-portions of the mountain which now seem to rest against the central
-dome, secondary glaciers, or interglaciers as they may be termed, have
-excavated valleys and amphitheaters. In the V-shaped mass of which
-Gibraltar is the apex, a broad amphitheater-like depression has been
-cut out, leaving a bold cliff above it. The excavation of the
-amphitheater did not progress far enough up the mountain to cut away
-the apex of the V-shaped mass, but left it with a precipice on its
-lower side. This remnant is Gibraltar. An attempt will be made later
-to describe more fully the process of glacial erosion of a conical
-mountain, and to show that the secondary topographic features of Mount
-Rainier are not without system, as they appear at first view, but
-really result from a process which may be said to have a definite end
-in view.
-
-Below Gibraltar the descent was easy. Our life line was no longer
-needed. Tramping in single file over the hard surfaces of the snow
-field, remnants of the previous winter's snow, we made rapid progress,
-and about noon gained the scattered groves of spruce trees which form
-such an attractive feature of Paradise Park.
-
-Fortunately, we found Prof. E. S. Ingraham, of Seattle, and a party of
-friends, including several ladies, encamped in Paradise Park, and the
-hospitality of the camp was extended to us. During the afternoon we
-basked in the warm sunshine, and in the evening gathered about a
-roaring campfire and enjoyed the society of our companions, who were
-enthusiastic in their praise of the wonderful scenes about their camp.
-
-The southern side of Mount Rainier is much less precipitous than its
-northern face, and the open park-like region near timber line is
-broader, more diversified, and much more easy of access. The general
-elevation of the park is between 5,000 and 7,000 feet, and it is
-several thousand acres in extent. Its boundaries are indefinite. It
-merges into the heavily forested region to the south, and into more
-alpine regions on the side toward the mountain, which towers above it
-on the north. To the east it is bordered by Cowlitz Glacier, and on
-the west by Nisqually Glacier. Each of these fine ice rivers descends
-far below timber line. The small interglacier, known as the Paradise
-Glacier, may be considered as lying within the limits of the park.
-
-Paradise Park presents many and varied charms. It is a somewhat rugged
-land, with a deep picturesque valley winding through it. The trees
-grow in isolated groves. Each bunch of dark-green firs and balsams is
-a cluster of gracefully tapering spires. The undulating meadows
-between the shady groves are brilliant in summer with a veritable
-carpet of gorgeous blossoms. In contrast to the exquisite charms of
-the groves and flower-decked rolling meadows are desolate ice fields
-and rugged glaciers which vary, through many tints and shades, from
-silvery whiteness to intense blue. Added to these minor charms, and
-towering far above them, is the massive summit of Rainier. At times
-the sublime mountain appears steel blue in the unclouded sky, or rosy
-with the afterglow at sunset, or all aflame with the glories of the
-newborn day. Clouds gather about the lofty summit and transform it
-into a storm king. Avalanches rushing down its side awaken the echoes
-in the neighboring forest. The appearance of the mountain is never the
-same on different days; indeed, it changes its mood and exerts a
-varying influence on the beholder from hour to hour.
-
-While the central attraction to the lover of mountain scenery in
-Paradise Park is the vast snow-covered dome of Mount Rainier, there
-are other mountains in view that merit attention. To the east rises
-the serrate and rugged Tattoosh range, which is remarkable for the
-boldness with which its bordering slopes rise from the forested region
-about it and the angularity of its many serrate summits. This range
-has never been explored except by miners and hunters, who have made
-no record of their discoveries. It is virgin ground to the geologist
-and geographer. Distant views suggest that the Tattoosh Mountains have
-been sculptured from a plateau, probably an upraised peneplain in
-which there existed a great mass of igneous rock rounded by less
-resistant Tertiary sediments. The softer rocks have been removed,
-leaving the harder and more resistant ones in bold relief, to become
-sculptured by rain and frost into a multitude of angular peaks. This
-attractive, and as yet unstudied, group of peaks is in plain view from
-Paradise Park, and may be easily reached from there by a single day's
-tramp. Many other delightful excursions are open to one who pitches
-his tent in the alpine meadows on the south side of Mount Rainier.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[25] Called the North Mowich Glacier on the present map.
-
-[26] Since shown to be 14,408 feet.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: PROFESSOR EDGAR MCCLURE.]
-
-XII. McCLURE'S ACHIEVEMENT AND TRAGIC DEATH, 1897
-
-BY HERBERT L. BRUCE AND PROFESSOR H. H. McALISTER
-
-
-     Visitors to Paradise Valley, who climb above the Camp of the
-     Clouds to the snowfields, are sure to be attracted to McClure
-     Rock. It is the scene of one of the mountain's earliest
-     tragedies, in which Professor Edgar McClure of the University
-     of Oregon lost his life. He was trying to measure accurately
-     the height of the great mountain as he had already done for
-     Mount Adams and other peaks.
-
-     The record of his extensive observations was computed with
-     the greatest care by his colleague, Professor H. H. McAlister
-     of the University of Oregon. An account of the work so
-     tragically ended was prepared by Herbert L. Bruce. Both
-     articles were published in the Seattle Post-Intelligencer for
-     November 7, 1897, from which paper they are here reproduced.
-     The portrait of Professor McClure is furnished by his
-     brother, Horace McClure, editorial writer for the Seattle
-     Daily Times.
-
-     The height of the mountain, 14,528 feet, thus obtained,
-     remained in use until 1914, when the United States Geological
-     Survey announced its new and latest findings to be 14,408
-     feet.
-
-One of the most tragic incidents in modern science was the death of
-Professor Edgar McClure, who lost his life on Mount Rainier July 27,
-1897. Occupying, as he did, the chair of chemistry in the University
-of Oregon, his personal tastes, instincts and ambitions were
-essentially scientific. In addition to this he was a member of the
-Mazamas, whose purposes in the line of scientific exploration have
-lent a romantic interest and a cumulative value to the geography of
-the northwest. The particular expedition with which Professor McClure
-was associated when he met his untimely death, left Portland with the
-distinct object of making the ascent of Mount Rainier, recording such
-geographical and topographical observations as might be feasible. As a
-member of the expedition Professor McClure was placed in charge of the
-elevation department and set before himself a somewhat more distinct
-and definite purpose, viz., to ascertain by the most approved methods
-and with the most accurately graduated instruments the precise height
-of the famous and beautiful mountain. How well he accomplished this
-purpose will best appear in the subjoined letter from Professor E. H.
-McAlister, his friend and colleague, who with infinite care and
-sympathetic zeal has worked out the data, which would otherwise have
-been undecipherable not only to the general public but to the average
-scholar. As he himself said when he had completed his arduous task: "I
-have done everything possible to wring the truth from the
-observations. In my judgment they should become historic on account of
-the probability of their great accuracy."
-
-To the accomplishment of this object Professor McClure brought all the
-varied resources of a ripe culture and an ardent, vigorous young
-manhood. His plans were all laid with the greatest care. To him their
-fulfillment meant not so much a personal or selfish triumph as a
-victory for science. The very instrument on which he most relied for
-accurate determinations, as will be seen from Professor McAlister's
-statement, was not only hallowed by scientific associations, but was
-prepared for its high mission more lovingly and assiduously than a
-favorite racer would be groomed for the course. Twice had it looked
-upon the beauties of the Columbia river from the summit of Mount Hood,
-and on three other lofty peaks it had served its silent but efficient
-ministry to the cause of science. On one of these, Mount Adams, the
-altitude determined with this instrument was accepted by the United
-States government, yet a new tube was filled for it, Professor McClure
-himself preparing the mercury by distillation, and seeing to it that
-the vacuum was exceptionally perfect. That the barometer was most
-carefully handled at the time of observation will fully appear from
-the record below. It was suspended by a ring and allowed to hang until
-it had assumed the temperature of the surrounding air before being
-read. Not only this, but all the subsidiary phenomena which could have
-the slightest bearing on the result were laboriously determined.
-Concurrent observations were made at all salient surrounding stations,
-while for a week before the date of actual observation Professor
-McClure himself had made numerous observations both of pressure and of
-temperature at various sub-stations in the vicinity of Mount Rainier,
-and his collaborateur has secured simultaneous observations from
-Seattle and Portland. Uniting as he did the fervor of the pioneer
-explorer with the accuracy of the laboratory chemist, Professor
-McClure was peculiarly fitted to obtain a result which bids fair to
-become historic.
-
-The broken barometer will appeal powerfully to every lover of science.
-If, as has been suggested, a monument be reared to mark the spot where
-the young scientist gave up his life, no fitter design could be
-adopted than a stone shaft bearing on its face a bas-relief of the
-historic instrument which he bore on his back with sacred care. It is
-entirely probable that this barometer, coupled with his unselfish
-solicitude for the safety of other members of the expedition, was the
-immediate cause of his death. He carried it in a double case; a wooden
-one which his own hands had constructed, and outside of this a strong
-leather tube. From the latter stout thongs enabled him to strap the
-instrument on his back, much as a pioneer huntsman would wear his
-trusty rifle. While standing on the perilous ledge whence he took the
-fatal plunge, he turned to sound warning to his companions whom he was
-leading in a search for the lost pathway down the mountain. "Don't
-come down here; it is too steep," he called, turning so as to make
-his voice more audible. These were his last words. He vanished in the
-night and the abyss. It is likely that the tube, three and a half feet
-in length, caught as he turned and helped to hurl him from his
-precarious footing. Like his own high strung frame, the delicate
-instrument was shattered; but neither of the twain went away from the
-world without leaving an imperishable record.
-
-It is interesting to note the close correspondence of his independent
-observations with those made by others. The height of the mountain had
-been measured many times before he essayed to measure it. Some
-observers had measured it by triangulation, and others, notably Major
-E. S. Ingraham, of Seattle, had given its altitude from the readings
-of mercurial barometers. Major Ingraham gave the height at 14,524
-feet. It will be noticed that the result obtained by Professor McClure
-was just four feet greater, a remarkable coincidence at that vast
-altitude and among conditions of hardship, exposure and uncertainty.
-Prior to Professor McClure's record, the latest measurement of Rainier
-had been made by George F. Hyde, of the United States Geological
-Survey, in 1896. He pursued the method of triangulation, and, taking
-as his base a line at Ellensburg, in connection with the sea level
-gauge at Tacoma, he figured out the extreme height of Rainier at
-14,519 feet.
-
-The value of Professor McClure's determination will be heightened
-rather than lessened by the peculiar difficulty and rareness of
-scientific work in an unexplored territory and from a base which has
-not all the appurtenances and advantages of the older scientific
-stations of the East and of Europe. In this respect his work is like
-that of Agassiz and of Audubon. Not unlike those great masters was he
-in his intense and lofty devotion to science. Not unlike them he
-wrought with rigid accuracy where others had worked almost at random.
-Not unlike them he aroused among his friends and students the
-conviction that he was a born high priest of nature, whose chief
-mission in the world was to reveal her secrets to mankind. He offered
-up his life virtually a sacrifice to the cause of popular and
-practical science, and in as lofty a sense as ever dignified a Roman
-arena he was a martyr to the cause of truth. To use the matchless
-figure employed by Byron in describing the death of Henry Kirk White,
-who died a victim to his own passionate devotion to literary art, he
-was like the struck eagle whose own feather "winged the shaft that
-quivered in his heart."
-
-Just in harmony with this thought came countless expressions of
-sympathy and condolence to the members of Professor McClure's family
-when the sad news of his death went abroad. One of the most touching,
-and, to my mind, one of the most typical of all these came from an
-obscure man in an obscure corner of Kentucky. He was not a great man
-himself, as the world counts greatness, this man in Kentucky; but he
-knew a great man when he saw him. He had known Edgar McClure; and when
-he heard the circumstances of his death he sat down and wrote a brief
-note. One sentence in it was worthy of Whittier or Emerson. It was
-this: "Edgar McClure died as he had always lived--on the mountain
-top."
-
-In transmitting his results to Horace McClure, brother of the deceased
-scientist, Professor McAlister brings to a proper close a labor of
-love, one that is as creditable to his scholarly culture as it is to
-his unselfish and devoted friendship.
-
-                              HERBERT L. BRUCE.
-
-
-    LETTER OF TRANSMISSION
-
-                              University of Oregon,
-                              Eugene, Or., October 28, 1897.
-
-MR. HORACE MCCLURE--Dear Sir: I herewith transmit to you for
-publication my report upon the observations of your late brother,
-Professor Edgar McClure, relative to the altitude of Mount Rainier,
-the data having been referred to me for reduction and computation by
-yourself and by the officials of the Mazama Club.
-
-It is but just to myself to say that the long delay in the appearance
-of this report has been caused by unavoidable difficulties in the
-collection of subsidiary data; in particular, the comparison sheet
-showing the instrumental error of Professor McClure's barometer could
-not be found until the 9th of this month, when it was discovered among
-some effects left by him in Portland. A further delay has been
-occasioned in obtaining a few other important data. A report
-approximately correct could have been made some time ago, but I felt
-it was due to the memory of Professor McClure's reputation for extreme
-accuracy that no report whatever should be published until I was able
-to state a result for which I could vouch as being the very best that
-the observations were capable of affording.
-
-The thanks of all concerned are due to Mr. B. S. Pague, Director of
-the Oregon Weather Bureau, for numerous courtesies and for his
-efficient aid in the collection of data.
-
-                    Very respectfully,
-
-                              E. H. MCALISTER,
-                              Professor of Applied Mathematics.
-
-THE RESULT
-
-For the benefit of those not interested in the scientific details of
-this report, it may be stated at once that the summit of Mount
-Rainier, according to Professor McClure's observations, is 14,528 feet
-above sea level. The altitudes of various sub-stations occupied en
-route will be found further on. An account of the data, with
-description of the methods employed in reduction and computation, is
-given, to indicate the degree of reliance to be placed upon the
-result.
-
-The principal observation to which this report refers was made by
-Professor Edgar McClure, of the University of Oregon, on the summit of
-Mount Rainier, Washington, July 27, 1897, at 4:30 P.M., Pacific
-standard time. The observation consists of a reading of Green's
-standard mercurial barometer, No. 1612, together with readings of
-attached and detached thermometers. It appears that the barometer,
-which was suspended by a ring at the top, was allowed so to hang until
-it had assumed the temperature of the surrounding air, before being
-read; that the sky was clear at the time; and that the place of
-observation, the highest on the mountain, is designated as Columbia
-Crest.
-
-The barometric reading, corrected for instrumental error and
-temperature, was 17.708 inches; the air temperature was 29 degrees
-Fahrenheit.
-
-Concurrent observations were made at 9:30 A.M. and hourly during the
-afternoon by the regular observers at Seattle, Portland, Fort Canby,
-the University of Oregon at Eugene, Roseburg, and one observation at
-Walla Walla at 5 P.M.
-
-In addition to these, during the week preceding the 27th Professor
-McClure made numerous observations both of pressure and temperature at
-various sub-stations in the vicinity of Mount Rainier, and
-simultaneous observations are furnished from Seattle and Portland.
-
-At the very outset of the work of reduction it was evident that Eugene
-and Roseburg were under an area of relatively low barometric pressure
-on the 27th, representing atmospheric conditions that did not prevail
-in the region of Mount Rainier. I therefore rejected the observations
-at both these places, using only those at Seattle, Portland, Fort
-Canby and Walla Walla. The strategic position of these four points
-will be seen at once by a glance at the map.
-
-The method followed in making the reduction was, in brief, to deduce
-from the observations at the four base stations surrounding the
-mountain the actual atmospheric conditions prevailing in the
-immediate region of the mountain. More specifically, the process
-consisted in determining the atmospheric pressure and temperature at
-an imaginary sea level vertically under the mountain, which level I
-shall subsequently call the "mean base."
-
-In this I was greatly assisted by a careful study of the daily weather
-charts issued by the government, Mr. Pague having kindly loaned me his
-official file for July. I thus practically had at my disposal
-observations from all the important points on the Coast, both before
-and after the principal observation. With due regard to the position
-and direction of the isobars, and giving proper weight to the
-observations at each of the four base stations, I finally deduced
-30.130 inches as the value of the pressure at the mean base which best
-satisfied all the data. It ought to be said, perhaps, that this result
-does not depend upon my judgment to any appreciable extent, but was
-legitimately worked out from the observations and isobaric lines.
-
-In determining the mean temperature of the air column extending from
-the mean base to the summit of the mountain, the observations made by
-Professor McClure during the previous week in the vicinity were so
-numerous and well timed as to leave far less than the usual amount of
-uncertainty. Making due allowance for the moderate elevations of the
-stations, these observations show clearly that the temperature about
-the mountain at that time followed that of Seattle very closely, and
-was also not much different from that of Portland, but departed
-notably from both the heat of Walla Walla and the low temperature of
-Fort Canby. Allowing proper weight to these facts, the observations at
-the base stations, with that of Professor McClure at the summit, gave
-49 degrees Fahrenheit as the mean temperature of the air column.
-
-I regard the method of reduction outlined above as possessing decided
-advantages over any other that could be applied to the problem in
-hand; especially because it admits of using the isobaric charts with
-great freedom and effectiveness, thereby increasing the reliability of
-the result to a marked extent.
-
-The reduction made, there remained for the final calculation the
-following data:
-
-    Barometric pressure at the summit of Rainier    17.708 inches
-    Barometric pressure at mean base                30.130 inches
-    Mean temperature of air column                     49 deg. F.
-    Latitude of Mount Rainer                      46 deg. 48 min.
-
-In making the calculation I used the amplified form of Laplace's
-formula given in the recent publications of the Smithsonian
-Institution, with the constants there adopted. Perhaps for the general
-reader it may be important to remark that this formula, besides the
-barometric pressures, contains corrections for the temperature of the
-air column; for latitude, and for the variation of gravity with
-altitude in its effect on the weight of the mercury in the barometer;
-for the average humidity of the air; and for the variation of gravity
-with altitude in its effect on the weight of the air. I used the
-latest edition of the Smithsonian tables, but afterward verified the
-result by a numerical solution of the formula--the altitude being, as
-stated at the beginning, 14,528 feet above sea level.
-
-It should be noted as an evidence of the great care and foresight with
-which Professor McClure planned his work and the success with which he
-carried it out, that the result of his observations agrees within nine
-feet with that obtained by the United States Geological Survey in
-1895, using, as we may suppose, the most refined methods of
-triangulation--the latter estimate being 14,519 feet. In connection
-with so great an altitude, nine feet is an insignificant quantity, and
-the close correspondence in the results of the two methods of
-measurement is truly remarkable. I am not inclined to regard it as
-accidental, but as due to the most careful work in both cases.
-
-Having a full knowledge of all the available data, I am perhaps better
-prepared than anyone else to pass judgment upon the result set forth;
-and while it would be folly to give a numerical estimate of the
-probable error, I feel justified in saying that no single barometric
-determination is ever likely to prove more accurate than this one of
-Professor McClure's. At any rate, the outstanding error is now too
-small to justify the hazard of any future attempts.
-
-From the observations made by Professor McClure while en route to the
-summit, together with simultaneous records from Seattle and Portland,
-the following altitudes are obtained:
-
-                                 FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL
-    Eatonville                            870
-    Kernahan's ranch                    1,880
-    Longmire springs                    2,850
-    Mazama camp                         5,932
-    Camp-No-Camp                       12,700
-    South side Crater Rainier          14,275
-
-The data in these cases were not sufficient to admit an elaborate
-working-out of the altitude, so that the figures given are to be
-regarded as rather close approximations, except in the case of Mazama
-camp, the altitude of which rests upon four observations and is
-correspondingly reliable.
-
-Professor McClure's barometer had a notable history in mountaineering.
-To quote the professor's own words:
-
-"It has twice looked upon the beauties of the Columbia river from the
-summit of Mount Hood. It was the first barometer taken to the top of
-Mount Hood, and gave the true elevation, 11,225 feet, in place of
-17,000 or 18,000 feet previously claimed. This barometric measurement
-of Mount Hood was made in August, 1867, by a government party under
-the direction of Lieutenant R. S. Williamson. The second barometric
-measurement of Mount Hood was made with the same instrument in
-August, 1870, by Professor George H. Collier."
-
-In August, 1891, the barometer was carried by Professor McClure to the
-summit of Diamond Peak; in August, 1894, by the writer, to the summit
-of the middle peak of the Three Sisters, in Oregon, giving an altitude
-of 10,080 feet, not hitherto published; in July, 1895, Professor
-McClure took it with the Mazamas to Mount Adams, and in July, 1897, to
-the summit of Mount Rainier.
-
-A new tube was filled and inserted about two years ago, Professor
-McClure preparing the mercury by distillation and the writer boiling
-it in the tube. The vacuum was exceptionally perfect. The comparison
-sheet previously mentioned showed that the instrument on the occasion
-of its last trip read .005 inch above standard.
-
-In thus completing the labors of Professor McClure, with whom I was so
-long and so intimately associated, I feel a very melancholy
-satisfaction. For his sake, I have spared no pains in collecting all
-the useful data that could be obtained, to make the result reliable to
-the last degree possible in such a case. I leave that result as a
-sufficient guarantee of the accuracy of the whole work from beginning
-to end.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: PROFESSOR HENRY LANDES.]
-
-XIII. FIELD NOTES ON MOUNT RAINIER, 1905
-
-BY PROFESSOR HENRY LANDES
-
-
-     Henry Landes is Professor of Geology and Dean of the College
-     of Science, University of Washington, and he has also served
-     as State Geologist of Washington, since 1895. He was born at
-     Carroll, Indiana, on December 22, 1867. He graduated from the
-     University of Indiana in 1892 and obtained the Master of Arts
-     degree at Harvard University in 1893. He was assistant to the
-     State Geologist of New Jersey and Principal of the High
-     School at Rockland, Maine, before being elected to his
-     present professorship at the University of Washington in
-     1895. For a year and a half, 1914-1915, he was Acting
-     President of the University of Washington.
-
-     He has published many articles and pamphlets on geological
-     subjects. The one here given appeared in Mazama, published in
-     December, 1905, by the Mazamas in Portland, Oregon. It is
-     reproduced here with the permission of the author and of the
-     mountaineering club.
-
-The Columbia River afforded to the first people who came to Washington
-and Oregon the easiest and most feasible route across the Cascade
-Mountains. It was through this gateway that travel passed from one
-side of the range to the other until the advent of the railways in
-comparatively recent years. The early travelers along the river who
-were of an observing or scientific bent, noted that the rocks were, in
-general, dark, heavy and massive and of the class commonly known as
-basalt. Here and there a sort of pudding stone or agglomerate was
-observed, which in some instances might represent a sedimentary
-deposit, but which here had clearly an igneous origin.
-
-The observations of the early travelers were supplemented later by the
-further studies of geologists; and from the facts noted along the
-Columbia River, the generalization holds good to a great extent on
-the Oregon side, but it is by no means true on the Washington side, as
-has been shown by later studies. Granite rocks are encountered within
-a few miles of the Columbia River as one travels north along the
-Cascade Range. Associated with these granite rocks are found rocks of
-a metamorphic type, such as gneiss, schists, quartzites, crystalline
-limestone, slate, etc. Such rocks exist south of Mount Rainier, but
-are not conspicuous. North of this point, however, and throughout all
-of the northern Cascades they form the great bulk of the rock.
-
-In other words, in the Cascades of Washington, igneous activity has
-been much more common in the region south of Rainier than in that
-north of the mountain. When the first observations were made upon the
-great lava flows of southeastern Washington, which form a part of the
-greatest lava plain in the world, it was supposed that the lava had
-its origin in the volcanoes of the Cascades. Later investigations have
-shown this view to be erroneous. The lava of the plain has come
-directly from below through great longitudinal fissures instead of
-through circular openings such as one finds in volcanoes.
-
-It is probable that the Cascades, like most other mountains, have had
-several different periods of uplift. We have several notable examples
-of mountains which have had an initial uplift and then have been
-reduced to base by erosion. By a second upheaval the plain has been
-converted into a plateau, and this in time assumes a very rugged,
-mountainous character as a result of the combined forces of air and
-water. Eventually these same forces would reduce the region to a plain
-again. Just how many times this thing has happened in the Cascades we
-do not know. Bailey Willis has shown that in the northern Cascades, at
-least, the whole country was reduced to a plain prior to the last
-uplift, which took place in comparatively recent times. Out of this
-plateau, formed by the uplifting of the plain, has arisen through the
-active attack of erosive forces the truly mountainous character of the
-district. Erosion has been at the maximum in the mountains because of
-the heavy precipitation. Precipitation in the high mountains being
-chiefly in the form of snow has led to the formation of glaciers,
-producing thereby a rapidity of erosion of the first order. The active
-work of ice and running water has given to the mountains an extremely
-rugged appearance, characterized by valleys of great depth extending
-into the very heart of the mountains and with precipitous divides.
-
-It must be understood that the time consumed in the uplifting of the
-Cascades, and the conversion from plain to plateau, was of
-considerable duration. With the beginning of the uplift, the sluggish
-streams of the plain became rejuvenated, and took up actively once
-more the work of erosion. By the time the maximum uplift was reached,
-the plateau had lost to a certain degree its character of extreme
-levelness. The streams had already entrenched themselves in rather
-conspicuous valleys. It is believed that the great volcanoes of
-Washington--Rainier and its associates--began their activities about
-the time the uplift described above reached its maximum height. In the
-vicinity of Rainier the rock of the old plateau is granite; and the
-volcano may be said to be built upon a platform of that material. On
-the north side of the mountain granite appears conspicuously at a
-height of about 7,000 feet; while on the south side it appears at
-points varying from 5,000 to 6,000 feet above the sea.
-
-That the surface of the granite platform was irregular and uneven may
-be seen in the walls of the Nisqually canyon, near the lower terminus
-of the glacier. As one ascends the canyon to the glacier, the contact
-between the lava rock and the granite shows quite plainly on both the
-right and the left side. On the left the contact is at least 1,000
-feet above that on the right side. A little way above the lower end of
-the glacier, on each side of the canyon, a good opportunity presents
-itself to study the contact of the lava and granite. The granite at
-this place shows clearly that it was once a land surface; and one may
-note weathering for a distance downward of seventy-five or one hundred
-feet. The upper portion of the granite shows the usual characteristics
-of weathering, namely, the conversion of feldspar into kaolin, the
-oxidation of iron, etc. At this point the lava overlying the granite
-is quite basic and massive. The first flow reached a thickness here of
-fully three hundred feet, and exhibits a fine development of basaltic
-structure.
-
-In following up the canyon walls one observes that the activity of the
-volcano for some time was characterized almost exclusively by lava
-flows. In the main the lava is an andesite, and is very generally of a
-porphyritic structure. Some of the lava flows were of great extent,
-and reached points many miles distant from the center of the mountain.
-While the earlier stages of the activity of the volcano were
-characterized by lava flows of great thickness, by and by explosive
-products began to appear, and interbedded with the sheets of lava one
-finds bombs, lapilli, cinders, etc.
-
-It may be said in general that as the volcano grew in years it changed
-more and more from eruptions of the quiet type to those of the
-explosive character. It is plain that a long period of time was
-consumed in the making of that great volcanic pile, and that the
-eruptions were by no means continuous. It is clearly shown that after
-certain outflows of lava, quietude reigned for a time; that at last
-the surface of the rock became cool and that erosive agents broke it
-up into great masses of loose stones. In later flows of lava these
-stones were picked up and cemented into layers of pudding stone, which
-are styled agglomerates.
-
-Rocks of an agglomerate type are well shown in the walls of
-Gibraltar. This massive pile is largely made up of boulders, great and
-small, rather loosely held together by a lava cement. The work of
-frost and ice, expansion and contraction, loosens the boulders
-readily, and their constant falling from the cliffs gives to this part
-of the mountain's ascent its dangerous character. While this volcano
-belongs to a very late period in the history of the earth, it is very
-clear that there has been no marked activity for many thousands of
-years. The presence of steam, which is emitted from the hundreds of
-small openings about the crater, undoubtedly shows the presence of
-heated rock at no great distance below the surface. Rock is a poor
-conductor, however, and cooling takes place with very great slowness
-after a depth of comparatively few feet is reached.
-
-Like most volcanoes, the composite character of the cone is shown on
-Mount Rainier. After a certain height is reached in the building up of
-a cone, the rising lava in the throat, or the explosive activities
-within, sometimes produce an opening through the walls of the cone,
-and a new outlet to the surface is formed. This often gives the
-volcano a sort of hummocky or warty appearance, and produces a
-departure from the symmetrical character. In the case of Rainier it
-seems to the writer that upon the summit four distinct craters, or
-outlets, are distinguishable. The first crater reached by the usual
-route of ascent is the largest one, and may be styled the East crater.
-It is nearly circular in outline, with a diameter of about one-half
-mile. Its walls are bare of snow for nearly the whole of its
-circumference, but the pit is filled with snow and ice. Going across
-the crater to the westward, one passes over what is really the highest
-point on the mountain, and then goes down into a smaller crater, or
-the West crater. This is similar in character and outline to its
-neighbor, but here the many jets of issuing steam are much more
-prominent. At a point a few hundred feet lower on the mountain-side
-there is a peak known as Liberty Cap. A cross-section of the cap is
-in plain view and shows very clearly that this is a minor cone or
-local point of eruption. It is made up of rock very similar to the
-main mass of the mountain; and it is likely that the volcanic activity
-of the mountain was centered here for some time. Looking directly
-south from the West crater one sees at a distance of less than a mile
-another peak which is entirely snow-covered; but which may represent
-an instance parallel with that of the peak on the north side.
-
-Mount Rainier is so deeply covered with ice and snow that the glacial
-aspects of the mountain are far more conspicuous than the volcanic
-ones. The facts about the vulcanism and the history of the growth of
-the mountain are very difficult to study; and it will be a long time
-before they are fully known. The glaciers, on the other hand, are very
-conspicuous, comparatively easy of access, and the many facts
-concerning their extent, rate of motion, recession, or advance, may be
-quite readily determined. The glaciers, while very prominent at the
-present time, were at one time much larger than now. There are many
-things which go to prove that they formerly reached much farther down
-the valleys.
-
-From the top of the mountain one may see off to the westward for many
-miles south of Puget Sound prairies of large size, covering a great
-many square miles. These prairies represent the plains of gravel
-derived from the melting glaciers, when these stood in their vicinity.
-From these points of maximum extension the glaciers have slowly
-receded to their present position.
-
-That the glaciers are receding at the present time is a matter of
-common observation. At the lower end of the Nisqually glacier the
-advancing line of vegetation is about one-fourth mile below the
-present limit of the ice. It is the opinion of Mr. Longmire that the
-glacier has retreated about that far since he first came to the
-valley, twenty-five years ago. General Stevens was able to point out
-several instances of notable shrinkages in the glaciers, especially in
-the Paradise glacier, since his ascent of the mountain in 1870. It
-will interest students of glaciers to know that some permanent
-monuments have been set up at the lower end of the Nisqually glacier;
-and that arrangements have been made whereby the retreat of the ice
-may be accurately measured from year to year.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: FRANCOIS EMILE MATTHES.]
-
-XIV. GLACIERS OF MOUNT RAINIER
-
-BY F. E. MATTHES
-
-
-     Francois Emile Matthes was born at Amsterdam, Holland, on
-     March 16, 1874. After pursuing studies in Holland,
-     Switzerland and Germany, he came to the United States in 1891
-     and graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
-     in 1895. Since 1896 he has been at work with the United
-     States Geological Survey, mostly in the field of topography.
-     He has been honored by and is a member of many scientific
-     societies.
-
-     His topographic work on the maps of Yosemite and Mount
-     Rainier National Parks made for him many appreciative friends
-     on the Pacific Coast. His pamphlet on "Mount Rainier and Its
-     Glaciers" was published by the United States Department of
-     the Interior in 1914. He secured consent for its
-     republication in the present work.
-
-The impression still prevails in many quarters that true glaciers,
-such as are found in the Swiss Alps, do not exist within the confines
-of the United States, and that to behold one of these rare scenic
-features one must go to Switzerland, or else to the less accessible
-Canadian Rockies or the inhospitable Alaskan coast. As a matter of
-fact, permanent bodies of snow and ice, large enough to deserve the
-name of glaciers, occur on many of our western mountain chains,
-notably in the Rocky Mountains, where only recently a national
-reservation--Glacier National Park--was named for its ice fields; in
-the Sierra Nevada of California, and farther north, in the Cascade
-Range. It is on the last-named mountain chain that glaciers especially
-abound, clustering as a rule in groups about the higher summits of the
-crest. But this range also supports a series of huge, extinct
-volcanoes that tower high above its sky line in the form of isolated
-cones. On these the snows lie deepest and the glaciers reach their
-grandest development. Ice clad from head to foot the year round, these
-giant peaks have become known the country over as the noblest
-landmarks of the Pacific Northwest. Foremost among them are Mount
-Shasta, in California (14,162 feet); Mount Hood, in Oregon (11,225
-feet); Mount St. Helens (9,697 feet), Mount Adams (12,307 feet), Mount
-Rainier (14,408 feet), and Mount Baker (10,730 feet), in the State of
-Washington.
-
-Easily king of all is Mount Rainier. Almost 250 feet higher than Mount
-Shasta, its nearest rival in grandeur and in mass, it is
-overwhelmingly impressive, both by the vastness of its glacial mantle
-and by the striking sculpture of its cliffs. The total area of its
-glaciers amounts to no less than 45 square miles, an expanse of ice
-far exceeding that of any other single peak in the United States. Many
-of its individual ice streams are between 4 and 6 miles long and vie
-in magnitude and in splendor with the most boasted glaciers of the
-Alps. Cascading from the summit in all directions, they radiate like
-the arms of a great starfish. All reach down to the foot of the
-mountain and some advance considerably beyond.
-
-As for the plea that these glaciers lie in a scarcely opened,
-out-of-the-way region, a forbidding wilderness as compared with
-maturely civilized Switzerland, it no longer has the force it once
-possessed. Rainier's ice fields can now be reached from Seattle or
-Tacoma, the two principal cities of western Washington, in a
-comfortable day's journeying, either by rail or by automobile. The
-cooling sight of crevassed glaciers and the exhilarating
-flower-scented air of alpine meadows need no longer be exclusive
-pleasures, to be gained only by a trip abroad.
-
-Mount Rainier stands on the west edge of the Cascade Range,
-overlooking the lowlands that stretch to Puget Sound. Seen from
-Seattle or Tacoma, 60 and 50 miles distant, respectively, it appears
-to rise directly from sea level, so insignificant seem the ridges
-about its base. Yet these ridges themselves are of no mean height.
-They rise 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the valleys that cut through them,
-and their crests average 6,000 feet in altitude. Thus at the southwest
-entrance of the park, in the Nisqually Valley, the elevation above sea
-level, as determined by accurate spirit leveling, is 2,003 feet, while
-Mount Wow (Goat Mountain), immediately to the north, rises to an
-altitude of 6,045 feet. But so colossal are the proportions of the
-great volcano that they dwarf even mountains of this size and give
-them the appearance of mere foothills. In the Tatoosh Range Pinnacle
-Peak is one of the higher summits, 6,562 feet in altitude. That peak
-rises nearly 4,000 feet above the Nisqually River, which at Longmire
-has an elevation of 2,700 feet, yet it will be seen that Mount Rainier
-towers still 7,846 feet higher than Pinnacle Peak.
-
-From the top of the volcano one fairly looks down upon the Tatoosh
-Range, to the south; upon Mount Wow, to the southwest; upon the Mother
-Mountains, to the northwest, indeed, upon all the ridges of the
-Cascade Range. Only Mount Adams, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Hood loom
-like solitary peaks above the even sky line, while the ridges below
-this line seem to melt together in one vast, continuous mountain
-platform. And such a platform, indeed, one should conceive the Cascade
-Range once to have been. Only it is now thoroughly dissected by
-profound, ramifying valleys, and has been resolved into a sea of
-wavelike crests and peaks.
-
-Mount Rainier stands, in round numbers, 10,000 feet high above its
-immediate base, and covers 100 square miles of territory, or one-third
-of the area of Mount Rainier National Park. In shape it is not a
-simple cone tapering to a slender, pointed summit like Fuji Yama, the
-great volcano of Japan. It is, rather, a broadly truncated mass
-resembling an enormous tree stump with spreading base and irregularly
-broken top. Its life history has been a varied one. Like all
-volcanoes, Rainier has built up its cone with the material ejected by
-its own eruptions--with cinders and bombs (steam-shredded particles
-and lumps of lava), and with occasional flows of liquid lava that have
-solidified into layers of hard, basaltic rock. At one time it attained
-an altitude of not less than 16,000 feet, if one may judge by the
-steep inclination of the lava and cinder layers visible in its flanks.
-Then a great explosion followed that destroyed the top part of the
-mountain, and reduced its height by some 2,000 feet. The volcano was
-left beheaded, and with a capacious hollow crater, surrounded by a
-jagged rim.
-
-Later on this great cavity, which measured nearly 3 miles across, from
-south to north, was filled by two small cinder cones. Successive
-feeble eruptions added to their height until at last they formed
-together a low, rounded dome--the eminence that now constitutes the
-mountain's summit. It rises only about 400 feet above the rim of the
-old crater, and is an inconspicuous feature, not readily identifiable
-from all sides as the highest point. In fact, so broad is the
-mountain's crown that from no point at its base can one see the top.
-The higher portions of the old crater rim, moreover, rise to
-elevations within a few hundred feet of the summit, and, especially
-when viewed from below, stand out boldly as separate peaks that mask
-and seem to overshadow the central dome. Especially prominent are Peak
-Success (14,150 feet) on the southwest side, and Liberty Cap (14,112
-feet) on the northwest side.
-
-The altitude of the main summit has for many years been in doubt.
-Several figures have been announced from time to time, no two of them
-in agreement with each other; but all of these, it is to be observed,
-were obtained by more or less approximate methods. In 1913 the United
-States Geological Survey, in connection with its topographic surveys
-of the Mount Rainier National Park, was able to make a new series of
-measurements by triangulation methods at close range. These give the
-peak an elevation of 14,408 feet, thus placing it near the top of the
-list of high summits of the United States. This last figure, it should
-be added, is not likely to be in error by more than a foot or two and
-may with some confidence be regarded as final. Greater exactness of
-determination is scarcely practicable in the case of Mount Rainier, as
-its highest summit consists actually of a mound of snow the height of
-which naturally varies somewhat with the seasons and from year to
-year.
-
-This crowning snow mound, which was once supposed to be the highest
-point in the United States, still bears the proud name of Columbia
-Crest. It is essentially a huge snowdrift or snow dune, heaped up by
-the westerly winds. Driving furiously up through the great breach in
-the west flank of the mountain, between Peak Success and Liberty Cap,
-they eddy lightly as they shoot over the summit and there deposit
-their load of snow.
-
-The drift is situated at the point where the rims of the two summit
-craters touch, and represents the only permanent snow mass on these
-rims, for some of the internal heat of the volcano still remains and
-suffices to keep these rock-crowned curving ridges bare of snow the
-better part of the year. It is intense enough, even, to produce
-numerous steam jets along the inner face of the rim of the east
-crater, which appears to be the most recently formed of the two. The
-center of this depression, however, is filled with snow, so that it
-has the appearance of a shallow, white-floored bowl some 1,200 feet in
-diameter. Great caverns are melted out by the steam jets under the
-edges of the snow mass, and these caverns afford shelters which,
-though uninviting, are not to be despised. They have proved a
-blessing to more than one party that has found itself compelled to
-remain overnight on the summit, saving them from death in the icy
-gales.
-
-That Mount Rainier should still retain so much of its internal heat is
-not surprising in view of the recency of its eruptions. It is known to
-have been active at intervals during the last century, and actual
-record exists of slight eruptions in 1843, 1854, 1858, and 1870.
-Indian legends mention a great cataclysmal outburst at an earlier
-period.
-
-At present the volcano may be regarded as dormant and no apprehension
-need be felt as to the possibility of an early renewal of its
-activity. The steam jets in the summit crater, it is true, as well as
-the hot springs at the mountain's foot (Longmire Springs), attest the
-continued presence of subterranean fires, but they are only feeble
-evidences as compared with the geysers, the steam jets, and the hot
-springs of the Yellowstone National Park. Yet that region is not
-considered any less safe to visit because of the presence of these
-thermal phenomena.
-
-In spite of Mount Rainier's continued activity until within the memory
-of man its sides appear to have been snow clad for a considerable
-length of time. Indeed, so intense and so long-continued has been the
-eroding action of the ice that the cone is now deeply ice-scarred and
-furrowed. Most of its outer layers, in fact, appear already to have
-been stripped away. Here and there portions of them remain standing on
-the mountain's flanks in the form of sharp-crested crags and ridges,
-and from these one may roughly surmise the original dimensions of the
-cone. Mere details in the volcano's sculpture, these residual masses
-are, some of them, so tall that, were they standing among ordinary
-mountains, they would be reckoned as great peaks. Particularly
-noteworthy is Little Tahoma, a sharp, triangular tooth on the east
-flank, that rises to an elevation of 11,117 feet. In its steep,
-ice-carved walls one may trace ascending volcanic strata aggregating
-2,000 feet in thickness that point upward to the place of their
-origin, the former summit of the mountain, which rose almost half a
-mile higher than the present top.
-
-Nor is the great crater rim left by the explosion that carried off the
-original summit preserved in its entirety. Peak Success and Liberty
-Cap are the only two promontories that give trustworthy indication of
-its former height and strength. Probably they represent the more
-massive portions on the southwest and northwest sides, respectively,
-while the weaker portions to the east and south have long since
-crumbled away under the heavy ice cascades that have been overriding
-them for ages. Only a few small rocky points remain upon which the
-snows split in their descent. The most prominent, as well as the most
-interesting, is the one on the southeast side, popularly known as
-Gibraltar Rock. Really a narrow, wedge-shaped mass, it appears in
-profile like a massive, square-cut promontory. The trail to the summit
-of the mountain passes along its overhanging south face and then
-ascends by a precipitous chute between ice and rock. It is this part
-of the ascent that is reputed as the most precarious and hazardous.
-
-From the rim points downward the ice cover of the cone divides into a
-number of distinct stream-like tongues or glaciers, each sunk in a
-great hollow pathway of its own. Between these ice-worn trenches the
-uneroded portions of the cone stand out in high relief, forming as a
-rule huge triangular "wedges," heading at the sharp rim points and
-spreading thence downward to the mountain's base. There they assume
-the aspect of more gently sloping, grassy table-lands, the charming
-alpine meadows of which Paradise Park and Spray Park are the most
-famous. Separating these upland parks are the profound ice-cut
-canyons which, beyond the glacier ends, widen out into densely
-forested valleys, each containing a swift-flowing river. No less than
-a dozen of these ice-fed torrents radiate from the volcano in all
-directions, while numerous lesser streams course from the snow fields
-between the glaciers.
-
-Thus the cone of Mount Rainier is seen to be dissected from its summit
-to its foot. Sculptured by its own glacier mantle, its slopes have
-become diversified with a fretwork of ridges, peaks, and canyons.
-
-The first ice one meets on approaching the mountain from Longmire
-Springs lies in the upper end of the Nisqually Valley. The wagon road,
-which up to this point follows the west side of the valley, winding in
-loops and curves along the heavily wooded mountain flank, here
-ventures out upon the rough bowlder bed of the Nisqually River and
-crosses the foaming torrent on a picturesque wooden bridge. A scant
-thousand feet above this structure, blocking the valley to a height of
-some 400 feet, looms a huge shapeless pile of what seems at first
-sight only rock debris, gray and chocolate in color. It is the
-dirt-stained end of one of the largest glaciers--the Nisqually. From a
-yawning cave in its front issues the Nisqually stream, a river full
-fledged from the start.
-
-The altitude here, it should be noted, is a trifle under 4,000 feet
-(elevation of bridge is 3,960 feet); hence the ice in view lies more
-than 10,000 feet below the summit of the mountain, the place of its
-origin. And in this statement is strikingly summed up the whole nature
-and economy of a glacier such as the Nisqually.
-
-A glacier is not a mere stationary blanket of snow and ice clinging
-inert to the mountain flank. It is a slowly moving streamlike body
-that descends by virtue of its own weight. The upper parts are
-continually being replenished by fresh snowfalls, which at those high
-altitudes do not entirely melt away in summer; while the lower end,
-projecting as it does below the snow line, loses annually more by
-melting than it receives by precipitation, and is maintained only by
-the continued accession of masses from above. The rate at which the
-ice advances has been determined by Prof. J. N. Le Conte, of the
-University of California. In 1903 he placed a row of stakes across the
-glacier, and with the aid of surveying instruments obtained accurate
-measurements of the distances through which they moved from day to
-day. He found that in summer, when the movement is greatest, it
-averages 16 inches per day. This figure, however, applies only to the
-central portion of the glacier--the main current, so to speak--for the
-margins necessarily move more slowly, being retarded by friction
-against the channel sides.
-
-The snout of the Nisqually Glacier, accordingly, is really composed of
-slowly advancing ice, but so rapid is the melting at this low altitude
-that it effectually counterbalances the advance, and thus the ice
-front remains essentially stationary and apparently fixed in place.
-Actually, it is subject to slight back and forward movements,
-amounting to a foot or more per day; for, as one may readily imagine,
-fluctuations in snowfall and in temperature, above or below the
-normal, are ever likely to throw the balance one way or another.
-
-A glacier may also make periodic advances or retreats on a larger
-scale in obedience to climatic changes extending over many years. Thus
-all the glaciers on Mount Rainier, as well as many in other parts of
-the world, are at present, and have been for some time, steadily
-retreating as the result of milder climate or of a lessening in snow
-supply. Only so recently as 1885 the Nisqually Glacier reached down to
-the place now occupied by the bridge, and it is safe to say that at
-that time no engineer would have had the daring to plan the road as it
-is now laid. In the last 25 years, however, the Nisqually Glacier has
-retreated fully 1,000 feet.
-
-Evidences of similar wholesale recession are to be observed at the
-ends of the other glaciers of Mount Rainier, but the measure of their
-retreat is not recorded with the precision that was possible in the
-case of the Nisqually Glacier. Eyewitnesses still live at Longmire
-Springs who can testify to the former extension of the Nisqually
-Glacier down to the site of the wagon bridge.
-
-As one continues the ascent by the wagon road a partial view of the
-glacier's lower course is obtained, and there is gained some idea of
-its stream-like character. More satisfying are the views from Paradise
-Park. Here several miles of the ice stream (its total length is nearly
-5 miles) lie stretched out at one's feet, while looking up toward the
-mountain one beholds the tributary ice fields and ice streams,
-pouring, as it were, from above, from right and left, rent by
-innumerable crevasses and resembling foaming cascades suddenly
-crystallized in place. The turmoil of these upper branches may be too
-confusing to be studied with profit, but the more placid lower course
-presents a favorable field for observation, and a readily accessible
-one at that.
-
-A veritable frozen river it seems, flowing between smooth, parallel
-banks, half a mile apart. Its surface, in contrast to the glistening
-ice cascades above, has the prevailingly somber tint of old ice,
-relieved here and there by bright patches of last winter's snow. These
-lie for the most part in gaping fissures or crevasses that run athwart
-the glacier at short intervals and divide its body into narrow slices.
-In the upper course, where the glacier overrides obstacles in its bed,
-the crevasses are particularly numerous and irregularly spaced,
-sometimes occurring in two sets intersecting at right angles, and
-producing square-cut prisms. Farther down the ice stream's current is
-more sluggish and the crevasses heal up by degrees, providing a united
-surface, over which one may travel freely.
-
-Gradually, also, the glacier covers itself with debris. Angular rock
-fragments, large and small, and quantities of dust, derived from the
-rock walls bordering the ice stream higher up, litter its surface and
-hide the color of the ice. At first only a narrow ridge of such
-material--a moraine, as it is called--accompanies the ice river on
-each side, resembling a sharp-crested embankment built by human hands
-to restrain its floods; but toward the lower end of the glacier, as
-the ice wastes away, the debris contained in it is released in masses,
-and forms brown marginal bands, fringing the moraines. In fact, from
-here on down it becomes difficult to tell where the ice of the glacier
-ends at the sides and where the moraines begin.
-
-The lower part of the glacier also possesses a peculiar feature in the
-form of a debris ridge about midway on its back--a medial moraine.
-Most of the way it stretches like a slender, dark ribbon, gradually
-narrowing upstream. One may trace it with the eye up to its point of
-origin, the junction of the two main branches of the glacier, at the
-foot of a sharp rock spur on the mountain's flank.
-
-In the last mile of the Nisqually's course, this medial moraine
-develops from a mere dirt band to a conspicuous embankment, projecting
-40 feet above the ice. Not the entire body of the ridge, however, is
-made up of rock debris. The feature owes its elevation chiefly to the
-protective influence of the debris layer on its surface, which is
-thick enough to shield the ice beneath from the hot rays of the sun,
-and greatly retards melting, while the adjoining unprotected ice
-surfaces are rapidly reduced.
-
-A short distance above the glacier's terminus the medial moraine and
-the ever-broadening marginal bands come together. No more clear ice
-remains exposed, irregular mounds and ridges of debris cover the
-entire surface of the glacier, and the moraine-smothered mass assumes
-the peculiar inchoate appearance that is so striking upon first view.
-
-In utter contrast with the glacier's dying lower end are the bright
-snow fields on the summit in which it commences its career. Hard by
-the rock rim of the east summit crater the snows begin, enwrapping in
-an even, immaculate layer the smooth sides of the cinder cone. Only a
-few feet deep at first, they thicken downward by degrees, until, a
-thousand feet below the crater, they possess sufficient depth and
-weight to acquire movement. Occasional angular crevasses here
-interrupt the slope and force the summit-bound traveler to make
-wearying detours.
-
-Looking down into a gash of this sort one beholds nothing but clean
-snow, piled in many layers. Only a faint blue tinges the crevasse
-walls, darkening but slowly with the depth, in contrast to the intense
-indigo hue characteristic of the partings in the lower course of the
-glacier. There the material is a dense ice, more or less crystalline
-in texture; here it is scarcely more than snow, but slightly compacted
-and loosely granular--what is generally designated by the Swiss term
-"neve."
-
-For several thousand feet down, as far as the 10,000-foot level, in
-fact, does the snow retain this granular consistency. One reason for
-the slowness with which it compacts is found in the low temperatures
-that prevail at high altitudes and preclude any considerable melting.
-The air itself seldom rises above the freezing point, even in the
-middle of the day, and as a consequence the snow never becomes soft
-and mushy, as it does at lower levels.
-
-When snow assumes the mushy, "wet-sugar" state, it is melting
-internally as well as at its outer surface, owing both to the water
-that soaks into it and to the warming of the air inclosed within its
-innumerable tiny pores (which tiny air spaces, by the way, give the
-snow its brilliant whiteness). Snow in this condition has, paradoxical
-though it may sound, a temperature a few tenths of a degree higher
-than the melting point--a fact recently established by delicate
-temperature measurements made on European glaciers. It is this
-singular fact, no doubt, that explains how so many minute organisms
-are able to flourish and propagate in summer on the lower portions of
-many glaciers. It may be of interest to digress here briefly in order
-to speak of these little known though common forms of life.
-
-Several species of insects are among the regular inhabitants of
-glaciers. Most of them belong to a very low order--the Springtails, or
-_Thysanura_--and are so minute that in spite of their dark color they
-escape the attention of most passers-by. If one looks closely,
-however, they may readily be observed hopping about like miniature
-fleas or wriggling deftly into the cavities of the snow. It seems to
-incommode them but little if in their acrobatic jumps they
-occasionally alight in a puddle or in a rill, for they are thickly
-clad with furry scales that prevent them from getting wet--just as a
-duck is kept dry by its greasy feathers.
-
-Especially plentiful on the lower parts of the Rainier glaciers, and
-more readily recognized, are slender dark-brown worms of the genus
-_Mesenchytraeus_, about 1 inch in length. Millions and millions of
-them may be seen on favorable days in July and August writhing on the
-surface of the ice, evidently breeding there and feeding on organic
-matter blown upon the glacier in the form of dust. So essential to
-their existence is the chill of the ice that they enter several
-inches, and sometimes many feet below the surface on days when the sun
-is particularly hot, reappearing late in the afternoon.
-
-Mention also deserves to be made of that microscopic plant
-_Protococcus nivalis_, which is responsible for the mysterious pink or
-light, rose-colored patches so often met with on glaciers--the "red
-snow" of a former superstition. Each patch represents a colony or
-culture comprising billions of individuals. It is probable that they
-represent but a small fraction of the total microflora thriving on
-the snow, the other species remaining invisible for lack of a
-conspicuous color.
-
-To return to the frigid upper neves, it is not to be supposed that
-they suffer no loss whatever by melting. The heat radiated directly to
-them by the sun is alone capable of doing considerable damage, even
-while the air remains below the freezing point. At these high
-altitudes the sun heat is astonishingly intense, as more than one
-uninitiated mountain climber has learned to his sorrow by neglecting
-to take the customary precaution of blacking his face before making
-the ascent. In a few hours the skin is literally scorched and begins
-to blister painfully.
-
-At the foot of the mountain the sun heat is relatively feeble, for
-much of it is absorbed by the dust and vapor in the lower layers of
-the atmosphere, but on the summit, which projects 2 miles higher, the
-air is thin and pure, and lets the rays pass through but little
-diminished in strength.
-
-The manner in which the sun affects the snow is peculiar and
-distinctive. Instead of reducing the surface evenly, it melts out many
-close-set cups and hollows, a foot or more in diameter and separated
-by sharp spires and crests. No water is visible anywhere, either in
-rills or in pools, evaporation keeping pace with the reduction. If the
-sun's action is permitted to continue uninterrupted for many days, as
-may happen in a hot, dry summer, these snow cups deepen by degrees,
-until at length they assume the aspect of gigantic bee cells, several
-feet in depth. Snow fields thus honeycombed may be met with on the
-slopes above Gibraltar Rock. They are wearisome to traverse, for the
-ridges and spines are fairly resistant, so that one must laboriously
-clamber over them. Most exasperating, however, is the going after a
-snowstorm has filled the honeycombs. Then the traveler, waist deep in
-mealy snow, is left to flounder haphazard through a hidden labyrinth.
-
-Of interest in this connection is the great snow cliff immediately
-west of Gibraltar Rock. Viewed from the foot of that promontory, the
-sky line of the snow castle fairly bristles with honeycomb spines;
-while below, in the face of the snow cliff, dark, wavy lines, roughly
-parallel to the upper surface, repeat its pattern in subdued form.
-They represent the honeycombs of previous seasons, now buried under
-many feet of snow, but still traceable by the dust that was imprisoned
-with them.
-
-The snow cliff west of Gibraltar Rock is of interest also for other
-reasons. It is the end of a great snow cascade that descends from the
-rim of the old crater. Several such cascades may be seen on the south
-side of the mountain, separated by craggy remnants of the crater rim.
-Above them the summit neves stretch in continuous fields, but from the
-rim on down, the volcano's slopes are too precipitous to permit a
-gradual descent, and the neves break into wild cascades and falls.
-Fully two to three thousand feet they tumble, assembling again in
-compact, sluggish ice fields on the gentler slopes below.
-
-Of the three cascades that feed the Nisqually Glacier only the central
-one, it is to be observed, forms a continuous connection between the
-summit neves and the lower ice fields. The two others, viz. the one
-next to Gibraltar and the westernmost of the three, terminate in
-vertical cliffs, over great precipices of rock. From them snow masses
-detach at intervals and produce thundering avalanches that bound far
-out over the inclined ice fields below. Especially frequent are the
-falls from the cliff near Gibraltar. They occur hourly at certain
-times, but as a rule at periods of one or more days.
-
-From the westernmost cascade avalanches are small and rare. Indeed, as
-one watches them take place at long intervals throughout a summer one
-can not but begin to doubt whether they are in themselves really
-sufficient to feed and maintain so extensive an ice field as lies
-stretched out under them. Surely much more snow must annually melt
-away from the broad surface of that field, exposed as it lies to the
-midday sun, than the insignificant avalanches can replace. Were they
-its only source of supply, the ice field, one feels confident, would
-soon cease to exist.
-
-The fact is that the ice field in question is not dependent for its
-support on the avalanches from above. It may receive some
-contributions to its volume through them, but in reality it is an
-independent ice body, nourished chiefly by direct snow precipitation
-from the clouds. And this is true, in large measure, of all the ice
-fields lying under the ice cascades. The Nisqually Glacier,
-accordingly, is not to be regarded as composed merely of the cascading
-neves, reunited and cemented together, but as taking a fresh start at
-these lower levels. Improbable though this may seem at first, it is
-nevertheless a fact that is readily explained.
-
-The winter snows on Mount Rainier are heaviest in the vicinity of its
-base; indeed, the snowfall at those low levels is several times
-greater than that on the summit. This in itself may seem anomalous. So
-accustomed is one to think that the snowfall on high mountains
-increases with the altitude that it seems strange to find a case in
-which the opposite is true. Yet Mount Rainier stands by no means alone
-in this regard. The Sierra Nevada and the Andes, the Himalayas and the
-Alps, all show closely analogous conditions.
-
-In each of these lofty mountain regions the precipitation is known to
-be heaviest at moderate altitudes, while higher up it decreases
-markedly. The reason is that the storm clouds--the clouds that carry
-most of the rain and snow--hang in a zone of only moderate elevation,
-while higher up the atmosphere contains but little moisture and seldom
-forms clouds of any great density.
-
-In the Rainier region the height of the storm clouds is in large
-measure regulated by the relief of the Cascade Range; for it is really
-this cooling mountain barrier that compels the moisture-laden winds
-from the Pacific Ocean to condense and to discharge. It follows that
-the storm clouds are seldom much elevated above the sky line of the
-Cascade Mountains; they cling, so to speak, to its crest and ridges,
-while the cone of Mount Rainier towers high above them into serener
-skies. Many a day may one look down from the summit, or even from a
-halfway point, such as Camp Muir (10,062 feet), upon the upper surface
-of the clouds. Like a layer of fleecy cotton they appear, smothering
-the lower mountains and enveloping the volcano's base.
-
-Clouds, it is true, are frequently seen gathering about the mountain's
-crown, usually in the form of a circular cap or hood, precursor of a
-general storm, but such clouds yield but very little snow.
-
-No accurate measurements have been made of the snowfall at the
-mountain's foot, but in the Nisqually Valley, at Longmire Springs, the
-winter snows are known often to exceed 20 feet in depth. The summer
-heat at this low level (2,762 feet) is, of course, abundantly able to
-remove all of it, at least by the end of May. But higher up every
-thousand feet of elevation suffices to prolong appreciably the life of
-the snowy cover. In Paradise Park, for instance, at altitudes between
-5,000 and 6,000 feet, huge snowdrifts encumber the flowering meadows
-until far into July. Above an altitude of 6,000 feet permanent drifts
-and snow fields survive in certain favored spots, while at the
-7,000-foot level the snow line, properly speaking, is reached. Above
-this line considerable snow remains regularly from one winter to the
-next, and extensive ice fields and glaciers exist even without
-protection from the sun.
-
-It is between the 8,000 and 10,000 foot levels, however, that one
-meets with the conditions most favorable for the development of
-glaciers. Below this zone the summer heat largely offsets the heavy
-precipitation, while above it the snowfall itself is relatively scant.
-Within the belt the annual addition of snow to the ice fields is
-greater than anywhere else on Mount Rainier. The result is manifest in
-the arrangement and distribution of the glaciers on the cone. By far
-the greater number originate in the vicinity of the 10,000-foot level,
-while those ice streams which cascade from the summit, such as the
-Nisqually, are in a sense reborn some 4,000 feet lower down.
-
-A striking example of an ice body nourished wholly by the snows
-falling on the lower slope of Mount Rainier is the Paradise Glacier.
-In no wise connected with the summit neves, it makes its start at an
-elevation of less than 9,000 feet. Situated on the spreading slope
-between the diverging canyons of the Nisqually on the west and of the
-Cowlitz on the northeast, it constitutes a typical "interglacier," as
-intermediate ice bodies of this kind are termed.
-
-Its appearance is that of a gently undulating ice field, crevassed
-only toward its lower edge and remarkably clean throughout. No
-debris-shedding cliffs rise anywhere along its borders, and this fact,
-no doubt, largely explains its freedom from morainal accumulations.
-
-The absence of cliffs also implies a lack of protecting shade.
-Practically the entire expanse of the glacier lies exposed to the full
-glare of the sun. As a consequence its losses by melting are very
-heavy, and a single hot summer may visibly diminish the glacier's
-bulk. Nevertheless it seems to hold its own as well as any other
-glacier on Mount Rainier, and this ability to recuperate finds its
-explanation in the exceeding abundance of fresh snows that replenish
-it every winter.
-
-The Paradise Glacier, however, is not the product wholly of direct
-precipitation from the clouds. Much of its mass is supplied by the
-wind, and accumulates in the lee of the high ridge to the west, over
-which the route to Camp Muir and Gibraltar Rock is laid. The westerly
-gales keep this ridge almost bare of snow, permitting only a few
-drifts to lodge in sheltered depressions. But east of the ridge there
-are great eddies in which the snow forms long, smooth slopes that
-descend several hundred feet to the main body of the glacier. These
-slopes are particularly inviting to tourists for the delightful
-"glissades" which they afford. Sitting down on the hard snow at the
-head of such a slope, one may indulge in an exhilarating glide of
-amazing swiftness, landing at last safely on the level snows beneath.
-
-The generally smooth and united surface of the Paradise Glacier, it
-may be added, contributes not a little to its attractiveness as a
-field for alpine sports. On it one may roam at will without
-apprehension of lurking peril; indeed one can journey across its
-entire width, from Paradise Park to the Cowlitz Rocks, without
-encountering a single dangerous fissure. This general absence of
-crevasses is accounted for largely by the evenness of the glacier's
-bed and by its hollow shape, owing to which the snows on all sides
-press inward and compact the mass in the center. Only toward its
-frontal margin, where the glacier plunges over an abrupt rock step, as
-well as in the hump of that part known as Stevens Glacier, is the ice
-rent by long crevasses and broken into narrow blades. Here it may be
-wise for the inexperienced not to venture without a competent guide,
-for the footing is apt to be treacherous, and jumping over crevasses
-or crossing them by frail snow bridges are feats never accomplished
-without risk.
-
-In the early part of summer the Paradise Glacier has the appearance of
-a vast, unbroken snow field, blazing, immaculate, in the sun. But
-later, as the fresh snows melt away from its surface, grayish patches
-of old crystalline ice develop in places, more especially toward the
-glacier's lower margin. Day by day these patches expand until, by the
-end of August, most of the lower ice field has been stripped of its
-brilliant mantle. Its countenance, once bright and serene, now assumes
-a grim expression and becomes crisscrossed by a thousand seams, like
-the visage of an aged man.
-
-Over this roughened surface trickle countless tiny rills which,
-uniting, form swift rivulets and torrents, indeed veritable river
-systems on a miniature scale that testify with eloquence to the
-rapidity with which the sun consumes the snow. Strangely capricious in
-course are these streamlets, for, while in the main gravitating with
-the glacier's slope, they are ever likely to be caught and deflected
-by the numerous seams in the ice. These seams, it should be explained,
-are lines of former crevasses that have healed again under pressure in
-the course of the glacier's slow descent. As a rule they inclose a
-small amount of dirt, and owing to its presence are particularly
-vulnerable to erosion. Along them the streamlets rapidly intrench
-themselves--perhaps by virtue of their warmth, what little there is of
-it, as much as by actual abrasion--and hollow out channels of a
-freakish sort, here straight and canal-like, there making sharp zigzag
-turns; again broadening into profound, canoe-shaped pools, or emptying
-into deeper trenches by little sparkling cataracts, or passing under
-tiny bridges and tunnels--a veritable toy land carved in ice.
-
-But unfortunately these pretty features are ephemeral, many of them
-changing from day to day; for, evenings, as the lowering sun withdraws
-its heat, the melting gradually comes to a halt, and the little
-streams cease to flow. The soft babbling and gurgling and the often
-exquisitely melodious tinkle of dripping water in hidden glacial wells
-are hushed, and the silent frost proceeds to choke up passages and
-channels, so that next day's waters have to seek new avenues.
-
-In the region where the new crevasses open the surface drainage comes
-abruptly to an end. Here gaping chutes of deepest azure entrap the
-torrents and the waters rush with musical thunder to the interior of
-the glacier and finally down to its bed.
-
-At its lower border the Paradise Glacier splits into several lobes.
-The westernmost sends forth the Paradise River, which, turning
-southwestward, plunges over the Sluiskin Fall (named for the Klickitat
-Indian who guided Van Trump and Hazard Stevens to the mountain in
-1870, when they made the first successful ascent) and runs the length
-of Paradise Valley. The middle lobe has become known as Stevens
-Glacier (named for Hazard Stevens) and ends in Stevens Creek, a stream
-which almost immediately drops over a precipice of some 600 feet--the
-Fairy Falls--and winds southeastward through rugged Stevens Canyon.
-The easternmost lobes, known collectively as Williwakas Glacier, send
-forth two little cascades, which, uniting, form Williwakas Creek. This
-stream is a tributary of the Cowlitz River, as is Stevens Creek.
-
-Immediately adjoining the Paradise Glacier on the northeast, and not
-separated from it by any definite barrier, lies the Cowlitz Glacier,
-one of the stateliest ice streams of Mount Rainier. It flows in a
-southeasterly direction, and burrows its nose deeply into the
-forest-covered hills at the mountain's foot. Its upper course consists
-of two parallel-flowing ice streams, intrenched in profound troughs,
-which they have enlarged laterally until now only a narrow, ragged
-crest of rock remains between them, resembling a partition a thousand
-feet in height. At the upper end of this crest stands Gibraltar Rock.
-
-At the point of confluence of the two branches there begins a long
-medial moraine that stretches like a black tape the whole length of
-the lower course. To judge by its position midway on the glacier's
-back, the two tributaries must be very nearly equal in strength, yet,
-when traced to their sources, they are found to originate in widely
-different ways. The north branch, named Ingraham Glacier (after Maj.
-E. S. Ingraham, one of Rainier's foremost pioneers), comes from the
-neves on the summit; while the south branch heads in a pocket
-immediately under Gibraltar. No snow comes to it from the summit;
-hence we can not escape the conclusion that it receives through direct
-precipitation and through wind drifting about as much snow as its
-sister branch receives from the summit regions. Like the glacier
-troughs below, the pocket appears to have widened laterally under the
-influence of the ice, and is now separated from the Nisqually ice
-fields to the west by only a narrow rock partition, the Cowlitz
-Cleaver, as it is locally called. Up this narrow crest the route to
-Gibraltar Rock ascends. The name "cleaver," it may be said in passing,
-is most apt for the designation of a narrow rock crest of this sort,
-and well deserves to be more generally used in the place of awkward
-foreign terms, such as arrete and grat.
-
-Both branches of the Cowlitz Glacier cascade steeply immediately above
-their confluence, but the lower glacier has a gentle gradient and a
-fairly uneventful course. Like the lower Nisqually, it is bordered by
-long morainal ridges, and toward its end acquires broad marginal dirt
-bands. For nearly a mile these continue, leaving a gradually narrowing
-lane of clear ice between them. Then they coalesce and the whole ice
-body becomes strewn with rock debris.
-
-The Cowlitz Glacier, including its north branch, the Ingraham Glacier,
-measures slightly over 6 miles in length. Throughout that distance the
-ice stream lies sunk in a steep-walled canyon of its own carving.
-Imposing cliffs of columnar basalt, ribbed as if draped in corduroy,
-overlook its lower course. Slender waterfalls glide down their
-precipitous fronts, like silver threads, guided by the basalt
-flutings.
-
-From the end of the glacier issues the Muddy Fork of the Cowlitz
-River, which, joining the Ohanapecosh, forms the Cowlitz River proper,
-one of the largest streams of the Cascade Range. For nearly a hundred
-miles the Cowlitz River follows a southwesterly course, finally
-emptying in the Columbia River a short distance below Portland,
-Oregon.
-
-The name Muddy Fork is a most apt one, for the stream leaves the
-glacier heavily charged with debris and mud, and while it gradually
-clears itself as it proceeds over its gravelly bed, it is still turbid
-when it reaches the Ohanapecosh. That stream is relatively clear, for
-it heads in a glacier of small extent and little eroding power, and
-consequently begins its career with but a moderate load; furthermore
-it receives on its long circuitous course a number of tributaries from
-the Cascade Range, all of them containing clear water.
-
-The name Muddy, however, might with equal appropriateness be given to
-every one of the streams flowing from the ice fields of Mount Rainier.
-So easily disintegrated are the volcanic materials of which that peak
-is composed, that the glaciers are enabled to erode with great
-rapidity, even in their present shrunken state. They consequently
-deliver to the streams vast quantities of debris, much of it in the
-form of cobbles and bowlders, but much of it also in the form of "rock
-flour."
-
-A considerable proportion of a glacier's erosional work is performed
-by abrasion or grinding, its bed being scoured and grooved by the rock
-blocks and smaller debris held by the passing ice. As a result glacier
-streams ordinarily carry much finely comminuted rock, or rock flour,
-and this, because of its fineness, remains long in suspension and
-imparts to the water a distinctive color. In regions of light-colored
-rocks the glacier streams have a characteristic milky hue, which, as
-it fades out, passes over into a delicate turquoise tint. But the
-lavas of Mount Rainier produce for the most part dark-hued flour, and
-as a consequence the rivers coming from that peak are dyed a somber
-chocolate brown.
-
-A word may not be out of place here about the sharp daily fluctuations
-of the ice-fed rivers of the Mount Rainier National Park, especially
-in view of the difficulties these streams present to crossing. There
-are fully a score of turbulent rivers radiating from the peak, and as
-a consequence one can not journey far through the park without being
-obliged to cross one of them. On all the permanent trails substantial
-bridges obviate the difficulty, but in the less developed portions of
-the park, fording is still the only method available. It is well to
-bear in mind that these rivers, being nourished by melting snow,
-differ greatly in habit from streams in countries where glaciers are
-absent. Generally speaking, they are highest in summer and lowest in
-winter; also, since their flow is intimately dependent upon the
-quantity of snow being melted at a given time, it follows that in
-summer when the sun reaches its greatest power they swell daily to a
-prodigious volume, reaching a maximum in the afternoon, while during
-the night and early morning hours they again ebb to a relatively
-moderate size. In the forenoon of a warm summer day one may watch them
-grow hourly in volume and in violence, until toward the middle of the
-day they become raging torrents of liquid mud in which heavy cobbles
-and even bowlders may be heard booming as they roll before the
-current. It would be nothing short of folly to attempt to ford under
-these conditions, whether on horseback or on foot. In the evening,
-however, and still better, in the early morning, one may cross with
-safety; the streams then have the appearance of mere mountain brooks
-wandering harmlessly over broad bowlder beds.
-
-High above the Ingraham Glacier towers that sharp, residual mass of
-lava strata known as Little Tahoma (11,117 feet), the highest
-outstanding eminence on the flank of Mount Rainier. It forms a
-gigantic "wedge" that divides the Ingraham from the Emmons Glacier to
-the north. So extensive is this wedge that it carries on its back
-several large ice fields and interglaciers, some of which, lying far
-from the beaten path of the tourist, are as yet unnamed. Separating
-them from each other are various attenuated, pinnacled crests, all of
-them subordinate to a main backbone that runs eastward some 6 miles
-and terminates in the Cowlitz Chimneys (7,607 feet), a group of tall
-rock towers that dominate the landscape on the east side of Mount
-Rainier.
-
-Most of the ice fields, naturally, lie on the shady north slope of the
-main backbone; in fact, a series of them extends as far east as the
-Cowlitz Chimneys. One of the lesser crests, however, that running
-southeastward to the upland region known as Cowlitz Park, also gives
-protection to an ice body of some magnitude, the Ohanapecosh Glacier.
-Considerably broader than it is long in the direction of its flow,
-this glacier lies on a high shelf a mile and a half across, whence it
-cascades down into the head of a walled-in canyon. Formerly, no doubt,
-it more than filled this canyon, but now it sends down only a shrunken
-lobe. The stream that issues from it, the Ohanapecosh River, is really
-the main prong and head of the Cowlitz River.
-
-The largest and most elevated of the ice fields east of Little Tahoma
-is known for its peculiar shape as Fryingpan Glacier. It covers fully
-3 square miles of ground and constitutes the most extensive and most
-beautiful interglacier on Mount Rainier. It originates in the hollow
-east side of Little Tahoma itself and descends rapidly northward,
-overlooking the great Emmons Glacier and finally reaching down almost
-to its level. It is not a long time since the two ice bodies were
-confluent.
-
-The eastern portion of the Fryingpan Glacier drains northeastward and
-sends forth several cascading torrents which, uniting with others
-coming from the lesser ice fields to the east, form the Fryingpan
-River, a brisk stream that joins White River several miles farther
-north.
-
-Below the Fryingpan Glacier there lies a region of charming
-flower-dotted meadows named Summerland, a most attractive spot for
-camping.
-
-Cloaking almost the entire east side of Mount Rainier is the Emmons
-Glacier, the most extensive ice stream on the peak (named after Samuel
-F. Emmons, the geologist and mountaineer who was the second to conquer
-the peak in 1870). About 5-1/2 miles long and 1-3/4 miles wide in its
-upper half, it covers almost 8 square miles of territory. It makes a
-continuous descent from the summit to the base, the rim of the old
-crater having almost completely broken down under its heavy neve
-cascades. But two small remnants of the rim still protrude through the
-ice and divide it into three cascades. From each of these dark rock
-islands trails a long medial moraine that extends in an
-ever-broadening band down to the foot of the glacier.
-
-Conspicuous lateral moraines accompany the ice stream on each side.
-There are several parallel ridges of this sort, disposed in successive
-tiers above each other on the valley sides. Most impressively do they
-attest the extent of the Emmons Glacier's recent shrinking. The
-youngest moraine, fresh looking as if deposited only yesterday, lies
-but 50 feet above the glacier's surface and a scant 100 feet distant
-from its edge; the older ridges, subdued in outline, and already
-tinged with verdure, lie several hundred feet higher on the slope.
-
-The Emmons Glacier, like the Nisqually and the Cowlitz, becomes
-densely littered with morainal debris at its lower end, maintaining,
-however, for a considerable distance a central lane of clear ice. The
-stream which it sends forth, White River, is the largest of all the
-ice-fed streams radiating from the peak. It flows northward and then
-turns in a northwesterly direction, emptying finally in Puget Sound
-at the city of Seattle.
-
-On the northeast side of the mountain, descending from the same high
-neves as the Emmons Glacier, is the Winthrop Glacier. Not until
-halfway down, at an elevation of about 10,000 feet, does it detach
-itself as a separate ice stream. The division takes place at the apex
-of that great triangular interspace so aptly named "the Wedge." Upon
-its sharp cliff edge, Steamboat Prow, the descending neves part, it
-has been said, like swift-flowing waters upon the dividing bow of a
-ship at anchor. The simile is an excellent one; even the long foam
-crest, rising along the ship's side, is represented by a wave of ice.
-
-Undoubtedly the Wedge formerly headed much higher up on the mountain's
-flank. Perhaps it extended upward in the form of a long, attenuated
-"cleaver." It is easy to see how the ice masses impinging upon it have
-reduced it to successively lower levels. They are still unrelentingly
-at work. It is on the back of the Wedge, it may be added here, that is
-situated that small ice body which Maj. Ingraham named the
-"Interglacier." That name has since been applied in a generic sense to
-all similar ice bodies lying on the backs of "wedges."
-
-Of greatest interest on the Winthrop Glacier are the ice cascades and
-domes. Evidently the glacier's bed is a very uneven one, giving rise
-to falls and pools, such as one observes in a turbulent trout stream.
-The cascades explain themselves readily enough, but the domes require
-a word of interpretation. They are underlain by rounded bosses of
-especially resistant rock. Over these the ice is lifted, much as is
-the water of a swift mountain torrent over submerged bowlders.
-Immediately above each obstruction the ice appears compact and free
-from crevasses, but as it reaches the top and begins to pour over it
-breaks, and a network of intersecting cracks divides it into erect,
-angular blocks and fantastic obelisks. Below each dome there is, as a
-rule, a deep hollow partly inclosed by trailing ice ridges, analogous
-to the whirling eddy that occurs normally below a bowlder in a brook.
-Thus does a glacier simulate a stream of water even in its minor
-details.
-
-The domes of the Winthrop Glacier measure 50 to 60 feet in height. A
-sample of the kind of obstruction that produces them appears, as if
-specially provided to satisfy human curiosity, near the terminus of
-the glacier. There one may see, close to the west wall of the
-troughlike bed, a projecting rock mass, rounded and smoothly polished,
-over which the glacier rode but a short time ago.
-
-Another feature of interest sometimes met with on the Winthrop
-Glacier, and for that matter also on the other ice streams of Mount
-Rainier, are the "glacier tables." These consist of slabs of rock
-mounted each on a pedestal of snow and producing the effect of huge
-toadstools. The slabs are always of large size, while the pedestals
-vary from a few inches to several feet in height.
-
-The origin of the rocks may be traced to cliffs of incoherent volcanic
-materials that disintegrate under the frequent alternations of frost
-and thaw and send down periodic rock avalanches, the larger fragments
-of which bound out far upon the glacier's surface.
-
-The snow immediately under these large fragments is effectually
-protected from the sun and does not melt, while the surrounding snow,
-being unprotected, is constantly wasting away, often at the rate of
-several inches per day. Thus in time each rock is left poised on a
-column of its own conserving. There is, however, a limit to the height
-which such a column can attain, for as soon as it begins to exceed a
-certain height the protecting shadow of the capping stone no longer
-reaches down to the base of the pedestal and the slanting rays of the
-sun soon undermine it. More commonly, however, the south side of the
-column becomes softened both by heat transmitted from the sun-warmed
-south edge of the stone, as well as by heat reflected from the
-surrounding glacier surface, and as a consequence the table begins to
-tilt. On very hot days, in fact, the inclination of the table keeps
-pace with the progress of the sun, much after the manner of a
-sun-loving flower, the slant being to the southeast in the forenoon
-and to the southwest in the afternoon. As the snow pillar increases in
-height it becomes more and more exposed and the tilting is
-accentuated, until at last the rock slides down.
-
-In its new position the slab at once begins to generate a new
-pedestal, from which in due time it again slides down, and so the
-process may be repeated several times in the course of a single
-summer, the rock shifting its location by successive slips an
-appreciable distance across the glacier in a southerly direction.
-
-As has been stated, the slabs on glacier tables are always of large
-size. This is not a fortuitous circumstance; rocks under a certain
-size, and especially fragments of little thickness, cannot produce
-pedestals; in fact, far from conserving the snow under them, they
-accelerate its melting and sink below the surface. This is especially
-true of dark-colored rocks. Objects of dark color, as is well known to
-physicists, have a faculty for absorbing heat, whereas light-colored
-objects, especially white ones, reflect it best. Dark-colored
-fragments of rock lying on a glacier, accordingly, warm rapidly at
-their upper surface and, if thin, forthwith transmit their heat to the
-snow under them, causing it to melt much faster than the surrounding
-clean snow, which, because of its very whiteness, reflects a large
-percentage of the heat it receives from the sun. As a consequence each
-small rock fragment and even each separate dust particle on a glacier
-melts out a tiny well of its own, as a rule not vertically downward
-but at a slight inclination in the direction of the noonday sun. And
-thus, in some localities, one may behold the apparently incongruous
-spectacle of large and heavy rocks supported on snow pillars alongside
-of little fragments that have sunk into the ice.
-
-There is also a limit to the depth which the little wells may attain;
-as they deepen, the rock fragment at the bottom receives the sun heat
-each day for a progressively shorter period, until at last it receives
-so little that its rate of sinking becomes less than that of the
-melting glacier surface. Nevertheless it will be clear that the
-presence of scattered rock debris on a glacier must greatly augment
-the rate of melting, as it fairly honeycombs the ice and increases the
-number of melting surfaces. Wherever the debris is dense, on the other
-hand, and accumulates on the glacier in a heavy layer, its effect
-becomes a protective one and surface melting is retarded instead of
-accelerated. The dirt-covered lower ends of the glaciers of Mount
-Rainier are thus to be regarded as in a measure preserved by the
-debris that cloaks them; their life is greatly prolonged by the
-unsightly garment.
-
-In many ways the most interesting of all the ice streams on Mount
-Rainier is the Carbon Glacier, the great ice river on the north side,
-which flows between those two charming natural gardens, Moraine Park
-and Spray Park. The third glacier in point of length, it heads,
-curiously, not on the summit, but in a profound, walled-in
-amphitheater, inset low into the mountain's flank. This amphitheater
-is what is technically known as a glacial cirque, a horseshoe-shaped
-basin elaborated by the ice from a deep gash that existed originally
-in the volcano's side. It has the distinction of being the largest of
-all the ice-sculptured cirques on Mount Rainier, and one of the
-grandest in the world. It measures more than a mile and a half in
-diameter, while its head wall towers a sheer 3,600 feet. So well
-proportioned is the great hollow, however, and so simple are its
-outlines that the eye finds difficulty in correctly estimating the
-dimensions. Not until an avalanche breaks from the 300-foot neve cliff
-above and hurls itself over the precipice with crashing thunder, does
-one begin to realize the depth of the colossal recess. The falling
-snow mass is several seconds in descending, and though weighing
-hundreds of tons, seemingly floats down with the leisureliness of a
-feather.
-
-These avalanches were once believed to be the authors of the cirque.
-They were thought to have worn back the head wall little by little,
-even as a waterfall causes the cliff under it to recede. But the real
-manner in which glacial cirques evolve is better understood to-day. It
-is now known that cirques are produced primarily by the eroding action
-of the ice masses embedded in them. Slowly creeping forward, these ice
-masses, shod as they are with debris derived from the encircling
-cliffs, scour and scoop out their hollow sites, and enlarge and deepen
-them by degrees. Seconding this work is the rock-splitting action of
-water freezing in the interstices of the rock walls. This process is
-particularly effective in the great cleft at the glacier's head,
-between ice and cliff. This abyss is periodically filled with fresh
-snows, which freeze to the rock; then, as the glacier moves away, it
-tears or plucks out the frost-split fragments from the wall. Thus the
-latter is continually being undercut. The overhanging portions fall
-down, as decomposition lessens their cohesion, and so the entire cliff
-recedes.
-
-A glacier, accordingly, may be said, literally, to gnaw headward into
-the mountain. But, as it does so, it also attacks the cliffs that
-flank it, and as a consequence, the depression in which it lies tends
-to widen and to become semicircular in plan. In its greatest
-perfection a glacial cirque is horseshoe-shaped in outline. The Carbon
-Glacier's amphitheater, it will be noticed, consists really of two
-twin cirques, separated by an angular buttress. But this projection,
-which is the remnant of a formerly long spur dividing the original
-cavity, is fast being eliminated by the undermining process, so that
-in time the head wall will describe a smooth, uninterrupted horseshoe
-curve.
-
-In its headward growth the Carbon Glacier, as one may readily observe
-on the map, has encroached considerably upon the summit platform of
-the mountain, the massive northwest portion of the crater rim of which
-Liberty Cap is the highest point. In so doing it has made great
-inroads upon the neve fields that send down the avalanches, and has
-reduced this source of supply. On the other hand, by deploying
-laterally, the glacier has succeeded in capturing part of the neves
-formerly tributary to the ice fields to the west, and has made good
-some of the losses due to its headward cutting. But, after all, these
-are events of relatively slight importance in the glacier's career;
-for like the lower ice fields of the Nisqually, and like most glaciers
-on the lower slopes of the mountain, the Carbon Glacier is not wholly
-dependent upon the summit neves for its supply of ice. The avalanches,
-imposing though they are, contribute but a minor portion of its total
-bulk. Most of its mass is derived directly from the low hanging snow
-clouds, or is blown into the cirque by eddying winds. How abundantly
-capable these agents are to create large ice bodies at low altitudes
-is convincingly demonstrated by the extensive neve fields immediately
-west of the Carbon Glacier, for which the name Russell Glacier has
-recently been proposed. It is to be noted, however, that these ice
-fields lie spread out on shelves fairly exposed to sun and wind. How
-much better adapted for the accumulation of snow is the Carbon
-Glacier's amphitheater! Not only does it constitute an admirably
-designed catchment basin for wind-blown snow, but an effective
-conserver of the neves collecting in it. Opening to the north only,
-its encircling cliffs thoroughly shield the contained ice mass from
-the sun. By its very form, moreover, it tends to prolong the
-glacier's life, for the latter lies compactly in the hollow with a
-relatively small surface exposed to melting. The cirque, therefore, is
-at once the product of the glacier and its generator and conserver.
-
-Of the lower course of the Carbon Glacier little need here be said, as
-it does not differ materially from the lower courses of the glaciers
-already described. It may be mentioned, however, that toward its
-terminus the glacier makes a steep descent and develops a series of
-parallel medial moraines and that it reaches down to an elevation of
-3,365 feet, almost 600 feet lower than any other ice stream on Mount
-Rainier. A beautiful cave usually forms at the point of exit of the
-Carbon River.
-
-West of the profound canyon of the Carbon River, there rises a craggy
-range which the Indians have named the Mother Mountains. From its
-narrow backbone one looks down on either side into broadly open,
-semicircular valley heads. Some drain northward to the Carbon River,
-some southward to the Mowich River. Encircling them run attenuated
-rock partitions, surmounted by low, angular peaks; while cutting
-across their stairwise descending floors are precipitous steps of
-rock, a hundred feet in height. On the treads lie scattered shallow
-lakelets, strung together by little silvery brooks trickling in
-capricious courses.
-
-Most impressive is the basin that lies immediately under the west end
-of the range. Smoothly rounded like a bowl, it holds in its center an
-almost circular lake of vivid emerald hue--that mysterious body of
-water known as Crater Lake. Let it be said at once that this
-appellation is an unfortunate misnomer. The basin is not of volcanic
-origin. It lies in lava and other volcanic rocks, to be sure, but
-these are merely spreading layers of the cone of Mount Rainier. Ice is
-the agent responsible for the carving of the hollow. It was once the
-cradle of a glacier, and that ice mass, gnawing headward and deploying
-even as the Carbon Glacier does to-day, enlarged its site into a
-horseshoe basin, a typical glacial cirque. The lake in the center is a
-strictly normal feature; many glacial cirques possess such bowls,
-scooped out by the eroding ice masses from the weaker portions of the
-rock floor; only it is seldom that such features acquire the symmetry
-of form exhibited by Crater Lake. The lakelets observed in the
-neighboring valley heads--all of which are abandoned cirques--are of
-similar origin.
-
-As for the skeleton character of the dividing crests, it will be
-readily seen to be the outcome of the headward gnawing of opposing
-cirques. In some places, even, the deploying process has attenuated
-the ridges sufficiently to break them through. West of Crater Lake is
-an instance of a crest that has thus been breached.
-
-It is a significant fact that the empty cirques about the Mother
-Mountains lie at elevations ranging between 4,500 and 6,000 feet; that
-is, on an average 5,000 feet lower than the cirques on Mount Rainier
-which now produce glaciers. Evidently the snow line in glacial times
-lay at a much lower level than it does to-day, and the ice mantle of
-Mount Rainier expanded not merely by the forward lengthening of its
-ice tongues but by the birth of numerous new glaciers about the
-mountain's foot. The large size of the empty cirques and canyons,
-moreover, leads one to infer that many of these new glaciers far
-exceeded in volume the ice streams descending the volcano's sides. The
-latter, it is true, increased considerably in thickness during glacial
-times, but not in proportion to the growth of the low-level glaciers.
-Nor is this surprising in view of the heavy snow falls occurring on
-the mountain's lower slopes. There is good reason to believe,
-moreover, that the cool glacial climate resulted in a general lowering
-of the zone of heaviest snowfall. It probably was depressed to levels
-between 4,000 and 6,000 feet. Not only the cirque glaciers about the
-Mother Mountains, but all the neighboring ice streams of the glacial
-epoch originated within this zone, as is indicated by the altitudes of
-the cirques throughout the adjoining portions of the Cascade Range. By
-their confluence these ice bodies produced a great system of glaciers
-that filled all the valleys of this mountain belt and even protruded
-beyond its western front.
-
-To these extensive valley glaciers the ice flows of Mount Rainier
-stood in the relation of mere tributaries. They descended from regions
-of rather scant snowfall, for the peak in those days of frigid climate
-rose some 10,000 feet above the zone of heaviest snowfall, into
-atmospheric strata of relative dryness. It may well be, indeed, that
-it carried then but little more snow upon its summit than it does
-to-day.
-
-The North Mowich Glacier is the northernmost of the series of ice
-bodies on the west flank of Mount Rainier. Like the Carbon Glacier, it
-heads in a cirque at the base of the Liberty Cap massif, fed by direct
-snow precipitation, by wind drifting, and by avalanches. The cirque is
-small and shallow, not as capacious even as either of the twin
-recesses in the Carbon Glacier's amphitheater. As a consequence the
-ice stream issuing from it is of only moderate volume; nevertheless it
-attains a length of 3-3/4 miles. This is due in part to the heavy
-snows that reenforce it throughout its middle course and in part to
-overflows from the ice fields bordering it on the south. These ice
-fields, almost extensive enough to be considered a distinct glacier,
-are separated from the North Mowich Glacier only by a row of
-pinnacles, the remnants evidently of a narrow rock partition or
-"cleaver," now demolished by the ice. The lowest and most prominent of
-the rock spires bears the appropriate name of "The Needle" (7,587
-feet).
-
-The debris-covered lower end of the glacier splits into two short
-lobes on a rounded boss in the middle of the channel. This boss, but a
-short time ago, was overridden by the glacier and then undoubtedly
-gave rise to an ice dome of the kind so numerous farther up on the
-North Mowich Glacier and also characteristic of the Winthrop Glacier.
-
-Separated from the ice fields of the North Mowich Glacier by a great
-triangular ice field (named Edmunds Glacier) lies the South Mowich
-Glacier, also a cirque-born ice stream, heading against the base of
-the Liberty Cap massif. It is the shortest of the western glaciers,
-measuring only a scant 3 miles. Aside from the snows accumulating in
-its ill-shaped cirque it receives strong reenforcements from its
-neighbor to the south--the Puyallup Glacier.
-
-Toward its lower end it splits into two unequal lobes, the
-southernmost of which is by far the longer. Sharp cut rock wedges
-beyond its front show that when the glacier extended farther down it
-split again and again.
-
-The north lobe is of interest because the stream that cascades from
-the Edmunds Glacier runs for a considerable distance under it. In the
-near future the lobe is likely to recede sufficiently to enable the
-torrent to pass unhindered by its front.
-
-What especially distinguishes the Puyallup Glacier from its neighbors
-to the north is the great elevation of its cirque. The Carbon, North
-Mowich, and South Mowich Glaciers all head at levels of about 10,000
-feet. The amphitheater of the Puyallup Glacier, on the contrary, opens
-a full 2,000 feet higher up. Encircled by a great vertical wall that
-cuts into the Liberty Cap platform from the south, it has evidently
-developed through glacial sapping from a hollow of volcanic origin.
-From this great reservoir the Puyallup Glacier descends by a rather
-narrow chute. Then it expands again to a width of three-fourths of a
-mile and sends a portion of its volume to the South Mowich Glacier. In
-spite of this loss it continues to expand, reaching a maximum width
-of a mile and a total length of 4 miles. No doubt this is accounted
-for by the heavy snowfalls that replenish it throughout its course.
-
-Its lower end consists of a tortuous ice lobe that describes a
-beautiful curve, flanked on the north by a vertical lava cliff. A
-lesser lobe splits off to the south on a wedge of rock.
-
-Immediately south of the elevated amphitheater of the Puyallup Glacier
-the crater rim of the volcano is breached for a distance of half a
-mile. Through this gap tumbles a voluminous cascade from the neve
-fields about the summit, and this cascade, reenforced by a flow from
-the Puyallup cirque, forms the great Tahoma Glacier, the most
-impressive ice stream on the southwest side. Separated from its
-northern neighbor by a rock cleaver of remarkable length and
-straightness, it flows in a direct course for a distance of 5 miles.
-Its surface, more than a mile broad in places, is diversified by
-countless ice falls and cataracts.
-
-A mere row of isolated pinnacles indicates its eastern border, and
-across the gaps in this row its neves coalesce with those of the South
-Tahoma Glacier. Farther down the two ice streams abruptly part company
-and flow in wide detours around a cliff-girt, castellated rock
-mass--Glacier Island it has been named. The Tahoma Glacier, about a
-mile above its terminus, spits upon a low, verdant wedge and sends a
-lobe southward which skirts the walls of this island rock, and at its
-base meets again the South Tahoma Glacier. From here on the two ice
-streams merge and form a single densely debris-laden mass, so chaotic
-in appearance that one would scarcely take it for a glacier. Numerous
-rivulets course over its dark surface only to disappear in mysterious
-holes and clefts. Profound, circular kettles filled with muddy water
-often develop on it during the summer months, and after a brief
-existence empty themselves again by subglacial passages or by a newly
-formed crevasse. So abundant is the rock debris released by melting
-that the wind at times whips it up into veritable dust storms.
-
-Beautifully regular moraines accompany the ice mass on both sides,
-giving clear evidence of its recent shrinking.
-
-The partner of the Tahoma Glacier, known as the South Tahoma Glacier,
-heads in a profound cirque sculptured in the flanks of the great
-buttress that culminates in Peak Success (14,150 feet). It is
-interesting chiefly as an example of a cirque-born glacier, nourished
-almost exclusively by direct snowfalls from the clouds and by eddying
-winds. In spite of its position, exposed to the midday sun, it attains
-a length of nearly 4 miles, a fact which impressively attests the
-ampleness of its ice supply.
-
-In glacial times the glacier had a much greater volume and rose high
-enough to override the south half of Glacier Island, as is clearly
-shown by the glacial grooves and the scattered ice-worn bowlders on
-that eminence. As the glacier shrank it continued for some time to
-send a lobe through the gulch in the middle of the island. Even now a
-portion of this lobe remains, but it no longer connects with the
-Tahoma Glacier.
-
-An excellent nearby view of the lower cascades of the South Tahoma
-Glacier may be had from the ice-scarred rock platform west of Pyramid
-Rock. From that point, as well as from the other heights of [Indian]
-Henrys Hunting Ground, one may enjoy a panorama of ice and rock such
-as is seen in only few places on this continent.
-
-East of the South Tahoma Glacier, heading against a great cleaver that
-descends from Peak Success, lies a triangular ice field, or
-interglacier, named Pyramid Glacier. It covers a fairly smooth, gently
-sloping platform underlain by a heavy lava bed, and breaking off at
-its lower edge in precipitous, columnar cliffs. Into this platform a
-profound but narrow box canyon has been incised by an ice stream
-descending from the summit neves east of Peak Success. This is the
-Kautz Glacier, an ice stream peculiar for its exceeding slenderness.
-On the map it presents almost a worm-like appearance, heightened
-perhaps by its strongly sinuous course. In spite of its meager width,
-which averages about 1,000 feet, the ice stream attains a length of
-almost 4 miles and descends to an altitude of 4,800 feet. This no
-doubt is to be attributed in large measure to the protecting influence
-of the box canyon.
-
-It receives one tributary of importance, the Success Glacier, which
-heads in a cirque against the flanks of Peak Success. This ice stream
-supplies probably one-third of the total bulk of the Kautz Glacier, as
-one may infer from the position of the medial moraine that develops at
-the point of confluence. In the lower course of the glacier this
-medial moraine grows in width and height until it assumes the
-proportions of a massive ridge, occupying about one-third of the
-breadth of the ice stream's surface.
-
-A singularly fascinating spectacle is that which the moraine-covered
-lower end of the glacier presents from the heights of Van Trump Park.
-A full 1,000 feet down one looks upon the ice stream as it curves
-around a sharp bend in its canyon.
-
-A short distance below the glacier's terminus, the canyon contracts
-abruptly to a gorge only 300 feet in width. So resistant is the
-columnar basalt in this locality that the ice has been unable to hew
-out a wider passage. Not its entire volume, however, was squeezed
-through the narrow portal; there is abundant evidence showing that in
-glacial times when the ice stream was more voluminous it overrode the
-rock buttresses on the west side of the gorge.
-
-The name of P. B. Van Trump, the hardy pioneer climber of Mount
-Rainier, has been attached to the interglacier situated between the
-Kautz and the Nisqually Glaciers. This ice body lies on the uneven
-surface of an extensive wedge that tapers upward to a sharp point--one
-of the remnants of the old crater rim. A number of small ice fields
-are distributed on this wedge, each ensconced in a hollow inclosed
-more or less completely by low ridges. By gradually deploying each of
-these ice bodies has enlarged its site, and thus the dividing ridges
-have been converted into slender rock walls or cleavers. In many
-places they have even been completely consumed and the ice fields
-coalesce. The Van Trump Glacier is the most extensive of these
-composite ice fields. The rapid melting which it has suffered in the
-last decades, however, has gone far toward dismembering it; already
-several small ice strips are threatening to become separated from the
-main body.
-
-In glacial times the Van Trump Glacier sent forth at least six lobes,
-most of which converged farther down in the narrow valleys traversing
-the attractive alpine region now known as Van Trump Park. This upland
-park owes its scenic charm largely to its manifold glacial features
-and is diversified by cirques, canyons, lakelets, moraines, and
-waterfalls.
-
-In the foregoing descriptions the endeavor has been to make clear how
-widely the glaciers of Mount Rainier differ in character, in
-situation, and in size. They are not to be conceived as mere ice
-tongues radiating down the slopes of the volcano from an ice cap on
-its crown. There is no ice cap, properly speaking, and there has
-perhaps never been one at any time in the mountain's history, not even
-during the glacial epochs.
-
-Several of the main ice streams head in the neves gathering about the
-summit craters, but a larger number originate in profound
-amphitheaters carved in the mountain's flanks, at levels fully 4,000
-feet below the summit. In the general distribution of the glaciers the
-low temperatures prevailing at high altitudes have, of course, been a
-controlling factor; nevertheless in many instances their influence has
-been outbalanced by topographic features favoring local snow
-accumulation and by the heavy snowfalls occurring on the lower
-slopes.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: GEORGE OTIS SMITH.]
-
-XV. THE ROCKS OF MOUNT RAINIER
-
-BY GEORGE OTIS SMITH
-
-
-     Director George Otis Smith of the United States Geological
-     Survey was born at Hodgdon, Maine, on February 22, 1871. He
-     graduated from Colby College in 1893 and obtained his Doctor
-     of Philosophy degree from Johns Hopkins University in 1896.
-     He had begun his geological work in 1893 and from 1896 to
-     1907 he was assistant geologist and geologist of the United
-     States Geological Survey. Since 1907 he has been director of
-     that important branch of the Government work.
-
-     He had been studying the rocks of Mount Rainier before he
-     joined Professor Russell in the explorations of 1896. The
-     record of those studies was published at the same time as
-     Professor Russell's report in the Eighteenth Annual Report of
-     the United States Geological Survey for 1896-1897. With his
-     permission the record is here reproduced in full. So far as
-     is known to the present editor it is the most complete study
-     yet published on the rocks of Mount Rainier.
-
-The earliest geological observations on the structure of Mount Rainier
-were made in 1870 by S. F. Emmons, of the Geological Exploration of
-the Fortieth Parallel. The rock specimens collected at this time were
-studied later by Messrs. Hague and Iddings, of the United States
-Geological Survey.[27] This petrographical study showed that "Mount
-Rainier is formed almost wholly of hypersthene andesite, with
-different conditions of groundmass and accompanied by hornblende and
-olivine in places." The only other petrographical study of these
-volcanics is that of Mr. K. Oebbeke, of Munich,[28] upon a small
-collection made on Mount Rainier by Professor Zittel in 1883.
-
-On the reconnaissance trips on the northern and eastern slopes of
-Mount Rainier, during the seasons of 1895 and 1896, the writer had
-opportunity to make some general observations on the rocks of this
-mountain, and the petrographical material then collected has since
-been studied. The observations and collections were of necessity
-limited, both by the reconnaissance character of the examination and
-by the mantle of snow and ice which covers so large a part of this
-volcanic cone.
-
-Two classes of rock are to be discussed as occurring on Mount Rainier:
-the lavas and pyroclastics which compose the volcanic cone and the
-granitic rocks forming the platform upon which the volcano was built
-up.
-
-
-VOLCANIC ROCKS
-
-GEOLOGIC RELATIONS
-
-On Crater Peak a dark line of rock appears above the snow, and here
-the outer slope of the crater rim is found to be covered with blocks
-of lava. A black, loose-textured andesite is most abundant, and from
-its occurrence on the edge of this well-defined crater may be regarded
-as representing the later eruptions of Rainier. Lower down on the
-slopes of the mountain opportunities for the study of the structure of
-the volcanic cone are found in the bold rock masses that mark the
-apexes of the interglacial areas. Examples of these are Little Tahoma,
-Gibraltar, Cathedral Rock, the Wedge, and the Guardian Rocks. These
-remnants of the old surface of the cone, together with the cliffs that
-bound the lower courses of the glaciers, exhibit the structural
-relations very well.
-
-Even when viewed from a distance these cliffs and peaks are seen to be
-composed of bedded material. Projecting ledges interrupt the talus
-slopes and express differences of hardness in the several beds, while
-variations in color also indicate separate lava flows and agglomeratic
-deposits. Gibraltar is thus seen to be composed of interbedded lavas
-and pyroclastics, and on the Wedge a similar alternation is several
-times repeated, a pink agglomerate being exceptionally striking in
-appearance.
-
-These lava flows and beds of volcanic ejectamenta thus exposed dip
-away from the summit at a low angle. The steepest dip observed was in
-the amphitheater at the head of Carbon Glacier, where in the dividing
-spur the dip to the northeast is about 30 deg. Some exceptions in the
-inclination of the beds were noted on the southeastern slope, where in
-a few cases the layers are horizontal, or even dip toward the central
-axis of the cone. In general, however, the volcanics composing Mount
-Rainier may be said to dip away from the summit at an angle somewhat
-lower than that of the slopes of the present cone. In the outlying
-ridges to the north, the Mother Range, Crescent Mountain, and the
-Sluiskin Mountains, the structure seems to be that of interbedded
-volcanics approximately horizontal. The extent of the volcanics from
-the center of eruption has not been determined. Similar lava extends
-to the south, beyond the Tattoosh Range, and volcanics of similar
-composition occur to the north, in the Tacoma quadrangle. The latter
-lavas and tuffs may have originated from smaller and less important
-cones, now destroyed by erosion.
-
-A radial dike was observed at only one locality, near the base of
-Little Tahoma. In several cases the lava masses, as seen in cross
-section, are lens-shaped, and where associated with fragmental beds
-have unconformable relations. This shows that some of the lava flows
-took the form of streams, relatively narrow, rather than of broad
-sheets. Such a feature is in accord with the distribution of rock
-types. Thus along Ptarmigan Ridge for considerable vertical and
-horizontal range the rock shows only slight variation. The
-distribution of rock types will be more fully discussed in a later
-paragraph.
-
-Of how large a part of the lava flows the crater still remaining was
-the point of origin is a question to be answered only after more
-detailed observation has been made. The best section for the study of
-the succession of flows and ejectamenta is the amphitheater at the
-head of the Carbon Glacier. The 4,000 feet of rock in this bold wall
-would afford an excellent opportunity for this were it not that
-frequent avalanches preclude the possibility of geologic study except
-at long range.
-
-MEGASCOPIC CHARACTERS
-
-The volcanic rocks of Rainier are of varying color and texture. Dense
-black rocks with abundant phenocrysts of glassy feldspars, rough and
-coarse lavas of different tints of pink, red, and purple, and compact
-light-gray rocks are some of the types represented upon the slopes of
-this volcanic cone. In color, the majority of the rocks may be grouped
-together as light gray to dark gray. The black and red lavas are less
-common. In texture, the Rainier lavas are, for the most part, compact.
-Slaggy and scoriaceous phases are common, but probably represent only
-a small part of the different flows. Near the Guardian Rocks large
-masses of ropy lava are found which suggest ejected bombs.
-Agglomeratic and tuffaceous rocks are of quite common occurrence,
-although less important than the lavas. Vesicular lavas occur at
-several localities, and fragments of a light-olive pumice, many as
-large as a foot in diameter, wholly cover some of the long, gentle
-slopes southeast of Little Tahoma and in Moraine Park.
-
-Contraction parting or jointing is often observed, being especially
-characteristic of the basaltic types. The platy parting is the more
-common, but the columnar or prismatic parting is well exhibited at
-several localities. The black basaltic lava east of Cowlitz Glacier
-shows the latter structure in a striking manner. The blocks resemble
-pigs of iron in size and shape, and where exposed in a vertical cliff
-these seem to be piled in various positions.
-
-The rocks on the higher slopes of Mount Rainier are in general very
-fresh in appearance. An exception may be noted in the case of the
-rocks at the base of Little Tahoma, where some alteration is evident.
-The bright coloring of the surfaces of the lava blocks and the general
-appearance of the face of the cliff may indicate fumarole action at
-this point. There is also some decomposition along the inner edge of
-the crater rim, near the steam vents. On the lower slopes, some
-distance below the snow line, the freshness of the rock is not a
-noticeable feature, and it is seen that here weathering is of the
-nature of chemical decomposition as well as of mechanical
-disintegration.
-
-MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS
-
-Microscopically these lavas show more uniformity than is apparent
-megascopically. Rocks which in color and texture appear quite diverse
-are found to be mineralogical equivalents. The majority of these rocks
-are andesites, the hypersthene-andesites predominating, as was shown
-by Hague and Iddings; but over large areas the andesites are decidedly
-basaltic, and, indeed, many of the lavas are basalts. The megascopic
-differences are mostly referable to groundmass characters, the color
-of the rock being dependent upon the color and proportion of glassy
-base present. Therefore the degree of crystallization of groundmass
-constituents is of more importance in determining the megascopic
-appearance than is the mineralogical composition, and the basaltic
-lavas are for the most part light gray in color, while the more acid
-hypersthene-andesites are often black or red.
-
-In petrographic character the lavas range from hypersthene-andesite to
-basalt. This variation is dependent upon the ferromagnesian
-silicates, and four rock types are represented--hypersthene-andesite,
-pyroxene-andesite, augite-andesite, and basalt--any of which may carry
-small amounts of hornblende. A rigid separation of these rock types,
-however, is impossible, since insensible gradations connect the most
-acid with the most basic. In the same flow hypersthene-andesite may
-occur in one portion, while in close proximity the lava is an
-augite-andesite.
-
-These lavas have groundmass textures that vary from almost
-holo-crystalline to glassy. The felted or hyalopilitic texture is the
-most common, and plagioclase is the principal groundmass constituent.
-The feldspars are lath-shaped, often with castellated terminations. In
-the more basic phases anhedrons of augite and of olivine appear, and
-magnetite grains are usually present. Flowage is often beautifully
-expressed by the arrangement of the slender laths of feldspar.
-
-Among the phenocrysts feldspar is the most prominent. It has the usual
-twinning characteristic of plagioclase and belongs to the
-andesine-labradorite series, extinction angles proving basic andesine
-and acid labradorite to be the most common. Zonal structure is
-characteristic, being noticeable even without the use of polarized
-light. Zonal arrangement of glass inclusions testifies to the
-vicissitudes of crystallization, and often the core of a feldspar
-phenocryst is seen to have suffered corrosion by the magma and
-subsequently to have been repaired with a zone of feldspar more acid
-in composition.
-
-Of the darker phenocrysts, the pyroxenes are more abundant than the
-olivine or hornblende. Hypersthene and augite occur alone or together,
-and are readily distinguished by their different crystallographic
-habits as well as by their optical properties. The hypersthene is
-usually more perfectly idiomorphic and occurs in long prisms, with the
-pinacoidal planes best developed, while the augite is in stout
-prisms, usually twinned. Both are light colored, and the pleochroism
-of the hypersthene is sometimes quite faint. According to the relative
-importance of these two pyroxenes, the lavas belong to different
-types, hypersthene-andesite, pyroxene-andesite, or augite-andesite.
-
-Olivine occurs in certain of the Rainier lavas, in stout prisms
-somewhat rounded and often with reddened borders. The usual
-association with apatite and magnetite crystals is noted. The olivine
-varies much in relative abundance, so as to be considered now an
-accessory and now an essential constituent, and in the latter case the
-rock is a basalt.
-
-Hornblende is not abundant in any of the rocks studied, although
-typical hornblende-andesite has been described among the specimens
-collected by Professor Zittel. Where it occurs it is in brown
-crystals, which have usually suffered magmatic alteration. In one
-case, where this alteration is less marked, the idiomorphic hornblende
-is found to inclose a crystal of labradorite, and thus must have been
-one of the latest phenocrysts to crystallize. It also surrounds
-olivine in this same rock,[29] which is a hypersthene-andesite, the
-hornblende and olivine being only accessory.
-
-The different textures of these lavas are doubtless expressive
-primarily of diversity in the physical conditions of consolidation,
-but also in part of variations in chemical composition. The variations
-in mineralogical composition are likewise referable to these two
-factors, but here the latter is the more important. The
-hypersthene-augite olivine variation, already referred to, doubtless
-well expresses the chemical composition of the magma, and deserves to
-be taken as the chief criterion in the classification of the lavas. As
-was noted by Hague and Iddings, the hypersthene and olivine play a
-like role, the former occurring when the silica percentage is somewhat
-higher than in basalt. It is exceptional to find the two in the same
-specimen, the one being absent whenever the other is present. The
-following analysis[30] of the typical hypersthene-andesite from Crater
-Peak shows the lava to be a comparatively acid andesite:
-
-ANALYSIS OF HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE FROM CRATER PEAK, MOUNT RAINIER
-
-                         PER CENT.
-    SiO_{2}                 61.62
-    Al_{2}O_{3}             16.86
-    FeO                      6.61
-    CaO                      6.57
-    MgO                      2.17
-    Na_{2}O                  3.93
-    K_{2}O                   1.66
-                            -----
-                            99.42
-
-An analysis[31] of one of the light-gray, olivine-bearing rocks on the
-northern slope of the mountain gives a silica percentage of 54.86, and
-is doubtless representative of the more basic of the Rainier lavas.
-
-The sporadic occurrence of hornblende in these andesites is
-principally the result of physical conditions rather than of chemical
-composition. The magmatic alteration of the phenocrysts of hornblende
-affords evidence of this variation in consolidation conditions, a
-diminution of pressure with continuance of slow cooling giving rise to
-the magmatic alteration of the hornblende. That this change took place
-during the later stages of consolidation is shown by the relative age
-of the hornblende, noted above, and also by the fact that in one case
-a phenocryst of augite, where it abuts against the hornblende, has
-protected the latter from this alteration. The alteration is in part
-pseudomorphic, the hornblende retaining its characteristic outlines,
-but often there has been resorption. In one andesite the abundance of
-these remnants of hornblende and also of augite anhedrons in the
-groundmass may justify the conclusion that this augite andesite is of
-derivative origin, of the class described by Washington.[32] It may be
-noted also that hypersthene shows a tendency to magmatic alteration,
-although only rarely.
-
-In a basal flow in Moraine Park, the slaggy and compact phases show
-differences in phenocrysts as well as in groundmass. The glassy rock
-has hypersthene as the predominant phenocryst, while feldspar is the
-more important in the compact and more crystalline andesite.
-
-The distribution of the rock types described above is of interest. On
-the northern slope of the mountain, between Willis and Carbon
-glaciers, the characteristic lava is a gray andesite, smooth to rough
-in texture, and showing platy and columnar parting. Hypersthene is not
-the prevailing pyroxene, and olivine is usually present, often in such
-abundance as to make the rock a basalt.
-
-In Moraine Park gray andesites also predominate, with both pyroxenes
-as phenocrysts, but here hypersthene is the more important. On the
-eastern slope on the Wedge, between Winthrop and Emmons glaciers, the
-lavas are pyroxene-andesites and vary much in megascopic appearance,
-although little in microscopic characters. These rocks are quite
-distinct from any seen to the north. The nunatak in Emmons Glacier is
-composed of hypersthene-andesite, but on Little Tahoma the lava shows
-more variety. Both augite-andesite and hypersthene-andesite occur,
-while at the southern end of this interglacial rock mass, just east of
-Cowlitz Glacier, the cliffs are composed of the prismatic black
-basalt. On Crater Peak, and below on Gibraltar, hypersthene andesite
-occurs with considerable variation of color and texture. On the spurs
-west of Nisqually Glacier the andesites contain both pyroxenes, the
-augite being somewhat the more important.
-
-The distribution of the volcanic rocks, as determined in the study of
-reconnaissance collections, indicates that the cone has been built up
-by eruptions of lava and of fragmental material. The successive lava
-streams were doubtless of considerable thickness, but were limited in
-lateral extent. The beds of fragmental material are of the nature of
-flow breccias and of coarse agglomerates on the higher slopes, while
-tuffs occur at a greater distance from the center of eruption. This
-composite cone appears to be remarkably free from radial dikes, which
-may indicate that the volcanic energy was expended chiefly at the
-crater. The variation in rock types on different sides of the volcanic
-cone may be evidence of changes in position of the center of eruption.
-The destruction of an earlier crater and the eccentric position of a
-later would give rise to such a radial distribution of lavas as has
-been described above.
-
-
-GRANITE
-
-OCCURRENCE
-
-The presence of an acid holocrystalline rock on the slopes of Mount
-Rainier was first reported by Lieutenant Kautz in 1857, from whose
-accounts Dr. George Gibbs was led to announce the occurrence of
-granite as a dike in recent lavas.[33] Emmons in 1870 observed a cliff
-of "beautiful white syenitic granite" rising above the foot of
-Nisqually Glacier and correctly interpreted the geologic relations. In
-1895, on a reconnaissance trip, the writer identified granite among
-the bowlders composing the lateral moraines of Carbon Glacier, as
-well as on the surface of the glacier itself, and in the following
-season bowlders of granite were found to be plentiful in the river bed
-at the foot of this glacier. This anomaly of granite bowlders coming
-from a volcanic peak was also noted in the canyon of the Nisqually by
-Emmons.
-
-In the somewhat more careful study of the Mount Rainier rocks, search
-was made and the granite was found in place at several points on the
-northeastern slope. A biotite-hornblende-granite was observed on
-Carbon River at the mouth of Canada Creek, about 12 miles from the
-summit of Mount Rainier, and at Chenuis Falls, 2 miles up the river, a
-finer grained holocrystalline rock occurs, apparently an aplitic phase
-of the granite. In the lower portion of Carbon Glacier, near its
-eastern edge, a nunatak of granite can be seen, while the same rock
-occurs farther to the east, beyond the older of the lateral moraines.
-Higher on the slopes of Rainier a more marked ridge of granite was
-traced. A knob rises above the eastern moraine of Carbon Glacier at an
-altitude of between 7,000 and 8,000 feet, and the more prominent
-features to the east in Moraine Park also owe their survival to the
-greater erosion-resisting power of the granite.
-
-PETROGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION
-
-These granites have few features worthy of special mention. Hornblende
-and biotite are the ferromagnesian constituents and vary much in
-relative importance. The variations from hornblende-granite to
-biotite-granite occur in the same knob or ridge, and considering all
-occurrences the two varieties seem to be of equal development. There
-is also some variation in the amount of quartz present, and in the
-relative importance of the orthoclase and plagioclase. All of these
-characters are also found in the granites of the Northern Cascades.
-
-RELATION TO THE VOLCANIC ROCKS
-
-Along the side of the knob overlooking Carbon Glacier the granite as
-seen from a distance appears to be intrusive. Blocks of andesite cover
-the slope, deposited there by the glacier at a time when it possessed
-greater lateral extent, and the granite talus from above crosses this
-same slope in a narrow band. The relations prove less deceptive on
-close examination, and the granite is seen to constitute an older
-ridge. Farther along this ridge, at the cliffs on the north-eastern
-edge of Moraine Park, the granitic rock is found over-lain by the
-lava. The actual contact of the two rocks is concealed by soil filling
-the crevice left by disintegration along the contact plane. The
-granite, however, exhibits no intrusive characters, while the
-overlying andesite becomes scoriaceous in its lower portion, although
-compact immediately above. This contact is on the southern side of the
-granite ridge, the crest of which is approximately east-west. This
-position of the lava contact considerably below the highest occurrence
-of the granite indicates that the topographic features of this old
-granite ridge were even more marked at the time of the eruption of the
-lavas and the building of the volcanic cone. Above this ridge of
-granite on the one side tower the cliffs of bedded volcanics which
-compose the Sluiskin Mountains, and on the other is the andesite ridge
-bounding the canyon of Winthrop Glacier. Thus Mount Rainier, although
-a volcanic peak, rests upon an elevated platform of granite which is
-exposed by erosion at a few points on the slopes of the mountain.
-
-
-SUMMARY
-
-The volcanic rocks of Mount Rainier include both lavas and
-pyroclastics. The breccias, agglomerates, and tuffs, although of
-striking appearance, are, perhaps, less important elements in the
-construction of the composite cone.
-
-The lavas vary much in color and texture, but these megascopic
-differences are referable rather to the degree of crystallization of
-the magma than to its chemical character. The variation in the chemical
-composition of the lavas expresses itself in mineralogical differences,
-and thus four rock types are distinguished--hypersthene-andesite,
-pyroxene-andesite, augite-andesite, and basalt. The distribution of
-these types indicates a radial arrangement of lava streams, and
-hypersthene-andesite is the more abundant variety of lava.
-
-Granite is exposed on the slopes of Rainier where erosion has cut away
-the overlying lava, and it is plain that the volcanic cone rests upon
-an elevated platform of older rock, approximately 8,000 feet above sea
-level.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: _Copyright by Harris & Ewing, Washington, D. C._
-  PROFESSOR CHARLES VANCOUVER PIPER]
-
-XVI. THE FLORA OF MOUNT RAINIER
-
-BY PROFESSOR CHARLES V. PIPER
-
-
-     Charles Vancouver Piper was born on Vancouver Island, at
-     Victoria, British Columbia, on June 16, 1867. He graduated
-     from the University of Washington in 1885 and since then has
-     received degrees and honors from other institutions and
-     learned societies. He was professor of botany and zoology at
-     the Washington Agricultural College (now State College of
-     Washington) from 1892 to 1903. He has been agrostologist in
-     charge of forage crop investigations for the Bureau of Plant
-     Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, since
-     1903.
-
-     He has discovered many new forms of plant life and has
-     published many monographs and books in the field of botany.
-     This account of the flora of Mount Rainier was first
-     published in The Mazama (Portland, Oregon) in two articles,
-     one in Volume II, Number 2 (April, 1901), and the other in
-     Volume II, Number 4 (December, 1905). They are reproduced
-     with the consent of the editor of The Mazama, and Professor
-     Piper has revised and amplified them for this purpose.
-
-Up to an elevation of 4,000 feet or more the flanks of Mount Rainier
-are clothed in a continuous belt of somber forest, broken only where
-glaciers and their nascent streams have hewn pathways, or where, alas,
-fire has left desolate slopes marked here and there by the whitened,
-weather-worn shaft of some old tree, a dreary monument to its
-destroyed fellows. This forest is composed in its lower reaches
-largely of Douglas spruce. Scattered through it in smaller quantities
-one finds Lovely fir, Western white pine, Western hemlock, a few
-Engelmann spruces, and on the stream banks cedar and yew, and now and
-then a little cottonwood.
-
-At about the 3,500-foot level the character of the forest changes. The
-Western hemlock gives way to the larger-coned Black hemlock; the
-Douglas spruce and Lovely fir are replaced by the Noble fir; and the
-ragged-barked Alaska cedar greets the eye. Another thousand feet and
-the Subalpine fir replaces its two near relatives. From this point
-upward, the forest, now composed only of Black hemlock, Alaska cedar
-and Subalpine fir, to which in some places the White-bark pine must be
-added, is confined largely to the crests of ridges and straggles up
-the mountain in irregular broken lines. Between these timbered ridges
-extensive grassy slopes appear, veritable flower gardens when in their
-glory.
-
-At 6,500 feet elevation the timber ceases to be. Scraggly prostrate
-firs and hemlocks, sprawling as it were on the earth for shelter, mark
-sharply the limit of their endurance. Here, too, the continuous carpet
-of grass and flowers ceases--and a soil of volcanic sand or powdered
-pumice supports a very different vegetation. At 10,000 feet the
-toughest mountaineer of all the flowering plants, _Smelowskia ovalis_,
-still appears. Far above this, however, even to the crater's rim,
-lichens trace their hieroglyphics on the rocks; and on the
-steam-warmed rocks of the crater two mosses find lodgment, _Hypnum
-elegans_ Hooker?, and _Philonotis fontana_ Bridel, the latter even in
-fruit.
-
-Few plants grow in the dense shades of the lower forests, and these
-are mainly ericaceous. Most plentiful are _Vaccinium ovalifolium_, _V.
-macrophyllum_, _Gaultheria ovatifolia_, _Menziesia ferruginea_,
-_Pachystima myrsinites_, _Cornus canadensis_ and _Clintonia uniflora_.
-Here, too, occur several weird-looking whitish or reddish saprophytes,
-_Monotropa hypopitys_, _Pterospora andromedea_, and _Corallorhiza
-mertensiana_.
-
-On the drier portions of the grassy slopes _Lupinus subalpinus_,
-_Castilleja oreopola_, _Potentilla flabellifolia_, _Pulsatilla
-occidentalis_, _Erigeron salsuginosus_, _Polygonum bistortoides_,
-_Phyllodoce empetriformis_, _Cassiope mertensiana_ and _Vaccinium
-deliciosum_ are the most attractive plants. Where the ground is
-springy _Veratrum viride_ occurs in great clumps and _Dodecatheon
-jeffreyi_, _Caltha leptosepala_ and _Ranunculus suksdorfii_ are
-plentiful.
-
-In the shelter of the Alpine trees _Rhododendron albiflorum_, _Ribes
-howellii_ and _Arnica latifolia_ flourish. Along the rills _Gentiana
-calycosa_, _Arnica chamissonis_ and _Mimulus lewisii_ form banks of
-color. On the cliffs _Chelone nemorosa_, _Spiraea densiflora_,
-_Polemonium humile_ and _Castilleja rupicola_ are perhaps most
-conspicuous.
-
-Above the limit of trees, in what have been called "pumice fields," a
-characteristic series of plants appears. This belt ranges in altitude
-from 6,500 to 10,000 feet. It is best developed on the east side of
-the mountain, where the avalanches from Little Tahoma have covered
-great areas with more or less finely divided basalt. Conspicuous
-plants of this region are _Lupinus lyallii_, _Spraguea multiceps_,
-_Polemonium elegans_, _Hulsea nana_, _Erigeron aureus_, _Oreostemma
-alpigena_, _Polygonum newberryi_, _Poa suksdorfii_, _Draba aureola_
-and _Smelowskia ovalis_. The last three ascend to above Camp Muir,
-altitude 10,000 feet.
-
-The first botanist to visit Mount Rainier was Dr. William F. Tolmie,
-surgeon of the Hudson's Bay Company, who reached the mountain in 1833.
-He made considerable collections, which were sent to Sir William
-Hooker. Among Tolmie's plants were several not previously known.
-
-The writer collected on the mountain in 1888 and again in 1889 and
-1895. Since then the following botanists have made collections on
-Mount Rainier: Rev. E. C. Smith, in 1889 and 1890; Dr. E. L. Greene,
-in 1889; Mr. J. B. Flett in 1895, 1896 and since; Mr. M. W. Gorman in
-1897; and Mr. O. D. Allen from 1895 to about 1905.
-
-Most of the work done thus far has been in Paradise Park and its
-immediate vicinity. Next to this, the flora of Spray Park is best
-known. The east slopes of the peak have been partially explored, but
-to the knowledge of the writer no botanist has ever yet collected on
-the west slopes.
-
-The list of plants here given numbers 315 species. In preparing it,
-Longmire Springs, altitude 2,850 feet, has been selected as the
-lowermost limit on the south side of the mountain, and Crater Lake,
-altitude about 3,500 feet, as the limit on the north side. It is quite
-certain that a considerable number of lowland plants will have to be
-added to the list here given, and it is possible that a few have been
-included that will have to be dropped, as the exact place of
-collection of some species is not clearly indicated on the labels of
-the specimens. Unless otherwise stated, the notes are based on the
-writer's observations and specimens, and refer mainly to the Paradise
-Park region.
-
-There yet remains much to be done in the study of the Mount Rainier
-flora. A particularly interesting phase of it lies in the matter of
-altitudinal distribution of the various species.
-
-No attempt is here made to list the plants lower than the ferns. The
-writer has made considerable collections of the fungi, liverworts and
-mosses; and Mr. O. D. Allen has also collected the mosses. These
-plants should receive a larger amount of attention from botanists who
-visit the mountain in the future.
-
-The following plants were first described from specimens obtained on
-Mount Rainier:
-
-    =Petasites nivalis= Greene.
-    =Luina piperi= Robinson.
-    =Prenanthes stricta= Greene.
-    =Oreostemma alpigena= (Torrey & Gray) Greene.
-    =Aster amplifolius= Greene.
-    =Arnica aspera= Greene.
-    =Castilleja rupicola= Piper.
-    =Mimulus caespitosus= Greene.
-    =Veronica allenii= Greenman.
-    =Pedicularis ornithorhyncha= Bentham.
-    =Pedicularis contorta= Bentham.
-    =Pentstemon tolmiei= Hooker.
-    =Pentstemon newberryi rupicola= Piper.
-    =Gentiana calycosa= Grisebach.
-    =Gentiana calycosa stricta= Grisebach.
-    =Hydrophyllum congestum= Wiegand.
-    =Polemonium elegans= Greene.
-    =Polemonium bicolor= Greenman.
-    =Dodecatheon crenatum= Greene.
-    =Vaccinium deliciosum= Piper.
-    =Ligusticum purpureum= Coulter & Rose.
-    =Hesperogenia stricklandi= Coulter & Rose.
-    =Lupinus volcanicus= Greene.
-    =Stellaria washingtoniana= Robinson.
-    =Potentilla flabellifolia= Hooker.
-    =Luzula arcuata major= Hooker.
-    =Sitanion rigidum= J. G. Smith.
-    =Sitanion rubescens= Piper.
-    =Poa saxatilis= Scribner & Williams.
-
-The type specimens of _Saxifraga tolmiei_ were collected by Tolmie on
-the "N. W. Coast." It is altogether probable that he got them on Mount
-Rainier, where the plant is so abundant.
-
-
-LIST OF SPECIES
-
-=COMPOSITAE.= (Aster Family.)
-
-=Scorzonella borealis= (Bongard) Greene.
-
-A plant much resembling a dandelion, occurring on the north side of
-the mountain.
-
-=Troximon alpestre= Gray.
-
-A plant much resembling the dandelion, frequent on the grassy slopes
-at 5,500 feet altitude.
-
-=Troximon aurantiacum= Hooker.
-
-This species has entire mostly basal leaves, and bears a single head
-of orange or purple flowers. Common at 5,000 to 6,000 feet.
-
-=Troximon glaucum asperum= (Rydberg) Piper. (_Agoseris leontodon
-asperum_ Rydberg.)
-
-A species with large lemon-yellow flowers and hoary pubescent leaves.
-It occurs in the pumice and lava at 7,500 feet altitude and is quite
-abundant near the base of Little Tahoma.
-
-=Hieracium albiflorum= Hooker.
-
-A tall plant with hairy entire leaves and a rather ample corymb of
-white flowers. Essentially a lowland plant, but occurring up to 5,500
-feet altitude, especially in burnt ground.
-
-=Hieracium gracile= Hooker.
-
-A small hawkweed with yellow flowers in black hairy involucres. A
-common plant at 5,500 to 6,500 feet altitude.
-
-=Cirsium edule= Nuttall.
-
-Plentiful on the ridges of Moraine Park at the limit of trees. Also
-reported by Gorman as occurring in open woods near the timber line in
-Cowlitz canyon. This thistle is abundant at the sea level, and the
-roots were formerly a favorite food of the Indians.
-
-=Saussurea americana= D. C. Eaton.
-
-A peculiar plant with leafy stems, two to four feet high, bearing a
-dense cluster of elongate rayless heads of purple flowers. Found only
-on the high ridge north of the foot of Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-=Senecio ochraceus= Piper.
-
-Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 230.
-
-=Senecio triangularis= Hooker.
-
-A tall species with triangular coarsely dentate leaves and numerous
-rather small heads of yellow flowers. Abundant in the marsh at
-Longmire Springs and in wet places on the mountain slopes up to 6,000
-feet altitude.
-
-=Senecio ductoris= Piper.
-
-A low species with thickish crenate leaves and deep yellow heads.
-Found only on the moraine on the south side of Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-=Senecio flettii= Wiegand.
-
-Found near Cowlitz Chimneys by Miss Winona Bailey, in 1915; previously
-known only from the Olympic Mountains.
-
-=Arnica latifolia= Bongard.
-
-A smooth cordate leaved plant with one to five heads, resembling small
-sunflowers. Not uncommon up to 6,000 feet altitude, especially in the
-shelter of timber.
-
-=Arnica mollis= Hooker.
-
-Similar to the preceding, but the leaves oblong, nearly entire, and
-viscid glandular. Abundant along the rivulets, 4,000 to 6,000 feet
-altitude.
-
-=Arnica aspera= Greene.
-
-Described from specimens collected in Spray Park. It is very similar
-to _A. mollis_ Hooker, but the pubescence is coarser.
-
-=Arnica eradiata= (Gray) Heller.
-
-Closely related to the preceding but easily recognized by its rayless
-heads. It occurs on the steep slopes above Sluiskin Falls.
-
-=Luina hypoleuca= Bentham.
-
-A beautiful suffruticose plant, six to twelve inches high, with
-entire oval leaves shining green above and white tomentose beneath. It
-was originally discovered by Dr. Lyall, of the International Boundary
-Survey, in the Cascade Mountains at the 49th parallel. It is not
-uncommon about Mount Rainier, occurring on perpendicular cliffs along
-the Cowlitz Glacier; in similar places on the banks of the Nisqually
-at Longmire Springs; and on the gravel bars of the same river. The
-flowers are cream-colored.
-
-=Rainiera stricta= Greene.
-    (_Prenanthes stricta_ Greene.)
-    (_Luina piperi_ Robinson.)
-    (_Luina stricta_ Robinson.)
-
-A tall plant with large oblong entire leaves and a long raceme of
-yellowish, rayless heads. Professor Greene makes it the type of a new
-genus _Rainiera_, while Dr. Robinson refers it to _Luina_. The plant
-has been collected in Spray Park by Professor Greene; on the Goat
-Mountains, Allen; near Mount Adams, Henderson; head of Naches River,
-Vasey; and on the high ridge northeast of the foot of Cowlitz Glacier
-by the writer. The statement that the plant has milky juice is an
-error.
-
-=Petasites speciosa= (Nuttall) Piper.
-    (_Nardosmia speciosa_ Nuttall.)
-
-Abundant along streams up to 3,000 feet altitude. Easily recognized by
-its large palmate leaves, which frequently measure a foot or more in
-diameter. The flowers appear very early in spring with the leaves and
-have an odor suggesting violets. This species is clearly distinct from
-the Eastern _P. palmata_ (Aiton) Gray and was long ago well
-characterized by Nuttall.
-
-=Petasites frigida= (Linnaeus) Fries.
-    (_Petasites nivalis_ Greene).
-
-Common along rivulets 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude. Resembling the
-preceding species, but much smaller and with quite different leaves.
-
-=Achillea lanulosa= Nuttall.
-
-An Alpine form of the common Western yarrow. Not rare in the decayed
-lava at 6,000 to 7,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Hulsea nana= Gray.
-
-A sticky plant with pinnatifid leaves and large yellow heads.
-Plentiful on the east side of the mountain near the base of Little
-Tahoma in the pumice fields. This seems to be the northernmost limit
-of the plant.
-
-=Anaphalis margaritacea occidentalis= Greene.
-
-The well-known "Everlasting Flower," which occurs in dry or burnt
-woods up to 4,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Antennaria media= Greene.
-
-A small depressed cudweed, only an inch or two high. Common at 6,000
-feet altitude.
-
-=Antennaria lanata= (Hooker) Greene.
-
-Like the preceding but larger and more hairy. Grassy slopes at 6,000
-feet. Common.
-
-=Antennaria racemosa= Hooker.
-
-Collected by Allen in the "upper valley of the Nisqually." A much
-larger and greener plant than the preceding species.
-
-=Erigeron salsuginosus= (Richardson) Gray.
-
-The common pink aster or "daisy" of the grassy slopes. One of the most
-conspicuous plants at 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude, but even ascending
-to 7,000 feet in a much dwarfed form.
-
-=Erigeron acris debilis= Gray.
-
-An insignificant white-flowered species, rare at about 7,500 feet
-altitude.
-
-=Erigeron compositus trifidus= (Hooker) Gray.
-
-A small pinkish aster, with the leaves cut into linear lobes. Growing
-in decayed lava at 7,500 feet altitude.
-
-=Erigeron speciosus= De Candolle.
-
-A handsome species with entire ciliate leaves and rather numerous
-heads, with deep violet rays. Collected by Allen in the Goat
-Mountains, No. 222.
-
-=Erigeron aureus= Greene.
-    (_Aplopappus brandegei_ Gray.)
-
-A beautiful little aster with bright golden rays, the solitary heads
-on scapes two or three inches tall. Abundant in the pumice,
-7,500-8,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Aster ledophyllus= Gray.
-
-A tall species with leafy stems, and numerous middle-sized heads with
-pink-purple rays. The leaves are entire, pubescent on the under side.
-Not uncommon on the grassy slopes at 5,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Aster foliaceus frondeus= Gray.
-    (_Aster amplifolius_ Greene.)
-
-A species with broad half-clasping leaves and deep-violet-colored
-rays. Professor Greene's type came from Mount Rainier, but his species
-seems not to differ from the plant earlier described by Dr. Gray.
-
-=Oreostemma alpigena= (Torrey & Gray) Greene.
-    (_Aster pulchellus_ D. C. Eaton.)
-
-A low plant with narrow tufted leaves, the scapes bearing one or
-rarely two large heads. The rays are deep violet. The plant is common
-in the pumice fields at 7,000-8,000 feet altitude, but, strange to
-say, also occurs on the borders of small lakes at the foot of Pinnacle
-Peak at 4,500 feet elevation. In exposed places at high altitudes the
-leaves are often curiously twisted. It was originally described from
-the specimen collected on Mount Rainier by Tolmie.
-
-=Solidago algida= Piper.
-
-A small goldenrod, two to twelve inches tall, occurring ordinarily on
-the faces of perpendicular cliffs at 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Artemisia borealis wormskioldii= Besser.
-
-A silky canescent wormwood about one foot high, its leaves pinnate;
-found on the north side of the mountain by Flett.
-
-=Artemisia richardsoniana= Besser.
-
-In the Synoptical Flora, Vol. II, p. 371, this species is stated to
-have been collected on Mount Rainier by Tolmie. On the sheet in the
-Gray Herbarium Dr. Gray has indicated that this is an error, the
-specimens having really been collected in the Rocky Mountains by
-Burke.
-
-
-=CAMPANULACEAE.= (Bellflower Family.)
-
-=Campanula rotundifolia= Linnaeus.
-
-This charming and familiar blue bell is abundant on the cliffs near
-the foot of Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-
-=VALERIANACEAE.= (Valerian Family.)
-
-=Valeriana sitchensis= Bongard.
-
-An abundant plant at 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude. The leaves are
-pinnately compound, the rather large leaflets repandly dentate. The
-flowers are whitish, usually pink tinged. Like other species, this
-valerian has a decidedly unpleasant odor, that is difficult to compare
-with any other. To the writer the odor is always associated with
-mountain meadows, doubtless because it so frequently predominates in
-such places.
-
-
-=RUBIACEAE.= (Madder Family.)
-
-=Galium triflorum= Michaux.
-
-A very common species of bedstraw which ascends on the lower slopes of
-the mountain.
-
-=Galium oreganum= Britton.
-
-Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 296.
-
-
-=SCROPHULARIACEAE.= (Figwort Family.)
-
-=Chelone nemorosa= Douglas.
-
-A handsome plant with opposite serrate leaves and corymbs of
-purple-red flowers somewhat like those of the foxglove. Dry cliffs and
-slopes at 5,000 feet altitude. Also reported by Gorman as occurring at
-Longmire Springs.
-
-=Pentstemon confertus= Douglas.
-
-A species with entire leaves and dense clusters of small pale yellow
-flowers. In its typical form the species is one to two feet tall, but
-on Mount Rainier, where it occurs at from 7,000 to 8,000 feet
-elevation, it is reduced to two to four inches high, but otherwise not
-differing from the type.
-
-=Pentstemon procerus= Douglas.
-
-Like the above, but blue flowered. It occurs at 8,000 feet and on
-Rainier is scarcely two inches tall, while at lower altitudes it is
-frequently as many feet high. This dwarf Alpine form has been
-described by Professor Greene as a new species under the name of
-_Pentstemon pulchellus_. It is an interesting fact that Tolmie long
-ago collected on Mount Rainier a dwarf species which Hooker named
-_Pentstemon tolmiei_. But alas, the specimens are in fruit, and it is
-past finding out now whether his plant was the yellow-flowered or the
-blue-flowered form. Most likely, however, it was the latter, as that
-is far more frequent than the yellow-flowered form.
-
-=Pentstemon diffusus= Douglas.
-
-A handsome species with serrate leaves and blue-purple flowers. Mount
-Rainier, Piper 2068. Goat Mountains, Allen 129.
-
-=Pentstemon ovatus= Douglas.
-
-Much like the preceding plant, differing essentially in the anthers.
-Collected by Allen "mountains near the upper valley of the Nisqually,"
-and by the writer on the slopes of Mount Rainier.
-
-=Pentstemon menziesii= Hooker.
-
-A dwarf prostrate plant with thickish evergreen toothed leaves and
-dull purple flowers, abundant on the rocks at 8,000 feet elevation. A
-variety with the leaves entire instead of denticulate, _P. davidsonii_
-Greene, also occurs on the mountain.
-
-=Pentstemon rupicola= (Piper) Howell.
-
-Much like the preceding, but with glaucous leaves and rose-colored
-larger flowers. The writer found it originally on the perpendicular
-cliffs, at the limit of trees above "Camp of the Clouds."
-
-=Collinsia tenella= (Pursh) Piper.
-
-Collected by Flett on an old moraine along the Carbon Glacier.
-
-=Mimulus lewisii= Pursh.
-
-Abundant along rills, 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude. Easily known by
-its opposite dentate leaves, viscid pubescence and rose-purple
-corollas. The original specimens were collected in Idaho by the Lewis
-and Clark expedition.
-
-=Mimulus breweri= (Greene) Rydberg.
-    (_Eunanus breweri_ Greene.)
-
-A minute species with pale purple flowers, abundant on dry cliffs near
-"Camp of the Clouds."
-
-=Mimulus alpinus= (Gray) Piper.
-    (_M. luteus alpinus_ Gray.)
-    (_M. scouleri caespitosus_ Greene.)
-
-A dwarf plant with matted stolons, the bright yellow flowers painting
-the cliffs wherever there is dripping water. The Mount Rainier plants
-match closely the original types collected by Dr. Parry in Wyoming, so
-that Professor Greene's name is clearly a synonym of the earlier one
-of Gray.
-
-=Veronica alpina= Linnaeus.
-
-A small plant two or three inches high, with several pairs of small,
-ovate, pubescent leaves, and a terminal raceme of small blue flowers.
-Common at 4,500 to 5,500 feet altitude.
-
-=Veronica cusickii= Gray.
-
-A very similar plant to the above, but with larger blue flowers and
-smooth leaves. Abundant just above "Camp of the Clouds."
-
-=Veronica allenii= Greenman.
-
-Much like the preceding species, but with smaller white flowers. A new
-species discovered by Allen "near Paradise River at 5,400 feet
-elevation."
-
-=Castilleja miniata= Douglas.
-
-This vivid scarlet "Painted Cup" or "Indian Pink" is easily known by
-its entire leaves. Not infrequent at 5,000 to 6,000 feet; also
-occurring at lower altitudes down to sea-level.
-
-=Castilleja angustifolia hispida= (Bentham) Fernald.
-
-Very similar to the last, but the flower spikes shorter and the leaves
-cut-lobed. Bear Prairie, Allen.
-
-=Castilleja rupicola= Piper.
-
-Like the last, but smaller, the leaves usually purplish and deeply
-cut, the flowers intensely scarlet and with very long beaks. On the
-cliffs on both sides of Sluiskin Falls, whence the original specimens
-were obtained.
-
-=Castilleja oreopola= Greenman.
-
-The common species of the grassy slopes, the flowers reddish-purple or
-occasionally white.
-
-=Pedicularis bracteosa= Bentham.
-
-A tall "lousewort," with fern-like leaves and a long terminal spike of
-greenish-white flowers. Frequent in wet places up to 5,500 feet
-altitude.
-
-=Pedicularis contorta= Douglas.
-
-A yellow-flowered species not rare at 7,000 feet elevation along the
-Nisqually Glacier. First found by Tolmie on Mount Rainier.
-
-=Pedicularis surrecta= Bentham.
-
-The reddish flowers with long, coiled beaks easily distinguish this
-plant. Common in wet meadows at 4,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Pedicularis ornithorhyncha= Bentham.
-
-Much like the preceding but with beakless flowers. Originally
-described from Mount Rainier specimens collected by Tolmie in 1833,
-and not again seen until the writer collected them in the same place
-in 1888. The plant has since been found at two or three places north
-of Mount Rainier, but all in Washington.
-
-=Pedicularis racemosa= Douglas.
-
-The commonest species, easily known by its half prostrate habit,
-lanceolate leaves, and short clusters of white or pinkish twisted
-flowers. Ranges from 3,000 to 5,000 feet elevation.
-
-
-=PINGUICULACEAE.= (Butterwort Family.)
-
-=Pinguicula vulgaris= Linnaeus.
-
-The butterwort, with its greasy entire leaves in a rosette and
-solitary violet flowers is not rare on moist cliffs.
-
-
-=LABIATAE.= (Mint Family.)
-
-=Madronella discolor= Greene.
-
-A very sweet-smelling plant, the only mint as yet found on the
-mountain. Occurs on the talus of the high cliffs on the north side of
-Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-
-=BORAGINACEAE.= (Borage Family.)
-
-=Mertensia laevigata= Piper.
-
-A handsome branched herb, two feet high or more. The large entire
-leaves and the cluster of small blue tubular flowers make it readily
-recognizable. Frequent at 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Cryptantha muriculata= (A. De Candolle) Greene.
-
-Goat Mountains, Flett; a small common lowland plant with white
-flowers.
-
-
-=HYDROPHYLLACEAE.= (Waterleaf Family.)
-
-=Hydrophyllum albifrons= Heller.
-    (_Hydrophyllum congestum_ Wiegand.)
-
-On the meadows near Van Trump Glacier.
-
-=Romanzoffia sitchensis= Bongard.
-
-A handsome little plant with orbicular coarsely dentate leaves and a
-loose cluster of small white flowers. In habit much like some
-saxifrages. Rare on wet cliffs near Sluiskin Falls.
-
-=Phacelia nemoralis= Greene.
-
-This plant occurs on rock talus along the north side of Cowlitz
-Glacier.
-
-=Phacelia sericea= Gray.
-
-A handsome species with silvery leaves and dense clusters of purple
-flowers. Collected somewhere on the mountain by Rev. E. C. Smith in
-1890.
-
-
-=POLEMONIACEAE.= (Phlox Family.)
-
-=Phlox diffusa= Bentham.
-
-A prostrate plant with acerose leaves, when in bloom forming dense
-masses of pale blue. Common at 5,500 to 6,500 feet altitude, in rocky
-soil.
-
-=Gilia gracilis= (Douglas) Hooker.
-
-Growing on an old moraine along Carbon Glacier, Flett.
-
-=Gilia nuttallii= Gray.
-
-A white-flowered species found by Rev. E. C. Smith in 1890 somewhere
-on the southwest slopes of the mountain.
-
-=Collomia debilis= (Watson) Greene.
-
-Not rare in talus at the base of basalt cliffs on the east side of the
-mountain at 7,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Collomia heterophylla= Hooker.
-
-Found by Mr. Gorman on the gravelly banks of the Nisqually at Longmire
-Springs; also by Flett; a common lowland plant.
-
-=Polemonium humile= Roemer & Schultes.
-
-A handsome plant with pinnate leaves and corymbs of pale blue flowers.
-Common on the rocks at 5,000 to 6,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Polemonium elegans= Greene.
-    (_P. bicolor_ Greenman.)
-
-Similar to the preceding, but smaller and very glandular, the blue
-flowers having a large yellow center. Rather rare in pumice at 7,500
-feet elevation.
-
-=Polemonium viscosum pilosum= Greenman.
-
-Very much like the preceding plant. Discovered by Allen on the Goat
-Mountains, No. 261.
-
-
-=GENTIANACEAE.= (Gentian Family.)
-
-=Gentiana calycosa= Grisebach.
-
-An elegant plant with deep blue bell-shaped flowers. Abundant along
-the rills at 5,000 feet. The species was described from Mount Rainier
-specimens collected by Tolmie in 1833. Grisebach also described a
-variety _stricta_, based on very trivial characters.
-
-
-=PRIMULACEAE.= (Primrose Family.)
-
-=Dodecatheon jeffreyi= Van Houtte.
-    (_D. crenatum_ Greene.)
-    (_D. viviparum_ Greene.)
-
-Plentiful in wet places at 4,500 to 5,500 feet elevation. Professor
-Greene's types came from Spray Park.
-
-=Douglasia laevigata= Gray.
-
-A handsome little plant forming broad mats and bearing blood-red
-flowers in corymbs. Goat Mountains, Allen.
-
-=Trientalis latifolia= Hooker.
-
-Gorman reports this plant as occurring in coniferous woods between
-Longmire Springs and Paradise Park.
-
-
-=PYROLACEAE.= (Indian Pipe Family.)
-
-=Chimaphila umbellata= (Linnaeus) Nuttall.
-
-Reported by Gorman "on the trail above Longmire Springs, in coniferous
-woods."
-
-=Chimaphila menziesii= (R. Brown) Sprengel.
-
-In deep coniferous woods, 2,000 to 4,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Pyrola secunda= Linnaeus.
-
-Growing with the preceding.
-
-=Pyrola bracteata= Hooker.
-
-Reported by Gorman "in coniferous woods along the Nisqually River at
-2,850 feet."
-
-=Moneses uniflora= (Linnaeus) Gray.
-
-In woods near the base of the mountain.
-
-=Monotropa hypopitys= Linnaeus.
-
-Common in the dense shade of conifers along the trail above
-Longmire's.
-
-=Pterospora andromedea= Nuttall.
-
-This peculiar plant occurs along the Nisqually trail at about 3,000
-feet altitude.
-
-=Allotropa virgata= Torrey & Gray.
-
-This queer plant is abundant in coniferous woods on the north side of
-the mountain, but it is doubtful whether it comes within our limits.
-
-
-=ERICACEAE.= (Heath Family.)
-
-=Menziesia glabella= Gray.
-
-A shrub four to eight feet high, much resembling a huckleberry, but
-the fruit is dry.
-
-=Kalmia polifolia microphylla= (Hooker) Piper.
-
-In wet places at 7,000 feet altitude near Nisqually Glacier.
-
-=Phyllodoce empetriformis= (Smith) D. Don.
-
-The common red-flowered heather, abundant on dryish slopes at 5,000 to
-6,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Phyllodoce glanduliflora= (Hooker) Coville.
-
-Much like the preceding, but the flowers yellowish-white and
-glandular. Frequent at 6,500 to 7,500 feet elevation.
-
-=Cassiope mertensiana= (Bongard) Donn.
-
-A low shrub growing with _Phyllodoce empetriformis_, and having small
-pendent, bell-shaped white flowers.
-
-=Harrimanella stelleriana= (Pallas) Coville.
-
-On the moist cliffs overlooking the Nisqually Glacier, at 5,500 feet
-elevation. This is the southernmost known station for the plant.
-
-=Gaultheria shallon= Pursh.
-
-The salal-berry is reported by Gorman to occur in coniferous woods
-between Longmire Springs and Paradise Park.
-
-=Gaultheria ovatifolia= Gray.
-
-This species resembles a diminutive plant of the preceding, but the
-berries are red and spicy, and borne singly in the axils of the
-leaves. Abundant in the coniferous woods at 3,000 to 3,500 feet
-elevation.
-
-=Gaultheria humifusa= (Graham) Rydberg.
-
-Much like a small plant of the preceding species, and only an inch or
-two high. Not rare on the slopes near Sluiskin Falls.
-
-=Rhododendron albiflorum= Hooker.
-    (_Cladothamnus campanulatus_ Greene).
-
-The white-flowered azalea so common in the shelter of trees at 5,000
-to 5,500 feet elevation.
-
-=Arctostaphylos uva-ursi= Linnaeus.
-
-The kinnikinnik, essentially a lowland plant, covers the rocks at
-8,000 feet altitude near Nisqually Glacier.
-
-=Arctostaphylos nevadensis= Gray.
-
-On the gravel bars of the Nisqually at Longmire Springs.
-
-=Vaccinium macrophyllum= (Hooker) Piper.
-
-The most valuable of all the native huckleberries. Easily recognized
-by the nearly black, not glaucous berries, and finely serrate leaves.
-Plentiful at 3,000 to 4,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Vaccinium ovalifolium= Smith.
-
-Much like the preceding, but taller, the leaves entire, and the
-glaucous black berries not nearly so sweet.
-
-=Vaccinium myrtillus microphyllum= Hooker.
-    (_V. scoparium_ Leiberg.)
-
-A low, broom-like species, with small leaves and red or wine-colored
-berries. On dry ridges, 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Vaccinium deliciosum= Piper.
-
-This is the common bilberry of the alpine meadows of the Cascade and
-Olympic Mountains in Washington, where it is abundant at 4,500 to
-5,500 feet altitude. In habit and fruit it resembles _V. caespitosum_,
-but in floral characters _V. ovalifolium_, to which Dr. Gray rather
-hesitatingly referred it. From this last it may readily be
-distinguished by its serrulate leaves and low habit, its relatively
-longer filaments, which in _V. ovalifolium_ are only one half as long
-as the anthers, and its small-seeded fruit of very different flavor.
-Very young leaves have the serrulations tipped with small glandular
-appendages.
-
-
-=UMBELLIFERAE.= (Parsley Family.)
-
-=Ligusticum purpureum= Coulter & Rose.
-
-A tall "wild parsnip," with fern-like leaves and small whitish or
-purple-tinged flowers. Everywhere on the slopes, 4,000 to 6,000 feet
-elevation.
-
-=Lomatium angustatum= Coulter & Rose.
-
-In rock talus near Sluiskin Falls.
-
-=Lomatium triternatum= Coulter & Rose.
-
-A form of this variable species was found on the Goat Mountains by
-Allen, No. 257.
-
-=Angelica lyallii= Watson.
-
-Paradise Park, 5,000 feet elevation. Also common near the foot of
-Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-=Sanicula septentrionalis= Greene.
-
-Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 254.
-
-=Osmorhiza ambigua= (Gray) Coulter & Rose.
-
-Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 256.
-
-=Heracleum lanatum= Michaux.
-
-Common at 4,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Hesperogenia stricklandi= Coulter & Rose.
-
-An interesting plant, the type of a new genus, found in Paradise Park
-by Allen and by Strickland. Also collected on the mountain by Flett.
-Occurs at 6,500 feet elevation.
-
-
-=HALORAGIDACEAE.= (Water Milfoil Family.)
-
-=Hippuris vulgaris= Linnaeus.
-
-Found by Allen at Longmire Springs.
-
-=Hippuris montana= Ledebour.
-
-An interesting little species much resembling some mosses. It
-frequently mats the ground in wet places at 4,500 feet elevation.
-
-
-=ONAGRACEAE.= (Evening Primrose Family.)
-
-=Epilobium spicatum= Lamarck.
-
-The common "fireweed," reported by Gorman on the "grassy slopes, 5,000
-to 6,000 feet altitude."
-
-=Epilobium latifolium= Linnaeus.
-
-A species with flowers like the preceding, but only four to six inches
-tall. Found by Rev. E. C. Smith near the Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-=Epilobium luteum= Pursh.
-
-A yellow-flowered species common along streams, 3,000 to 5,000 feet
-elevation.
-
-=Epilobium alpinum= Linnaeus.
-    (_E. hornemanni_ Reichenbach.)
-
-Common at 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Epilobium anagallidifolium= Lamarck.
-
-A minute species found on the Tatoosh Mountains by Allen.
-
-=Epilobium clavatum= Trelease.
-
-Gravelly slopes at 5,000 feet. Plentiful along the Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-=Epilobium fastigiatum= (Nuttall) Piper.
-
-A glaucous-leaved small species, on the gravel bars of the Nisqually,
-and up to 4,500 feet elevation.
-
-=Gayophytum ramosissimum= Torrey & Gray.
-
-On gravelly slopes near the foot of Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-
-=VIOLACEAE.= (Violet Family.)
-
-=Viola palustris= Linnaeus.
-
-The common swamp violet was found at Narada Falls by Flett.
-
-=Viola adunca= Smith.
-
-Rare in rock crevices near Sluiskin Falls. Flowers deep violet.
-
-=Viola montanensis= Rydberg.
-
-Like the preceding, but the leaves puberulent. Near Van Trump Glacier,
-at 6,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Viola glabella= Nuttall.
-
-A yellow-flowered species common along streams and in rich woods up to
-3,000 feet altitude.
-
-
-=HYPERICACEAE.= (St. Johnswort Family.)
-
-=Hypericum bryophytum= Elmer.
-
-A diminutive plant along rills at 5,000 feet elevation.
-
-
-=ACERACEAE.= (Maple Family.)
-
-=Acer douglasii= Hooker.
-
-The smooth maple is common on the headwaters of the Nisqually.
-
-
-=CELASTRACEAE.= (Staff Tree Family.)
-
-=Pachystima myrsinites= (Pursh) Rafinesque.
-
-An evergreen shrub two or three feet high, having considerable
-resemblance to a huckleberry. Common in coniferous woods at 3,000 to
-4,000 feet elevation.
-
-
-=EMPETRACEAE.= (Crowberry Family.)
-
-=Empetrum nigrum= Linnaeus.
-
-A prostrate cespitose shrub with yew-like leaves and black berries.
-Common on the rocks at 7,500 feet altitude.
-
-
-=OXALIDACEAE.= (Oxalis Family.)
-
-=Oxalis oregana= Nuttall.
-
-Common in rich, moist woods up to 3,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Oxalis trilliifolia= Hooker.
-
-With the preceding, which it resembles. It may be distinguished by its
-scapes bearing several flowers, instead of only one, and by its narrow
-pods.
-
-
-=LEGUMINOSAE.= (Pea Family.)
-
-=Lupinus subalpinus= Piper & Robinson.
-
-The common lupine of the grassy slopes, 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Lupinus volcanicus= Greene.
-
-A small species, with hairy pubescence, growing above the limit of the
-preceding and below that of the following.
-
-=Lupinus lyallii= Watson.
-
-A lovely little plant with silvery foliage. Abundant in the pumice
-fields at 7,000 to 8,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Lathyrus pauciflorus= Fernald.
-
-A wild pea with purple flowers collected by Allen in the Goat
-Mountains.
-
-=Lathyrus nevadensis= Watson.
-
-Very like the preceding but with white flowers. Collected by Allen,
-No. 297, on mountains near the upper valley of the Nisqually.
-
-=Oxytropis cusickii= Greenman.
-
-Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 245.
-
-
-=ROSACEAE.= (Rose Family.)
-
-=Spiraea densiflora= Nuttall.
-
-A low shrub with dense corymbs of rose-colored flowers. Common in bogs
-at 4,500 feet, and on rock cliffs up to 6,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Eriogynia pectinata= (Pursh) Hooker.
-
-A little shrub only two or three inches tall, forming dense mats. The
-plant should easily be recognized by its sharply cleft leaves and
-dense erect racemes of white flowers. Abundant at 5,000 to 6,000 feet
-elevation. Gorman reports it from near the "Sphinx," 8,500 feet.
-
-=Rubus nivalis= Douglas.
-
-A trailing vine, with glossy, green, simple leaves. Common in the
-coniferous forests at 3,000 feet altitude, where it seldom blooms. On
-exposed rocks and banks one rarely finds its dull red flowers or
-bright red, raspberry-like, sour fruit.
-
-=Rubus pedatus= Smith.
-
-A trailing herbaceous plant, with palmately compound leaves and
-strawberry-like blossoms. The smooth red fruit is sour, and consists
-of only a few large drupelets. Common in the woods up to 4,000 feet
-altitude.
-
-=Rubus lasiococcus= Gray.
-
-Much like the preceding, but with simple leaves and pubescent fruit.
-Grows with the preceding, and up to 5,000 feet or more.
-
-=Potentilla flabellifolia= Hooker.
-
-The common cinquefoil of the meadows, with bright yellow
-buttercup-like flowers. Plentiful at 5,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Potentilla dissecta= Pursh.
-
-This has been collected by Allen on the Goat Mountains, No. 251.
-
-=Potentilla glaucophylla= Lehmann.
-
-Near the foot of Gibraltar, at 8,500 feet altitude.
-
-=Potentilla villosa= Pallas.
-
-A species with silvery strawberry-like leaves and bright yellow
-flowers. On the cliffs near the foot of Little Tahoma, at 7,500 feet
-elevation.
-
-=Potentilla fruticosa tenuifolia= (Willdenow) Lehmann.
-
-This shrubby cinquefoil occurs along White River Glacier.
-
-=Sibbaldia procumbens= Linnaeus.
-
-Abundant on the ridge near Sluiskin Falls.
-
-=Dryas octopetala= Linnaeus.
-
-Found in talus between Urania and White Glaciers by Professor Flett.
-This is the southernmost known station in the Cascade Mountains.
-
-=Pyrus occidentalis= Watson.
-
-This mountain ash occurs at 4,500 to 5,000 feet altitude, usually
-forming dense clumps. It is seldom over four feet high. From related
-species its dull purple glaucous fruit and dull green leaves, serrate
-only near the apex, easily distinguish it.
-
-=Pyrus sitchensis= (Roemer) Piper.
-    (_Sorbus sitchensis_ Roemer.)
-
-This species grows from four to fifteen feet high, and is easily known
-by its intense scarlet fruit and shining leaflets, which are sharply
-serrate to the base. The plant of the Cascade Mountains matches
-exactly with the type from Sitka, and we can detect no differences in
-the shrub common in the Blue Mountains and in Western Idaho. This
-shrub has heretofore been known as _Pyrus sambucifolia_ Chamisso &
-Schlechtendahl, but authentic Kamtschatka specimens of this last are
-clearly different from our plant.
-
-=Rosa nutkana= Presl.
-
-This common wild rose has been collected by Allen on the Goat
-Mountains, at 4,500 feet elevation.
-
-
-=SAXIFRAGACEAE.= (Saxifrage Family.)
-
-=Ribes howellii= Greene.
-    (_Ribes acerifolium_ Howell.)
-
-A small currant, two to four feet high, with pendent racemes of
-flowers and glaucous black fruit. Common in the shelter of trees up to
-their limit.
-
-=Ribes bracteosum= Douglas.
-
-A currant with very large leaves and long, erect racemes of greenish
-flowers; fruit black. It is common along streams at low altitudes, and
-is locally known as "stink currant." Gorman reports it from Cowlitz
-Canyon, near the timber line.
-
-=Ribes lacustre= (Persoon) Poiret.
-
-This very prickly gooseberry is reported by Gorman from the same
-locality as the preceding.
-
-=Leptarrhena amplexifolia= (Sternberg) Seringe.
-
-A handsome plant, with a radical tuft of oblong crenate evergreen
-leaves, and an erect scape of small greenish flowers in a corymb. The
-pods when mature are usually deeply tinged with purple. Common on the
-borders of rills at 5,000 feet, and on the wet cliffs near Sluiskin
-Falls. Also reported by Professor Greene from Spray Park.
-
-=Tiarella unifoliata= Hooker.
-
-Common in rich woods up to 3,500 feet elevation.
-
-=Mitella breweri= Watson.
-
-In the shelter of trees, common at 6,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Mitella pentandra= Hooker.
-
-Much like the preceding and found in similar places.
-
-=Mitella trifida= Graham.
-
-Found on Mount Rainier and on Goat Mountains by Allen.
-
-=Parnassia fimbriata= Koenig.
-
-A plant with radical reniform leaves and one-flowered scapes. The
-petals are white and fringed. Not rare in moist places near Sluiskin
-Falls; also at Crater Lake.
-
-=Heuchera glabra= Willdenow.
-
-On the cliffs near Camp of the Clouds.
-
-=Heuchera micrantha= Douglas.
-
-Mount Rainier, _Tolmie_, according to Hooker.
-
-=Elmera racemosa= (Watson) Rydberg.
-    (_Heuchera racemosa_ Watson.)
-
-Rock crevices at the base of Little Tahoma; rare.
-
-=Suksdorfia ranunculifolia= (Hooker) Engler.
-
-Rock Cliffs near Camp of the Clouds.
-
-=Saxifraga bongardi= Presl.
-
-Common along rills, 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Saxifraga bronchialis austromontana= (Wiegand) Piper.
-
-Abundant on rock cliffs near Longmire Springs, and frequent up to
-6,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Saxifraga marshallii= Greene.
-
-Rare on the cliffs near Sluiskin Falls. Also collected on the Goat
-Mountains by Mr. Allen.
-
-=Saxifraga odontoloma= Piper.
-
-A species with reniform, coarsely dentate leaves. Common along the
-rivulets, 5,000 to 6,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Saxifraga nelsoniana= D. Don.
-
-Much like the preceding, but the petals oval instead of orbicular and
-clawed. Near Camp of the Clouds; rare.
-
-=Saxifraga mertensiana= Bongard.
-
-Much like _S. odontoloma_, but the leaves doubly dentate, and usually
-bearing bulblets among the flowers. North side of Cowlitz Glacier;
-rare.
-
-=Saxifraga tolmaei= Torrey & Gray.
-
-Abundant at 5,000 to 7,500 feet elevation, blooming as soon as the
-snow melts. Easily known by its small, thick, entire leaves, and small
-white flowers, solitary on scapes an inch or two high. Originally
-found by Tolmie, from whose specimens the species was described.
-
-=Saxifraga debilis= Engelmann.
-
-Found on Mount Rainier by Mr. Allen. This is the first record of the
-plant west of Colorado.
-
-=Saxifraga caespitosa= Linnaeus.
-
-Collected by Flett and by Allen. Leaves 3 to 5-lobed.
-
-
-=CRASSULACEAE.= (Stonecrop Family.)
-
-=Sedum divergens= Watson.
-
-This species is easily known by its small globular leaves. Common on
-the cliffs near Sluiskin Falls.
-
-
-=CRUCIFERAE.= (Mustard Family.)
-
-=Draba aureola= Watson.
-
-A viscid yellow-flowered species, rather rare at and near Camp Muir.
-
-=Draba lonchocarpa= Rydberg.
-
-In pumice sand at 8,500 feet altitude.
-
-=Arabis lyallii= Watson.
-
-Common along Paradise River, at 5,000 feet altitude, but also
-occurring in the pumice at 7,500 feet.
-
-=Arabis drummondii= Gray.
-
-Piper No. 2065, referable to this species, is from Mount Rainier.
-Collected near the Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-=Cardamine kamtschatica= (Regel) Schulz.
-    (_C. umbellata_ Greene.)
-
-A small "bitter-cress," not rare along rills at 5,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Erysimum asperum= (Nuttall) De Candolle.
-
-A yellow-flowered plant much like a wallflower, rare at 6,000 feet
-altitude. It occurs also in loose rock near Interglacier.
-
-=Smelowskia ovalis= Jones.
-
-A small, white-flowered, canescent plant, interesting because it
-ascends Mount Rainier higher than any other flowering plant. Common
-from 8,000 to 10,000 feet altitude. One specimen was collected quite
-at the base of "The Sphinx."
-
-
-=FUMARIACEAE.= (Bleeding-heart Family.)
-
-=Corydalis scouleri= Hooker.
-
-Common along streams at low elevations.
-
-
-=BERBERIDACEAE.= (Barberry Family.)
-
-=Achlys triphylla= (Smith) De Candolle.
-
-Reported by Mr. Gorman "on the trail from Longmire Springs to the
-Park." The sweet-smelling leaves of this plant have suggested the name
-of "vanilla leaf."
-
-
-=RANUNCULACEAE.= (Buttercup Family.)
-
-=Thalictrum occidentale= Gray.
-
-This meadow-rue is not rare near the foot of Van Trump Glacier.
-
-=Anemone drummondii= Watson.
-
-Collected by Flett, No. 2171, on the north side of the mountain at
-7,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Anemone hudsoniana= (De Candolle) Richardson.
-
-Collected on the Goat Mountains by Mr. Allen, No. 250.
-
-=Pulsatilla occidentalis= (Watson) Freyn.
-
-Common on the dry slopes 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. Flowers large,
-white or bluish, developing a large head of tailed carpels, which has
-much the appearance of a hussar's cap.
-
-=Trautvetteria grandis= Nuttall.
-
-A tall plant with large maple-like leaves and loose corymbs of
-delicate white flowers. Abundant in shady woods up to 4,000 feet
-elevation. The pallid blossoms, in sharp contrast to the shade they
-dwell in, has prompted the name of "ghost flower."
-
-=Ranunculus suksdorfii= Gray.
-
-A bright-flowered buttercup, not rare in moist places at 5,500 feet
-elevation.
-
-=Ranunculus verecundus= Robinson.
-
-On rocky ridges at 7,000 feet altitude, Flett.
-
-=Caltha leptosepala= De Candolle.
-    (_C. macounii_ Greene.)
-
-Wet places, 4,000 to 6,000 feet; plentiful.
-
-=Aquilegia formosa= Fisher.
-
-The common scarlet and yellow columbine of the lowland, found on the
-grassy slopes at 5,500 feet elevation.
-
-=Delphinium bicolor= Nuttall.
-
-A handsome blue and white-flowered larkspur, found in the Goat
-Mountains by Mr. Allen, No. 146.
-
-=Delphinium glaucum= Watson.
-
-This larkspur is tall, three to four feet high, with rather many large
-leaves, and long racemes of pale blue small flowers. Collected by Mr.
-Allen in the Upper Nisqually Valley, and by the writer near Crater
-Lake.
-
-
-=CARYOPHYLLACEAE.= (Pink Family.)
-
-=Silene lyallii= Watson.
-    (_S. macounii_ Watson.)
-    (_S. douglasii viscida_ Robinson.)
-
-Distinguished from its near allies by its four-lobed petals. Not rare
-at 6,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Silene suksdorfii= Robinson.
-
-A low species, with scapes mostly one-flowered. Rather rare in the
-loose basalt talus near the base of Little Tahoma.
-
-=Silene acaulis= Linnaeus.
-
-The "moss campion" of Europe, and common in the Rocky Mountains.
-Collected by Mr. Flett near the Mowich Glacier.
-
-=Stellaria borealis= Bigelow.
-
-A prostrate chickweed, common along the Paradise River, at 5,000 feet
-elevation.
-
-=Stellaria washingtoniana= Robinson.
-
-Described from specimens collected by Allen on the slopes of the
-mountain at the head of Nisqually River in alder woods.
-
-=Sagina occidentalis= Watson.
-
-A small species of pearlwort, doubtfully referred here, occurs rarely
-along rivulets in Paradise Park.
-
-=Cerastium arvense= Linnaeus.
-
-Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 237.
-
-=Arenaria capillaris= Poiret.
-
-Common on the rocks at 5,000 to 7,000 feet elevation. The form with
-curved leaves, variety _nardifolia_ Regel, is more frequent than the
-type.
-
-=Arenaria verna= Linnaeus.
-
-Rather rare in the pumice on the east side of the mountain.
-
-=Arenaria macrophylla= Hooker.
-
-In dry woods at low altitudes.
-
-
-=PORTULACACEAE.= (Purslane Family.)
-
-=Spraguea multiceps= Howell.
-
-A handsome plant, with entire spatulate leaves and dense heads of pink
-or purple flowers. Common in the pumice fields.
-
-=Claytonia sibirica= Linnaeus.
-
-Collected by Flett somewhere near the base of the mountain. The
-commonest lowland "spring beauty."
-
-=Claytonia asarifolia= Bongard.
-
-A plant with fleshy entire leaves and small racemes of white flowers.
-Occasional along the rivulets at 4,000 to 5,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Claytonia parvifolia= Mocino.
-
-On the rocks at 3,000 to 4,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Claytonia lanceolata= Pursh.
-
-Common in the grassy meadows. The tuberous root is edible.
-
-=Lewisia columbiana= (Howell) Robinson.
-
-Goat Mountains, Allen. Leaves fleshy, flowers rose-purple, showy.
-
-
-=POLYGONACEAE.= (Buckwheat Family.)
-
-=Oxyria digyna= (Linnaeus) Hill.
-
-A small plant with reniform entire leaves, and flowers and fruit like
-those of the common docks. Not rare in rock crevices at 5,000 to 6,000
-feet elevation.
-
-=Polygonum minimum= Watson.
-
-Common at 5,000 to 6,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Polygonum douglasii= Greene.
-
-On a gravelly slope near the foot of Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-=Polygonum newberryi= Small.
-
-Common in the pumice fields, where it is a characteristic plant.
-
-=Polygonum bistortoides= Pursh.
-
-Very plentiful on the grassy slopes, where it is conspicuous by its
-dense white-flowered spikes an inch long, borne singly on slender
-stems a foot or two high.
-
-=Eriogonum compositum= Douglas.
-
-A form of this variable species occurs on the talus at the foot of the
-cliffs on the north side of Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-=Eriogonum pyrolaefolium coryphaeum= Torrey & Gray.
-
-Plentiful in the pumice fields.
-
-
-=BETULACEAE.= (Birch Family.)
-
-=Alnus sinuata= (Regel) Rydberg.
-
-Sitka alder. A small alder, seldom over ten or twelve feet high.
-Common along the streams at low altitude.
-
-
-=SALICACEAE.= (Willow Family.)
-
-=Salix scouleriana= Barratt.
-
-The common upland willow; not rare up to 3,500 feet elevation.
-
-=Salix sitchensis= Sanson.
-
-The "silky willow" is plentiful along the Nisqually at Longmire
-Springs.
-
-=Salix barclayi= Anderson.
-
-=Salix commutata= Bebb.
-
-These two willows make thickets along the rills at about 6,000 feet
-altitude. The leaves in the former are smooth above and glaucous
-beneath; in the latter pubescent on both sides.
-
-=Salix nivalis= Hooker.
-
-A very dwarf willow, with obtuse leaves, growing only a few inches
-high. Found on the north side of the mountain by Flett.
-
-=Salix saximontana= Rydberg.
-
-Very similar to _Salix nivalis_, but larger in every way. Also found
-by Flett on the north side of the mountain.
-
-=Salix cascadensis= Cockerell.
-    (_S. tenera_ Andersson.)
-
-A very dwarf rare willow with leaves acute at each end. North slope of
-the mountain, collected by Flett.
-
-=Populus trichocarpa= Torrey & Gray.
-
-The cottonwood occurs along the Nisqually to some distance above
-Longmire Springs.
-
-
-=ORCHIDACEAE.= (Orchis Family.)
-
-=Corallorhiza maculata= Rafinesque.
-
-Common in the coniferous woods at low altitudes.
-
-=Corallorhiza mertensiana= Bongard.
-
-Frequent in the dense coniferous woods up to 3,500 feet.
-
-=Spiranthes romanzoffiana= Chamisso.
-
-A small form of this species was found in a bog on the summit of the
-ridge overlooking the foot of the Nisqually Glacier.
-
-=Peramium decipiens= (Hooker) Piper.
-
-On the trail above Longmire Springs, according to Mr. Gorman.
-
-=Limnorchis stricta= (Lindley) Rydberg.
-
-A tall plant with long spikes of greenish flowers. Not rare in wet
-places at 5,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Listera caurina= Piper.
-
-Common in mossy woods up to 3,500 feet.
-
-=Listera convallarioides= (Swartz) Torrey.
-
-Growing in moist woods near the foot of the mountain.
-
-
-=LILIACEAE.= (Lily Family.)
-
-=Allium validum= Watson.
-
-This wild onion has rootstock-like bulbs. It has been found on the
-north side of the mountain, and only by Mr. Flett.
-
-=Vagnera sessilifolia= (Baker) Greene.
-
-Common in moist woods up to 3,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Streptopus curvipes= Vail.
-
-Common in moist woods at 3,000 feet. Distinguished from the Eastern
-_S. roseus_ by its small size, simple stems, and creeping rootstocks.
-
-=Lilium columbianum= Hanson.
-
-The wild tiger lily occurs on dry slopes near Longmire Springs and in
-Paradise Park, at 5,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Fritillaria lanceolata= Pursh.
-
-Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 235.
-
-=Erythronium montanum= Watson.
-
-The white-flowered adder's tongue, so abundant in Paradise Park, up to
-5,500 feet altitude.
-
-=Erythronium parviflorum= (Watson) Goodding.
-
-Much like the preceding, but the flowers yellow. Frequent along rills
-at 5,500 feet.
-
-=Clintonia uniflora= (Schultes) Kunth.
-
-Abundant in the coniferous forests at 2,000 to 4,000 feet altitude.
-Easily recognized by its tuft of two to four radical leaves, which are
-oblong in form, and its delicate scapes, three or four inches high,
-bearing a single white flower. The berry is blue.
-
-=Trillium ovatum= Pursh.
-
-The wake-robin is plentiful at 3,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Tofieldia intermedia= Rydberg.
-
-This species has been confused with both _T. glutinosa_ and _T.
-occidentalis_. From the former it differs principally in its seed
-characters, otherwise being so similar that there are no
-distinguishing characters in the flowering specimens. All the Cascade
-Mountain specimens apparently belong to _T. intermedia_, because no
-plant with the seed character of _T. glutinosa_ has as yet been found
-in that range of mountains.
-
-=Veratrum viride= Aiton.
-
-The green hellebore forms considerable clumps, three or four feet
-high. It is frequent on moist slopes in Paradise Park.
-
-=Stenanthium occidentale= Gray.
-
-Goat Mountains, Allen, 233. Also collected on Mount Rainier by Rev. E.
-C. Smith, in 1890.
-
-=Xerophyllum tenax= (Pursh) Nuttall.
-
-The so-called pine-lily or bear-grass is not rare in gravelly soil in
-rather open woods. Straggling specimens are found up to 5,500 feet
-altitude.
-
-
-=JUNCACEAE.= (Rush Family.)
-
-=Juncoides glabratum= (Hooker) Sheldon.
-
-Dry, grassy slopes at 5,000 feet.
-
-=Juncoides majus= (Hooker) Piper.
-    (_Luzula arcuata major_ Hooker.)
-    (_Juncoides piperi_ Coville.)
-
-The plants referred here occur at 7,000 feet altitude, in springy
-places. Allen, No. 44, and Piper, 2172, are identical with Tolmie's
-Mount Rainier specimens.
-
-=Juncoides parviflorum= (Ehrhart) Coville.
-
-Common on dry slopes up to 5,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Juncoides spicata= (Linnaeus) Kuntze.
-
-Rather rare in damp places in the pumice fields, at 8,000 feet
-altitude.
-
-=Juncus subtriflorus= (E. Meyer) Coville.
-
-Common at 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Juncus parryi= Engelmann.
-
-Much like the preceding, and growing along with it.
-
-=Juncus mertensianus= Bongard.
-
-Frequent along rills even up to 8,000 feet altitude.
-
-
-=CYPERACEAE.= (Sedge Family.)
-
-=Eriophorum polystachion= Linnaeus.
-
-This "cotton-grass" occurs in the low ground around the lakes near the
-base of Pinnacle Peak.
-
-=Carex paddoensis= Suksdorf.
-
-Springy places at 8,000 feet altitude; Allen, 172; Piper, 2541.
-
-=Carex pyrenaica= Wahlenberg.
-
-With the preceding; Allen, 171; Piper, 2540.
-
-=Carex phaeocephala= Piper.
-
-Dryish places at 7,500 feet elevation; Piper, 2535.
-
-=Carex preslii= Bailey.
-
-Common at 5,000 feet, along streams.
-
-=Carex pachystachya= Chamisso.
-
-This species occurs along rills in Paradise Park.
-
-=Carex nigricans= Meyer.
-
-Common at 4,000 to 6,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Carex rossii= Boott.
-
-On the grassy ridge above Sluiskin Falls.
-
-=Carex geyeri= Boott.
-
-Goat Mountains, Allen, 169.
-
-=Carex mertensii= Prescott.
-
-Rare along stream banks at about 4,000 feet altitude. Some of our
-specimens came from near the foot of Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-=Carex spectabilis= Dewey.
-    (_C. invisa_ Bailey.)
-
-In wet meadows at 4,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Carex scopulorum= Holm.
-
-With the preceding.
-
-=Carex ablata= Bailey.
-
-Frequent in the meadows of Paradise Park.
-
-=Carex accedens= Holm.
-
-Paradise Park; Piper, 2550.
-
-=Carex arcta= Boott.
-
-Mount Rainier, 4,000 feet altitude; Allen 271.
-
-=Carex atrata= Linnaeus.
-
-Collected by Allen, August 14, 1895.
-
-=Carex laeviculmis= Meinschausen.
-
-In swamps near the foot of the mountain.
-
-=Carex hepburnii= Boott.
-
-A handsome little plant common at 8,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Carex kelloggii= W. Boott.
-
-Along Paradise River; Piper, 2548.
-
-=Carex rigida= Goodenough.
-
-Allen, 269, and Piper, 2533, are referred here. The last-named
-specimens are from near the foot of Pinnacle Peak.
-
-
-=GRAMINEAE.= (Grass Family.)
-
-=Phleum alpinum= Linnaeus.
-
-The "mountain timothy" is of frequent occurrence at 5,000 to 6,000
-feet altitude.
-
-=Agrostis geminata= Trinius.
-
-Collected by Allen, in 1894.
-
-=Agrostis aequivalvis= Trinius.
-
-The plant referred here is common on the banks of the Paradise River
-up to 5,000 feet.
-
-=Agrostis rossae= Vasey.
-
-Slopes at 6,000 feet elevation; common.
-
-=Agrostis humilis= Vasey.
-
-Abundant in springy places at 8,500 feet elevation.
-
-=Calamagrostis vaseyi= Beal.
-
-Goat Mountains, Allen, and common on the rocky ridges north of Cowlitz
-Glacier.
-
-=Calamagrostis scabra= Presl.
-
-Not rare at 5,500 feet elevation; near Sluiskin Falls, Piper; Tatoosh
-Mountains, Allen.
-
-=Deschampsia atropurpurea= (Wahlenberg) Scheele.
-
-Common at 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Danthonia intermedia= Vasey.
-
-Common at about 5,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Trisetum cernuum= Trinius.
-
-Moist places up to 5,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Trisetum spicatum= (Linnaeus) Richter.
-
-Rare on the ridge near Camp of the Clouds.
-
-=Cinna latifolia= (Treviranus) Grisebach.
-
-Common in wet ground about Longmire Springs.
-
-=Poa arctica= R. Brown.
-
-A grass doubtfully referred to this species is common at 5,500 feet
-elevation.
-
-=Poa paddensis= Williams.
-
-One of the most frequent grasses at 5,000 to 6,000 feet.
-
-=Poa saxatilis= Scribner & Williams.
-
-On rock cliffs at 6,000 feet. The type of this species is Piper No.
-1964, from above Camp of the Clouds.
-
-=Poa suksdorfii= Vasey.
-
-Rather rare in the pumice at 9,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Poa lettermani= Vasey.
-
-On the slopes near Camp Muir, growing with the preceding.
-
-=Festuca viridula= Vasey.
-
-The finest grass on the slopes. Abundant at 5,000 feet elevation.
-
-=Festuca ovina supina= (Schur) Hackel.
-
-In the pumice fields at 8,000 feet altitude.
-
-=Festuca subulata= Trinius.
-
-Longmire Springs, in moist places.
-
-=Bromus marginatus= Nees.
-
-A species doubtfully referred here was collected on the mountains in
-1890 by Rev. E. C. Smith. No specimens of it are now in our
-possession.
-
-=Sitanion rigidum= J. G. Smith.
-
-Pumice fields at 8,000 feet.
-
-=Sitanion glabrum= J. G. Smith.
-
-Common on the rocky ridges north of Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-=Sitanion rubescens= Piper.
-
-Dry slopes on the south side of the mountain.
-
-
-=SPARGANIACEAE.= (Bur-reed Family.)
-
-=Sparganium minimum= Fries.
-
-Collected in 1890 by Rev. E. C. Smith, in one of the small lakes near
-the base of Pinnacle Peak.
-
-
-=TAXACEAE.= (Yew Family.)
-
-=Taxus brevifolia= Nuttall. Western Yew.
-
-The yew is not uncommon along the trail from Longmire Springs to
-Paradise Park. It does not ascend much above 3,000 feet elevation.
-
-
-=PINACEAE.= (Pine Family.)
-
-=Juniperus sibirica= Burgsdorff. Mountain Juniper.
-
-The alpine juniper occurs on the banks of the Nisqually, near Longmire
-Springs, and is common on the rocks up to 7,500 feet elevation.
-
-=Chamaecyparis nootkatensis= (Lambert) Spach. Alaska Cedar.
-
-The Alaska cedar ranges on the mountain slopes from 3,500 feet up to
-6,000 feet altitude. It is far more abundant on the north side of the
-peak than on the south. Few, if any, specimens exceed four feet in
-diameter, and where the trees are most abundant the trunks are only
-one or two feet through.
-
-=Abies grandis= Lindley. White Fir.
-
-Some trees, without cones, which were observed on the trail above
-Longmire Springs, are doubtfully referred here. They are more likely
-to belong to the following species.
-
-=Abies amabilis= (Douglas) Forbes. Lovely Fir.
-
-The Lovely fir is abundant at from 2,500 to 3,500 feet elevation. It
-is usually but a small tree, with beautifully symmetrical form. Except
-when fruiting, it is difficult to distinguish from the lowland white
-fir.
-
-=Abies nobilis= Lindley. Noble Fir.
-
-The finest of all the firs, frequently four to six feet in diameter,
-without a single branch for a hundred feet or more. Easily known by
-the deep red color of the bark when chopped into, and by the large
-cones, covered with reflexed bracts. Abundant at 4,000 to 5,000 feet.
-
-=Abies lasiocarpa= (Hooker) Nuttall. Subalpine Fir.
-
-This is the primly conical little fir so common in Paradise Park. It
-rarely occurs below 4,500 feet elevation. Its dark purple pubescent
-cones, only two or three inches long, readily distinguish it from the
-preceding species.
-
-=Pseudotsuga mucronata= (Rafinesque) Sudworth. Douglas Spruce.
-
-The Douglas spruce is common up to 3,500 feet elevation. There is a
-marked tendency of the cones to be relatively shorter and thicker at
-this altitude, but otherwise the tree shows little variation from its
-lowland typical form.
-
-=Tsuga heterophylla= Rafinesque. Western Hemlock.
-
-The Western hemlock is abundant at 3,000 feet altitude, but usually
-much smaller than when growing near the sea level.
-
-=Tsuga mertensiana= (Bongard) Carriere. Black Hemlock.
-
-The Black hemlock is frequent from 4,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. On
-the higher slopes it commonly forms clumps with the Subalpine fir.
-When this is the case, the irregular form and dark foliage of the
-hemlock, usually festooned with lichens, form a pleasing contrast to
-the conical form and lighter foliage of the fir.
-
-=Pinus albicaulis= Engelmann. White-bark Pine.
-
-This white-barked nut pine is abundant on the high ridge north of the
-Cowlitz Glacier. It also occurs above Camp of the Clouds. It rarely
-fruits, and when it does the cones, with their sweet edible seeds, are
-quickly torn to pieces by Clark's crow. The trunk and branches are
-frequently adorned with the bright yellow lichen, _Evernia vulpina_.
-
-=Pinus monticola= Douglas. Western White Pine.
-
-Not uncommon at low elevations. The narrow cones, six to twelve inches
-long, are characteristic.
-
-=Pinus contorta= Douglas. Lodgepole Pine.
-
-Reported by Mr. Gorman "on the moraines of the Nisqually."
-
-=Picea engelmanni= Parry. Engelmann Spruce.
-
-Rather a rare tree about Mount Rainier, at 3,500 feet elevation. In
-the Sitka or Tideland spruce the leaves are decidedly flattened; in
-the Engelmann spruce they are nearly square in cross section.
-
-
-=ISOETACEAE.= (Quillwort Family.)
-
-=Isoetes echinospora braunii= Engelmann.
-
-Common in the small lakes near the foot of Pinnacle Peak.
-
-
-=LYCOPODIACEAE.= (Club-moss Family.)
-
-=Lycopodium annotinum= Linnaeus.
-
-A large patch of this handsome species occurs at the point where the
-trail first crosses Paradise River above Longmire Springs.
-
-=Lycopodium sitchense= Ruprecht.
-
-Common on the meadows at 4,000 feet elevation.
-
-
-=EQUISETACEAE.= (Horsetail Family.)
-
-=Equisetum limosum= Linnaeus.
-
-This species occurs in the bog on top of the ridge above the foot of
-Nisqually Glacier. The old trail to the park led through this bog.
-
-=Equisetum arvense= Linnaeus.
-
-Sterile fronds of this plant were observed at Longmire Springs.
-
-=Equisetum robustum= A. Braun.
-
-Common in damp places up to 3,000 feet elevation. Readily eaten by
-cayuses.
-
-
-=POLYPODIACEAE.= (Fern Family.)
-
-=Polypodium hesperium= Maxon.
-
-Not rare in rock crevices on the cliffs overlooking the lakes at the
-foot of Pinnacle Peak.
-
-=Phegopteris dryopteris= (Linnaeus) Fee.
-
-The pretty "oak-fern" is abundant along the trail above Longmire's, in
-deep woods.
-
-=Phegopteris alpestris= (Hoppe) Mettenius.
-
-Forming crown-like tufts in the talus at the foot of cliffs in
-Paradise Park.
-
-=Dryopteris spinulosa dilatata= (Hoffman) Underwood.
-
-The common wood-fern is frequent in the forests at 3,000 feet
-altitude.
-
-=Polystichum lonchitis= (Linnaeus) Roth.
-
-Specimens of this species are in my possession from Mount Rainier, but
-the exact place of collection has passed my recollection. Presumably
-it was found in or near Paradise Park.
-
-=Filix fragilis= (Linnaeus) Underwood.
-
-Diminutive specimens of this fern were collected on the cliffs at
-8,000 feet altitude. Rev. E. C. Smith found much finer examples at a
-lower elevation.
-
-=Cryptogramma acrostichoides= R. Brown.
-
-Common in the coarse gravel on the bars of the Nisqually, occurring
-even at the foot of the glacier.
-
-
-=OPHIOGLOSSACEAE.= (Adder's Tongue Family.)
-
-=Botrychium lunaria= (Linnaeus) Swartz.
-
-Specimens were collected by Rev. E. C. Smith on the north side of the
-mountain in 1888.
-
-=Botrychium lanceolatum= (S. G. Gmelin) Angstroem.
-
-Longmire Springs, Allen, not otherwise known on the Pacific Coast.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[27] Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, Vol. XXVI, 1883, pp. 222-235.
-
-[28] Neues Jahrbuch fuer Min., etc., Vol. I, 1885, pp. 222-226.
-
-[29] Observed by Iddings: Twelfth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, p.
-612.
-
-[30] Hague and Iddings: Twelfth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 225.
-
-[31] Oebbeke, _op. cit._, p. 226.
-
-[32] Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, 1896, p. 276.
-
-[33] Emmons, Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., 1877, No. 4, p. 45.
-
-
-
-
-XVII. CREATION OF MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK
-
-MEMORIAL BY SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES
-
-
-     A surprisingly wide interest was awakened by the proposal to
-     create a national park to include the great mass of Mount
-     Rainier and its immediate surroundings. Five societies
-     appointed committees to cooperate in securing the needed
-     legislation from Congress. Those committees prepared a
-     memorial. The Senate Miscellaneous Document, number 247,
-     Fifty-third Congress, second session, shows that the memorial
-     was introduced on July 16, 1894, by Senator Watson C. Squire
-     from the State of Washington. The memorial was deemed of
-     sufficient importance to be republished in the Eighteenth
-     Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey for
-     1896-1897. It is here reproduced from that publication.
-
-     With all the interest thus manifested, it required nearly
-     five years from the introduction of the memorial to witness
-     the achievement of its purpose. The act of Congress creating
-     the Mount Rainier National Park bears the date of March 2,
-     1899.
-
-
-    _To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
-    States of America in Congress assembled:_
-
-At a meeting of the Geological Society of America, in Madison, Wis.,
-August 15, 1893, a committee was appointed for the purpose of
-memorializing the Congress in relation to the establishment of a
-national park in the State of Washington to include Mount Rainier,
-often called Mount Tacoma. The committee consists of Dr. David T. Day,
-Mr. S. F. Emmons, and Mr. Bailey Willis.
-
-At a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of
-Science, in Madison, Wis., August 21, 1893, a committee was appointed
-by that body for the same purpose as above mentioned, consisting of
-Maj. J. W. Powell, Prof. Joseph Le Conte, Prof. I. C. Russell, Mr. B.
-E. Fernow, and Dr. C. H. Merriam.
-
-At a meeting of the National Geographic Society, held in Washington,
-D. C., on October 13, 1893, there was appointed a committee for the
-purpose above mentioned, consisting of Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard, Hon.
-Watson C. Squire, Mr. John W. Thompson, Miss Mary F. Waite, and Miss
-Eliza R. Scidmore.
-
-At a meeting of the Sierra Club, held in San Francisco December 30,
-1893, a committee for the same purpose was appointed, composed of Mr.
-John Muir, President D. S. Jordan, Mr. R. M. Johnson, Mr. George B.
-Bayley, Mr. P. B. Van Trump.
-
-At a meeting of the Appalachian Mountain Club, held in Boston April
-11, 1894, a similar committee was appointed, consisting of Mr. John
-Ritchie, Jr., Rev. E. C. Smith, Dr. Charles E. Fay.
-
-The committees thus appointed were instructed by the several bodies to
-which they belong to cooperate in the preparation of a memorial to
-Congress, setting forth the substantial reasons for the establishment
-of such park.
-
-Pursuant to their instructions, the committees present the following
-memorial to the Congress, and pray that such action may be taken by
-the honorable Senators and Representatives as will secure to the
-people of the United States the benefits of a national park which
-shall include the area mentioned above. In support of their prayer
-they beg to submit the following statement:
-
-By proclamation of the President, in compliance with the statutes
-provided therefor, a Pacific Forest Reserve has been established in
-the State of Washington, the western portion of which is nearly
-coincident with the tract of land to be included in the national park
-for which your memorialists pray.
-
-The western part of this reserve includes many features of unique
-interest and wonderful grandeur, which fit it peculiarly to be a
-national park, forever set aside for the pleasure and instruction of
-the people. The region is one of such exceptional rainfall and
-snowfall that the preservation of its forests is of unusual importance
-as a protection against floods in the lower valleys; but the scenic
-features, which mark it out for a national park, attract tourists, who
-set fire to the timber. This destruction goes on notwithstanding it is
-a forest reserve, and will continue until protection is afforded by
-adequate supervision of the area, whether as a reserve or park.
-
-The reserve is traversed through the middle from north to south by the
-crest of the Cascade Range, which has an elevation varying from 5,300
-to 6,800 feet. This is the divide between tributaries of Puget Sound,
-flowing west, and those of Yakima River, flowing east. Mount Rainier,
-the isolated volcanic peak, 14,400 feet high, stands 12 miles west of
-the divide, from which it is separated by a deep valley.
-
-The eastern half of the reserve differs from the western in climate,
-in flora, and in fauna, in geographic and geologic features, and in
-aspects of scenery. The eastern slope of the Cascade Range within the
-reserve is a mountainous region, with summits rising to a general
-elevation of 6,500 to 7,600 feet above the sea. It is forest covered
-and presents many attractions to the tourist and hunter; but it is not
-peculiar among the mountain regions of America either for grandeur or
-interest, and it is not an essential part of the area to be set apart
-as a national park.
-
-The western slope of the Cascades within the reserve is short and
-steep as compared with the eastern. Much of it is precipitous,
-particularly opposite Mount Rainier, where its bare walls would appear
-most grand were they not in the shadow of that overpowering peak.
-North and south of Rainier this slope is more gradual and densely
-wooded.
-
-The western half of the Pacific reserve, that portion which it is
-proposed shall be made a national park, is characterized by Mount
-Rainier, whose summit is but 4 miles from the western boundary of the
-reserve and whose glaciers extend beyond its limits.
-
-Mount Tacoma is not simply a volcanic cone, peculiar for its hugeness.
-It was formerly a vast volcanic dome, 30 miles in radius to the north,
-west, and south; but rivers have cut deep canyons, glaciers have
-carved ample amphitheaters back into the mass, and now many serrate
-ridges rising from a few hundred to 10,000 feet above the sea converge
-at that altitude to support the central pyramid, which towers more
-than 4,000 feet above its base.
-
-This grand mountain is not, like Mount Blanc, merely the dominant peak
-of a chain of snow mountains; it is the only snow peak in view, Mount
-St. Helens and Mount Adams being, like it, isolated and many miles
-distant. Rainier is majestic in its isolation, reaching 6,000 to 8,000
-feet above its neighbors. It is superb in its boldness, rising from
-one canyon 11,000 feet in 7 miles. Not only is it the grandest
-mountain in this country, it is one of the grand mountains of the
-world, to be named with St. Elias, Fusiyama, and Ararat, and the most
-superb summits of the Alps. Eminent scientists of England and Germany,
-who, as members of the Alpine Club of Switzerland and travelers of
-wide experience, would naturally be conservative in their judgment,
-have borne witness to the majesty of the scenery about Rainier.
-
-In 1883 Professor Zittel, a well-known German geologist, and Prof.
-James Bryce, member of Parliament and author of the American
-Commonwealth, made a report on the scenery about Mount Rainier. Among
-other things, they said:
-
-"The scenery of Mount Rainier is of rare and varied beauty. The peak
-itself is as noble a mountain as we have ever seen in its lines and
-structure. The glaciers which descend from its snow fields present
-all the characteristic features of those in the Alps, and though less
-extensive than the ice streams of the Mount Blanc or Monta Rosa groups
-are in their crevasses and seracs equally striking and equally worthy
-of close study. We have seen nothing more beautiful in Switzerland or
-Tyrol, in Norway or in the Pyrenees, than the Carbon River glaciers
-and the great Puyallup glaciers; indeed, the ice in the latter is
-unusually pure, and the crevasses unusually fine. The combination of
-ice scenery with woodland scenery of the grandest type is to be found
-nowhere in the Old World, unless it be in the Himalayas, and, so far
-as we know, nowhere else on the American Continent."
-
-These eminent and experienced observers further say:
-
-"We may perhaps be permitted to express a hope that the suggestion
-will at no distant date be made to Congress that Mount Rainier should,
-like the Yosemite Valley and the geyser region of the Upper
-Yellowstone, be reserved by the Federal Government and treated as a
-national park."
-
-But Mount Tacoma is single not merely because it is superbly majestic;
-it is an arctic island in a temperate zone. In a bygone age an arctic
-climate prevailed over the Northwest, and glaciers covered the Cascade
-Range. Arctic animals and arctic plants then lived throughout the
-region. As the climate became milder and glaciers melted, the
-creatures of the cold climate were limited in their geographic range
-to the districts of the shrinking glaciers. On the great peak the
-glaciers linger still. They give to it its greatest beauty. They are
-themselves magnificent, and with them survives a colony of arctic
-animals and plants which can not exist in the temperate climate of the
-less lofty mountains. These arctic forms are as effectually isolated
-as shipwrecked sailors on an island in mid-ocean. There is no refuge
-for them beyond their haunts on ice-bound cliffs. But even there the
-birds and animals are no longer safe from the keen sportsman, and the
-few survivors must soon be exterminated unless protected by the
-Government in a national park.
-
-The area of the Pacific forest reserve includes valuable timber and
-important water supplies. It is said to contain coal, gold, and
-silver.
-
-The timber on the western slope differs from that on the eastern in
-size and density of growth and in kinds of trees. The forests of Puget
-Sound are world-renowned for the magnitude and beauty of their
-hemlocks, cedars, and firs. Their timber constitutes one of the most
-important resources of the State. Nowhere are they more luxuriant than
-on the foothills west and north of Mount Rainier. But their value as
-timber is there subordinate to their value as regulators of floods.
-The Puyallup River, whose lower valley is a rich hop garden, is even
-now subject to floods during the rapid melting of the snow on Mount
-Rainier in the limited area above timber line. In the broader area
-below timber line, but above 3,000 feet in elevation, the depth of
-snow in the winter of 1893 was 9 to 15 feet. Protected by the dense
-canopy of the fir and hemlock trees this snow melts slowly and the
-river is high from March to June. But let the forest be once destroyed
-by fire or by lumbermen and the snows of each winter, melting in early
-spring, will annually overwhelm the Puyallup Valley and transform it
-into a gravelly waste. The same is true of White River and the
-Nisqually.
-
-The forests of the eastern slope, tributary to the Yakima, are of even
-greater importance as water preservers. They constitute a great
-reservoir, holding back the precipitation of the wet season and
-allowing it to filter down when most needed by crops. In the Yakima
-Valley water gives to land its value. Storage of flood waters and
-extensive distribution by canals is necessary. The forests being
-preserved to control the water, the natural storage basins should be
-improved and canals built. For these reasons it is most important
-that no part of the forest reserve should be sacrificed, even though
-the eastern half is not included in the national park.
-
-The boundaries of the proposed national park have been so drawn as to
-exclude from its area all lands upon which coal, gold, or other
-valuable minerals are supposed to occur, and they conform to the
-purpose that the park shall include all features of peculiar scenic
-beauty without encroaching on the interests of miners or settlers.
-
-None save those who can march and camp in the primeval forest can now
-visit Mount Rainier; but it is the wilderness, not the distance, that
-makes it difficult of approach. On the west the distance up the
-Nisqually River from the railroad at Yelm Prairie to the reserve is
-but 40 miles. Though heavily timbered, the valley of the Nisqually
-affords an easy route for a railroad. The Cowlitz Valley also offers a
-line of approach without difficulty by rail, it being about 50 miles
-from the railroad to the reserve.
-
-On the northwest the railroad at Wilkeson is but 23 miles from the
-summit of Mount Rainier, and the glaciers can be reached by riding 25
-miles through the great forest.
-
-On the north the Cascade branch of the Northern Pacific Railroad
-crosses the range, only 13 miles in a direct line and 19 miles along
-the summit from the northern limit of the reserve.
-
-On the east the city of North Yakima is but 62 miles from the summit
-of Mount Rainier.
-
-The proposed park covers a mountain region which lies across the line
-of travel from east to west. The railroad winds northward; the travel
-down the Columbia River turns southward to avoid it. The great current
-of tourists which flows north and south through Portland, Tacoma,
-Seattle, Vancouver, and Alaska passes to the west within sight of
-Mount Rainier, and when the grand old mountain is obscured by clouds
-the travelers linger to see it, or, passing regretfully on their way,
-know that they have missed the finest view of their trip.
-
-When a railroad is built up the Nisqually or Cowlitz Valley to the
-park and connection by stages is assured northward to the Cascade
-branch of the Northern Pacific Railroad and eastward to Yakima, the
-flood of travel will be diverted through the park.
-
-The point which combines accessibility with surroundings of great
-beauty, and which is therefore most appropriate as a hotel site, is
-southeast of Mount Rainier, on one of the spurs of the Tatoosh
-Mountains, near the Cowlitz Valley. To open this region to travel it
-would be sufficient to establish the hotel and its connections down
-the Nisqually or Cowlitz Valley, together with trails to points of
-interest within the park. From the hotel a principal trail would
-extend north to the Emmons and White River glaciers, which would thus
-be easily accessible, and thence the railroad at Wilkeson could
-readily be reached on horseback over the old Northern Pacific trail.
-In the future, stage roads, or possibly a railroad, would be extended
-over the Cowlitz Pass to the eastern slope, North Yakima would be
-reached via the Tieton or Tannum Valley, and Tannum Lake would become
-a favorite resort.
-
-But the highway which would challenge the world for its equal in grand
-scenery would extend from the Cowlitz Pass northward along the crest
-of the range to the Cascade branch. The distance is 50 miles, 31 in
-the park and 19 beyond it to the railroad. Within the reserve the
-summit is open and park-like. On the east is a sea of mountains; on
-the west is a bold descent of 3,000 feet to the valleys of Cowlitz and
-White rivers, beyond which Tacoma rises in overpowering grandeur,
-8,000 feet above the road and only 12 miles distant.
-
-A committee of your memorialists has carefully examined the existing
-maps of the State of Washington with special reference to the
-position of this reserve, and finds that the boundaries of the
-reserve are farther east, in relation to Mount Rainier, than was
-supposed. The western boundary traverses the slope of Mount Rainier
-at altitudes of 7,000 to 9,000 feet, and the glaciers extend several
-miles beyond it. In order to include all of the glacial area and the
-immediately adjacent forest on the west, your memorialists
-respectfully recommend that the western boundary of the park be
-drawn one range west of that of the reserve, viz., at the range line
-between ranges 6 and 7 east of the Willamette meridian. By this
-change no part of the Wilkeson-Carbonado coal field would be
-included in the park.
-
-Your memorialists find, as already stated, that it is not necessary to
-include the eastern slope of the Cascades in the park, and furthermore
-that it is desirable to leave the Natchez Pass on the north and the
-Cowlitz Pass on the south open for the construction of railroads. Your
-memorialists therefore pray that the park be defined by the following
-boundaries: Beginning at the northwest corner of sec. 19, T. 18 N., R.
-7 E. of the Willamette meridian; thence south 24 miles more or less to
-the southwest corner of sec. 18, T. 14 N., R. 7 E.; thence east 27
-miles more or less to the summit of the Cascade Range; thence in a
-northerly direction to a point east of the place of beginning, and
-thence west 26 miles more or less to the place of beginning.
-
-Your memorialists respectfully represent that--
-
-Railroad lines have been surveyed and after the establishment of a
-national park would soon be built to its boundaries. The concessions
-for a hotel, stopping places, and stage routes could be leased and the
-proceeds devoted to the maintenance of the park. The policing of the
-park could be performed from the barracks at Vancouver by details of
-soldiers, who would thus be given useful and healthful employment from
-May to October.
-
-The establishment of a hotel would afford opportunity for a weather
-station, which, in view of the controlling influence exerted by Mount
-Rainier on the moisture-laden winds from the Pacific, would be
-important in relation to local weather predictions.
-
-Your memorialists further represent that this region of marvelous
-beauty is even now being seriously marred by careless camping parties.
-Its valuable forests and rare animals are being injured and will
-certainly be destroyed unless the forest reserve be policed during the
-camping seasons. But efficient protection of the undeveloped
-wilderness is extraordinarily difficult and in this case practically
-impossible.
-
-Therefore, for the preservation of the property of the United States,
-for the protection from floods of the people of Washington in the
-Yakima, Cowlitz, Nisqually, Puyallup, and White River valleys, and for
-the pleasure and education of the nation, your memorialists pray that
-the area above described be declared a national park forever.
-
-For the National Geographic Society:
-
-                              GARDINER G. HUBBARD,
-                              _President._
-
-For the American Association for the Advancement of Science:
-
-                              J. W. POWELL.
-
-For the Geological Society of America:
-
-                              BAILEY WILLIS.
-
-For the Sierra Club:
-
-                              JOHN MUIR.
-
-For the Appalachian Mountain Club:
-
-                              JOHN RITCHIE, JR.
-
-WASHINGTON, D.C., _June 27, 1894_.
-
-
-
-
-XVIII. MOUNT RAINIER IS 14,408 FEET HIGH
-
-BY THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
-
-
-     The United States Geological Survey issued a bulletin for
-     newspaper publication on January 22, 1914, giving the height
-     of the mountain as determined by the most accurate and
-     definitive methods known. That bulletin is here given as it
-     was then issued. At the same time F. E. Matthes, topographer
-     with the Survey, sent additional comment to the Sierra Club
-     of California, by whom it was published in the Sierra
-     Bulletin for January, 1914. This comment is now reproduced by
-     permission of the Sierra Club.
-
-The height of the summit of Mount Rainier, Washington, has been
-determined by the United States Geological Survey to be 14,408 feet
-above mean sea level. This elevation now officially displaces the
-former supposed height of the mountain of 14,363 feet and accords to
-Mount Rainier the distinction of being the second highest mountain
-peak in the United States, Mount Whitney, California, being the
-highest. The correct height of Rainier was determined by a party of
-topographic engineers of the Survey in connection with the mapping of
-the Mount Rainier National Park, which was completed last summer. The
-topographic survey of the park was begun in 1910 by F. E. Matthes,
-continued in 1911 by Mr. Matthes and George R. Davis, and finished in
-1913 by C. H. Birdseye, W. O. Tufts, O. G. Taylor, and S. E. Taylor.
-
-In the mapping of the summit of the mountain a terrific blizzard was
-encountered; in fact, two ascents of the upper portion of the mountain
-were necessary. The first ascent of the upper 5,450 feet was begun at
-5 o'clock A.M., August 16 [1913], and dawn broke with every indication
-of developing into a beautiful day. On reaching the summit the men
-encountered a terrific gale, clouds enveloped the mountain, preventing
-observations, and by noon snow began to fall. A descent was attempted,
-but the party became hopelessly lost in a labyrinth of crevasses, the
-storm developing into a blizzard. To descend further was impossible;
-to remain was suicide. Consequently a return to the crater was
-ordered, and the men reached it after a two hours' climb, utterly
-exhausted and nearly frozen. Here they sought shelter in one of the
-steam caves, where during the long night they were thoroughly steamed
-and half frozen in turn. Strenuous measures were employed by the men
-to keep from falling asleep and freezing to death. As it was, their
-fingers and ears were badly frozen. Finally, with a rising barometer,
-they succeeded in descending 9,000 feet to a temporary camp, making
-the descent in three hours. Here they recuperated and prepared for
-another ascent, which was accomplished on August 20, the start being
-made at 1 o'clock in the morning. Good weather was encountered and the
-mapping of the entire summit was finished by 1 o'clock.
-
-"If anyone thinks that American glaciers are play glaciers, or that
-the weather which may be encountered at the summit of Mount Rainier in
-August is uniformly balmy and springlike," said Mr. Birdseye, whose
-fingers and ears were badly frosted, "let him climb Mount Rainier
-during one of its summer blizzards. The steam caves in the crater are
-not the pleasantest places imaginable to spend the night in, but had
-they not been there, not one of us would be alive today to tell the
-tale."
-
-
-COMMENT BY F. E. MATTHES
-
-The mountaineers of the Pacific Northwest will no doubt jubilate at
-the above announcement by the United States Geological Survey of the
-new figure for the altitude of Mount Rainier. It places that peak
-close to the top of the list of high mountains in the United States.
-Mount Rainier's closest rival on the Pacific coast, Mount Shasta, it
-so happens, has just recently been beheaded by the United States Coast
-and Geodetic Survey, and now can claim no more than 14,162 feet, that
-is, 218 feet less than it once boasted. The great volcano of Puget
-Sound is thus left well in the lead.
-
-A review of the different figures that have been announced in the past
-for each of the higher peaks of the United States would almost justify
-one to infer that these summits have a peculiar habit of fluctuating
-in height from time to time. Both Rainier and Shasta have been
-notorious for their inconstancy; so much so indeed that it is to be
-feared that the public will lose faith somewhat in the trustworthiness
-of altitude determinations in general. There is good reason to
-believe, however, that the last announcements for these two peaks are
-not likely to be changed again. About Mount Shasta, perhaps the Coast
-Survey is the only party able to speak positively; but as regards
-Mount Rainier, the Geological Survey feels satisfied that the new
-figure is the best that can be obtained with modern methods and
-instruments.
-
-The elevation of Mount Whitney (14,501 ft.), it may be remembered, was
-determined by actual leveling, but such procedure would have been
-impossible on Mount Rainier, as the most practicable route to its
-summit leads over many miles of snow and ice, and up a precipitous
-chute several hundred feet in height. On thawing snow accurate
-leveling is out of the question, for the instrument can not be set up
-so firmly that it will not settle slightly between back and fore
-sights. To execute this pottering kind of work in freezing weather
-would entail both hardship and great expense. But the obstacle that
-would have proved entirely insuperable to levels on Mount Rainier and
-led to the abandoning of that method is the dreaded Gibraltar Rock,
-well known to many who read this magazine [Sierra Club Bulletin]. To
-carry levels up its precipitous side is for practical considerations
-all but impossible.
-
-It was necessary, in the case of Mount Rainier, to resort to
-long-distance methods of angulation. That is to say, sights were taken
-to its summit from neighboring peaks, six to eight miles distant, the
-altitudes of which had been carefully determined, and the positions of
-which with respect to the mountain's summit had been computed from a
-scheme of triangulation.
-
-It is not possible to execute vertical-angle measurements of this sort
-with the precision obtainable by leveling; at the same time by
-providing a sufficient number of checks and repeating each measurement
-many times a result can be attained that can be relied on within a
-foot or two. And closer than that the determination of a snowcapped
-peak, such as Mount Rainier, need scarcely be; for its actual height
-is bound to fluctuate by several feet from year to year and even from
-month to month.
-
-It is gratifying to note how closely the new trigonometric
-determination of Mount Rainier accords with the barometric one of
-Prof. Alexander McAdie (14,394 ft.). It is hoped that this agreement
-between the results of two fundamentally different methods will
-strengthen public faith in their reliability, and lead to the
-discarding of other figures (some of them much exaggerated) that have
-appeared in print from time to time.
-
-In closing, it may be said, that the Geological Survey's bulletin
-little more than hints at the fortitude and pluck of Mr. Birdseye and
-his party in their almost disastrous experiences on the peak. Survey
-men are so frequently confronted by peril in their daily work, that
-they are not apt to write or talk about it, and as a consequence the
-public seldom learns the intimate details. It is to be hoped that the
-history of this undertaking will some day appear in full.
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: PETER RAINIER.
-  Admiral of the Blue, Royal Navy. ]
-
-XIX. PLACE NAMES AND ELEVATIONS IN MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK
-
-
-     Place names within a region like the Mount Rainier National
-     Park are produced by three causes: The first and most
-     important is the actual need of such names by those who work
-     within the Park and by those who report upon or write about
-     it. The second is the natural desire to honor those
-     individuals whose achievements are worthy of commemoration.
-     The third cause is found in the vanity of visitors. This is
-     sometimes manifested in the harmless and often helpful desire
-     just to be the one to name something, but usually it takes
-     the form of a desire of visitors to write the names of
-     themselves or their friends upon the map.
-
-     The ranger who discovers from a look-out peak a distant fire
-     near some unnamed lake or cliff hastens to a telephone, but
-     finds his work of sending fire fighters to the place of
-     danger much more difficult than if he could use some definite
-     place name. Trail builders and patrols continually find a
-     similar need for names. For their own use they proceed to
-     invent names which often stick. The Mountaineers in 1915
-     found that a trail builder had supplied such a need by giving
-     a beautiful waterfall near his trail the name of his favorite
-     brand of canned peaches. More care of such matters is now
-     being exercised by those interested working through the
-     United States Geographic Board.
-
-     The elevations given are taken from the official map and
-     other Government publications. In time all important heights
-     will be definitely determined and marked.
-
-     It is hoped that this compilation of the names may be
-     improved from year to year. Further facts about any of the
-     names would be welcomed by the editor of this work.
-
-=Ada Creek.= A tributary of Huckleberry Creek near the northern
-boundary of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Adelaide Lake.= Near the north-central boundary of the Park. Origin
-of name not ascertained.
-
-=Affi Falls.= In Lodi Creek, in the north-central portion of the Park.
-Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Alice Falls.= In Spukwush Creek, in the northwestern portion of the
-Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Alki Crest.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. The name is from
-the Chinook jargon meaning "by and by."
-
-=Allen Lake.= See Lake Allen.
-
-=Alta Vista.= A point near the snow line on the south-central slope.
-It was named by John P. Hartman, who visited the place with a Tacoma
-party in 1889. The name is Spanish and means "high view."
-
-=Anvil Rock.= On the southern slope, near the upper Cowlitz Glacier.
-The name is descriptive, but who suggested it has not been
-ascertained. Elevation, 9,584 feet above sea level.
-
-=Arthur Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of name
-not ascertained.
-
-=August Peak.= Near the northwestern boundary of the Park. Origin of
-name not ascertained.
-
-=Avalanche Camp.= On the north slope. Named by a member of The
-Mountaineers, during that club's first ascent in 1909. Elevation,
-10,900 feet above sea level.
-
-=Baker Point.= Outjutting portion of Goat Island Mountain, overlooking
-Emmons Glacier. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Bald Rock.= On the southeastern slope, near the Cowlitz Divide. The
-name is descriptive.
-
-=Barnes Pass.= On western edge of the Park. Named in honor of the
-photographer, C. A. Barnes, who discovered it while with J. H. Weer
-and J. B. Flett.
-
-=Barrier Peak.= A prolongation of Governors Ridge near the
-east-central boundary of the Park.
-
-=Basaltic Falls.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain. One of
-the features of Cowlitz Park. Named by Prof. J. B. Flett and H. H.
-Garretson.
-
-=Bear Park.= In the northeastern corner of the Park.
-
-=Bee Flat.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, just south of
-Chenuis Mountain.
-
-=Beehive.= Large rock on the southeast slope. It was named by Major E.
-S. Ingraham in 1888, who says: "It reminded me of one of those
-old-fashioned beehives." Elevation, 11,033 feet above sea level.
-
-=Beljica.= An interesting peak near the road leading from Ashford to
-the Park. The name is a composite made up of initials. In July, 1897,
-a party of nine young people visiting the peak provided the name. The
-B was for Burgon D. Mesler, the e for any one of three--Elizabeth
-Drabe, Elizabeth Sharp and Elizabeth Mesler, the l for Lucy K.
-LaWall, the j for Jessie K. LaWall, the i for Isabel Mesler, the c
-for Clara Mesler, and the a for Alexander Mesler.
-
-=Bench Lake.= In the southern portion of the Park. The land lying
-above the lake is called The Bench. Elevation of the lake, 4,500 feet
-above sea level.
-
-=Berkeley Park.= In the north-central portion of the Park, between
-Burroughs and Skyscraper Mountains. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Berry Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park.
-
-=Boulder Creek.= A tributary of Ohanapecosh River, in the park of the
-same name, on the eastern slope of the mountain.
-
-=Boundary Peak.= Appropriately named, as it lies on the southern
-boundary line of the Park.
-
-=Brown Peak.= In the northeastern corner of the Park.
-
-=Buel Peak.= Near the east-central boundary of the Park. Origin of
-name not ascertained. Elevation, 5,933 feet above sea level.
-
-=Burnt Park.= In the northeastern corner of the Park.
-
-=Burroughs Mountain.= On the northeast slope. It was named for the
-naturalist and was at first called John Burroughs Mountain.
-
-=Butter Creek.= Flowing from the Tatoosh Range across the southern
-boundary of the Park.
-
-=Camp Curtis.= On the northeast slope. Named by The Mountaineers in
-1909 in honor of Asahel Curtis, leader of that club's first ascent.
-Elevation, 9,000 feet above sea level.
-
-=Camp Delight.= See Camp of the Stars.
-
-=Camp Misery.= On the southern slope of the mountain at the base of
-the Beehive. The name is descriptive. Elevation, 11,033 feet above sea
-level.
-
-=Camp Muir.= On the southeast slope. Named by Major E. S. Ingraham, in
-honor of the naturalist, John Muir, who selected the temporary camping
-place during their ascent in 1888, because the presence of pumice
-indicated a shelter from strong winds. Elevation, 10,062 feet above
-sea level.
-
-=Camp No Camp.= On the southeastern slope, near the summit of the
-mountain. It is in the saddle near the summit of Gibraltar. The name
-indicates a disappointed attempt at rest. Elevation, 12,550 feet above
-sea level.
-
-=Camp of the Clouds.= On the south slope above Paradise Valley. Named
-on August 12, 1886, by Charles E. Kehoe, Charles A. Billings and
-George N. Talcott of Olympia. During their visit there the heavy banks
-of clouds parted and gave them a superb mountain view. Elevation,
-5,947 feet above sea level.
-
-=Camp of the Stars.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain, near
-the foot of Gibraltar. It is a narrow shelf of rocks, affording space
-for a dozen climbers when crowded together and "feet hanging over." It
-was used by one of the Ingraham parties, and H. E. Holmes says they at
-first called it Camp Delight on account of their joy at the first rays
-of morning. Elevation, about 12,000 feet above sea level.
-
-=Canyon Bridge.= In the southeastern part of the Park. The Muddy Fork
-of the Cowlitz River rushes through a very narrow and deep rift in the
-rocks. The spanning bridge gives an attractive view.
-
-=Carbon Glacier.= This glacier begins at the foot of Willis Wall on
-the north face of the mountain.
-
-=Carbon River.= About 1876 coal was discovered on the banks of this
-river suggesting the name, which was also later given to the glacier
-from which the river has its source.
-
-=Carter Falls.= One of the beautiful features of the lower Paradise
-River. Named for an early guide who built the first trail to Paradise
-Valley. For years the Longmires collected a fee of fifty cents from
-each one using the trail. It was willingly paid when it was explained
-that the money went to the builder of the trail.
-
-=Castle Rock.= In the northwestern portion of the Park. Named from its
-resemblance to an old castle. Elevation, 6,116 feet above sea level.
-
-=Cataract Basin.= See Mist Park.
-
-=Cataract Creek.= Flows from Mist Park to the Carbon River in the
-northwestern portion of the Park. About midway in its course are the
-beautiful Cataract Falls.
-
-=Cathedral Rocks.= Extending southeast from the summit. It is an
-extensive cleaver between the upper Cowlitz and Ingraham Glaciers. Who
-first suggested the name has not been ascertained. Elevation, 8,262
-feet above sea level.
-
-=Chenuis Mountain.= An extensive ridge near the northern boundary of
-the Park. On the shoulders of the mountain rest three little lakes
-called Chenuis Lakes. From the northern slopes of the mountain there
-rises Chenuis Creek, which, near its junction with the Carbon River at
-the northwestern boundary of the Park, produces the beautiful Chenuis
-Falls. The name seems to be Indian, but its origin has not been
-ascertained. Elevation of the ridge, from 4,000 to 6,000 feet above
-sea level.
-
-=Christine Falls.= On the lower portion of Van Trump creek. Mr. Van
-Trump says the falls "were named after my daughter, Christine Louise,
-by a friend John Hayes, of Yelm." Elevation, 3,667 feet above sea
-level.
-
-=Cliff Lake.= In the south-central portion of the Park, between the
-Tatoosh Range and the boundary.
-
-=Clover Lakes.= In White River Park, in the northwestern part of the
-Park.
-
-=Cold Basin.= In the northern portion of the Park, just south of Grand
-Park.
-
-=Colonnade.= The ridge lying between the South Mowich and the Puyallup
-Glaciers on the west-central slope of the mountain.
-
-=Columbia Crest.= Name suggested by H. E. Holmes of the Ingraham party
-in 1891. They had spent two nights in the crater and before leaving
-voted on a name for the highest part of the summit, with Columbia
-Crest as the result. It has occasionally been called The Dome. By
-Stevens and Van Trump it was called Crater Peak. Elevation, 14,408
-feet above sea level.
-
-=Comet Falls.= On the southern slope of the mountain, in Van Trump
-Park. Elevation, 5,200 feet above sea level.
-
-=Cougar Falls.= Near the southern boundary of the Park, in the Nickel
-Creek tributary of the Cowlitz River.
-
-=Cowlitz Chimneys.= Pointed and columnar rocks on the east-central
-slope. Though not adjacent to the glacier or river of that name, they
-undoubtedly got their name from one or the other. Elevation 7,607 feet
-above sea level.
-
-=Cowlitz Cleaver.= Near the southern peak of the summit. It is
-appropriately named, as it cleaves the higher streams of ice part of
-which flow into Puget Sound and the rest into the Columbia River.
-
-=Cowlitz Divide.= A ridge running from north to south in the
-southeastern corner of the Park.
-
-=Cowlitz Glacier.= Named by General Hazard Stevens and P. B. Van Trump
-in 1870 when they discovered it to be the source of the river by that
-name. It has its beginning from a group of smaller glaciers on the
-southeast slope of the mountain. Above the glaciers lies Cowlitz Park.
-
-=Cowlitz River.= The name appears as early as the Lewis and Clark
-reports, 1805-1806, where it is spelled Coweliskee. In varying forms
-it appears in the writings of all subsequent explorers. A tribe of
-Indians by that name inhabited its valleys. The river finally flows
-southward into the Columbia River.
-
-=Cowlitz Rocks.= A mass of rocks on the southeast slope, between the
-Paradise and Cowlitz Glaciers. The rocks were named in 1907 by the
-veteran guide, Jules Stampfler, who found a name necessary to satisfy
-the curiosity of his companies of tourists. Elevation, 7,457 feet
-above sea level.
-
-=Crater Lake.= On the northwest slope. Bailey Willis gave the name in
-1883. He recently wrote: "The amphitheatres which the young geologist
-mistook for craters are now known to be glacier basins eroded by
-ice." Elevation, 4,929 feet above sea level.
-
-=Crater Peak.= See Columbia Crest.
-
-=Crescent Mountain.= On the northern slope. The name was used by
-Bailey Willis in 1883. Near the foot of this mountain lies Crescent
-Lake.
-
-=Cress Falls.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, near Spukwush
-Creek.
-
-=Crystal Mountain.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain,
-overlooking Indian Henrys Hunting Ground. Elevation, 6,300 feet above
-sea level.
-
-=Cushman Crest.= On the southern slope, overlooking Nisqually Glacier.
-Named in honor of the late Congressman F. W. Cushman, of Tacoma.
-
-=Dege Peak.= Overlooking Yakima Park in the northern part of the Park.
-Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Denman Falls.= On the western slope, in St. Andrews Creek. Named by
-Ben Longmire in honor of A. H. Denman of Tacoma, enthusiastic
-mountaineer and photographer.
-
-=Devils Dream Creek.= On the southern slope of the mountain, a
-tributary of Pyramid Creek. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Dick Creek.= Flowing from Elysian Fields to the Carbon River in the
-northwestern portion of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Division Rock.= At the lower end of North Mowich Glacier, on the
-northwestern slope of the mountain.
-
-=Doe Creek.= A tributary of Ipsut Creek in the northwestern portion of
-the Park.
-
-=Double Peak.= Near the southeastern boundary of the Park. The height
-is marked at 6,200 feet. The name was suggested by its form.
-
-=Eagle Cliff.= Overlooking Spray Creek in the northwestern portion of
-the Park.
-
-=Eagle Peak.= Near the south-central boundary of the Park. Elevation,
-5,955 feet above sea level.
-
-=Echo Cliffs.= In the northwestern portion of the Park above Cataract
-Creek.
-
-=Echo Rock.= On the northwest slope near Russell Glacier. Major E. S.
-Ingraham named it Seattle Rock because it may be seen from that city.
-He does not know who changed the name.
-
-=Edith Creek.= On the southern slope, a tributary of the Paradise
-River. In 1907, Jules Stampfler, the guide, was getting out a series
-of stereopticon views and he needed a name for that creek. He does not
-remember Edith's full name. She was a member of one of his parties.
-
-=Edmunds Glacier.= On the western slope. In June, 1883, the glaciers
-were visited by Vice President Oakes of the Northern Pacific Railroad
-Company and United States Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont. One
-result of that trip was an order to build what has since been known as
-the Bailey Willis trail to the northwestern slopes of the mountain.
-Another subsequent result was the naming of the glacier in honor of
-Senator Edmunds.
-
-=Elizabeth Ridge.= Near Crater Lake in the northwestern corner of the
-Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Elysian Fields.= One of the beautiful park regions on the northern
-slope. The name was given by Major E. S. Ingraham in 1888. Elevation,
-5,700 feet above sea level.
-
-=Emerald Ridge.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain, dividing
-the lower parts of the Tahoma and South Tahoma Glaciers. The name is
-descriptive, but by whom it was first suggested has not been
-ascertained.
-
-=Emmons Glacier.= On the northeastern slope. This is the largest
-glacier on the mountain. For a long time it was called White Glacier
-because it gave rise to the river of that name. The river's name came
-from the glacial whiteness of its waters. The present name is in honor
-of S. F. Emmons, who, with A. D. Wilson, made the second successful
-ascent of the mountain in 1870.
-
-=Eunice Lake.= In the northwest corner of the Park near Tolmie Peak.
-Bailey Willis named it Tolmie Lake in 1883; but it was not so mapped
-officially, and the name was changed to honor Mrs. W. H. Gilstrap of
-Tacoma. She and her husband were frequent visitors to the Crater Lake
-region.
-
-=Fairy Falls.= On the southeastern slope, in the upper waters of
-Stevens Creek. Elevation, 5,500 feet above sea level.
-
-=Falls Creek.= Rises in North Park and flows across the boundary at
-the northwestern corner of the Park.
-
-=Fay Peak.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, overlooking
-Crater Lake. Elevation, 6,500 feet above sea level. The name was given
-in honor of Miss Fay Fuller of Tacoma, who in 1890 was the first of
-her sex to attain the summit of Mount Rainier.
-
-=Fir Lake.= A small lake in the southeastern corner of the Park.
-
-=Fish Creek.= A tributary of Tahoma Creek in the southwestern corner
-of the Park.
-
-=Fishers Hornpipe Creek.= On the southern slope of the mountain, a
-tributary of Pyramid creek. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Flett Glacier.= Near Ptarmigan Ridge on the northwestern slope. The
-name is in honor of Professor J. B. Flett of Tacoma, one of the most
-enthusiastic explorers of the mountain.
-
-=Florence Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of
-name not ascertained.
-
-=Frog Heaven.= On the south-central slope of the mountain, to the west
-of Narada Falls.
-
-=Frozen Lake.= In the northern portion of the Park, just south of
-Mount Fremont.
-
-=Fryingpan Glacier.= There are two conflicting theories about this
-name. One is that some campers lost a frying pan in the river, giving
-it that name, which was later extended to the glacier. The other is
-that Professor I. C. Russell named the glacier from its fancied
-resemblance to a frying pan, and that the name was later extended to
-the river. On the east-central slope of the mountain.
-
-=Garda Falls.= In Granite Creek, a tributary of Winthrop Creek, in the
-north-central portion of the Park. Named by C. A. Barnes in honor of
-Miss Garda Fogg of Tacoma.
-
-=George Lake.= See Lake George.
-
-=Gibraltar.= This famous and forbidding cliff of rock just southeast
-of the summit was named by the Ingraham party in 1889. Elevation,
-12,679 feet above sea level.
-
-=Glacier Basin.= On the northern slope of the mountain. It is a rather
-steep but attractive little park, with a small lake and good spring
-water. Inter Glacier is at its head and Inter Fork passes through it.
-Miners at Starbo Camp maintain a little waterpower sawmill, and they
-have for years worked at prospective mines on the slopes of the Basin.
-They have built a wagon road to their camp, by use of which tourists
-will soon become well acquainted with the beauties of Glacier Basin
-and the surrounding regions. Elevation, 6,000 feet above sea level.
-
-=Glacier Island.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain. The name
-is descriptive, as the island lies between the lower parts of Tahoma
-and South Tahoma Glaciers.
-
-=Goat Island Mountain.= On the northeastern slope of the mountain,
-between Emmons Glacier and Summer Land.
-
-=Goat Island Rock.= In the lower portion of Carbon Glacier, in the
-northwestern portion of the Park.
-
-=Golden Lakes.= A cluster of beautiful lakes in and near Sunset Park,
-close to the west-central boundary of the Park. At sundown they glow
-like molten gold.
-
-=Gove Peak.= In the northwestern portion of the Park. Origin of name
-not ascertained.
-
-=Governors Ridge.= Toward the east-central boundary of the Park. The
-name was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen of the Park.
-
-=Grand Park.= A high and extensive area in the northern portion of the
-Park. The miles of relatively level ground, flower-strewn and
-ornamented with circular groves of alpine firs and hemlocks, with
-deer abundant every summer, make the name an appropriate one.
-Elevation, 5,700 feet above sea level.
-
-=Granite Creek.= In the north-central portion of the Park. It is a
-tributary of Winthrop Creek.
-
-=Grant Creek.= A tributary to Spray Creek in the northwestern portion
-of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Green Lake.= In the northwestern corner of the Park.
-
-=Green Park.= North of Sourdough Mountains, in the northeastern part
-of the Park.
-
-=Hall's Camp.= See Wigwam Camp.
-
-=Hayden Creek.= A tributary of Meadow Creek in the northwestern corner
-of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Henrys Hunting Ground.= See Indian Henrys Hunting Ground.
-
-=Hessong Rock.= On the northwest slope overlooking Spray Park. It was
-named in honor of a photographer who lived at Lake Kapowsin.
-
-=Hidden Lake.= Near White River Park, in the northeastern part of the
-Park.
-
-=Howard Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of name
-not ascertained.
-
-=Huckleberry Creek.= Takes its rise in the Sourdough Mountains and
-flows northward across the boundary of the Park.
-
-=Huckleberry Park.= At the headwaters of Huckleberry Creek in the
-northeastern part of the Park.
-
-=Independence Ridge.= Extending from Chenuis Mountain to the northern
-boundary of the Park.
-
-=Indian Bar.= A large gravel bar in Ohanapecosh Park on the eastern
-slope of the mountain.
-
-=Indian Henrys Hunting Ground.= About 1870, a Cowlitz Indian began
-hunting mountain goats in that region. Henry Winsor, a pioneer mail
-carrier, asked his name and got an unpronounceable answer. "That's no
-name," said Winsor, "your name is Indian Henry." His playful joke
-stuck. On the map the word "Indian" is omitted, but the United States
-Geographic Board has voted to restore it. P. B. Van Trump said the
-Indian's name was Sotolick.
-
-=Ingraham Glacier.= This beautiful glacier lies between Cathedral
-Rocks and Little Tahoma on the southeast slope. It was named by
-Professor I. C. Russell in 1896 in honor of Major E. S. Ingraham of
-Seattle.
-
-=Inter Glacier.= On the northeast slope. It was named by Major E. S.
-Ingraham in 1886 when he attempted but failed to ascend the mountain
-from the north side. The name was suggested by the glacier being
-hemmed in by a rim of rocks.
-
-=Ipsut Pass.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Flowing from it
-to the Carbon River is a stream called Ipsut Creek. The word is said
-to be a form of an Indian word meaning "bear."
-
-=Iron Mountain.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain,
-overlooking Indian Henrys Hunting Ground. The name describes the
-masses of supposed iron stain. Elevation, 6,200 feet above sea level.
-
-=Jeanette Heights.= On the west-central slope overlooking Edmunds
-Glacier. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Josephine Creek.= A tributary of Huckleberry Creek, taking its rise
-in Green Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=June Creek.= Flows across the boundary in the northwestern corner of
-the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Kautz Glacier.= This glacier begins at the foot of Peak Success, the
-southern summit. It was named in honor of Lieutenant (afterwards
-General) A. V. Kautz, who attempted an ascent in 1857. The creek
-flowing from the glacier bears the same name.
-
-=Klapatche Ridge.= Near the west-central boundary of the Park, between
-the North Puyallup River and St. Andrews Creek. Origin of name not
-ascertained.
-
-=Knapsack Pass.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, a pass
-between Fay Peak and Mother Mountain from Mist Park to Crater Lake.
-
-=Kotsuck Creek.= Flows across the east-central boundary of the Park.
-Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Lake Allen.= On the west slope of Mount Wow in the southwestern
-corner of the Park. To avoid confusion, it was originally named Lake
-O. D. Allen. The name was given in honor of the veteran botanist, who
-was at one time a professor at Yale University.
-
-=Lake Eleanor.= Near the northern boundary of the Park. Origin of name
-not ascertained.
-
-=Lake Ethel.= In the north-central portion of the Park, with outlet
-into the West Fork of White River. The name was suggested by The
-Mountaineers in 1912 as a compliment to the daughter of Park Ranger
-Thomas E. O'Farrell.
-
-=Lake George.= On the western slope of Mount Wow in the southwestern
-corner of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Lake James.= In the north-central portion of the Park, with outlet
-into Van Horn Creek. The name was suggested by The Mountaineers in
-1912 as a compliment to the young son of Thomas E. O'Farrell, Park
-Ranger.
-
-=Lake Tom.= A small lake near Arthur Peak in the northwestern corner
-of the Park.
-
-=Landslide.= On the northwest of Slide Mountain, in the northeastern
-corner of the Park.
-
-=Lee Creek.= A tributary of Crater Creek in the northwestern portion
-of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Liberty Cap.= The northern peak of the summit of Mount Rainier. It
-has been claimed that Stevens and Van Trump gave this name at the time
-of their first ascent in 1870, but Mr. Van Trump says they called it
-Tahoma Peak. One of the early uses of the present name was by Bailey
-Willis, who wrote in 1883: "Over the trees near the outlet, just to
-the right of this pinnacle, a pure white peak towers up into the
-heavens; it is the northern summit of Mount Tacoma,--the Liberty Cap."
-Elevation, 14,112 feet above sea level.
-
-=Liberty Ridge.= To the west of Willis Wall and overlooking the head
-of Carbon Glacier near the northern summit. The name was adopted in
-1914 by the engineers of the United States Geological Survey who made
-the official map of the Park. It was suggested by John H. Williams,
-author of the book entitled "The Mountain That Was God."
-
-=Little Tahoma Peak.= A towering and rugged peak on the east flank of
-Mount Rainier. Very few adventuresome climbers have as yet attained
-its summit. Elevation, 11,117 feet above sea level. The only ascent
-known was made by Prof. J. B. Flett and H. H. Garretson.
-
-=Lodi Creek.= A tributary of White River, in the north-central portion
-of the Park. The name is said to have been given by early prospectors
-for minerals.
-
-=Longmire Springs.= Near the southeastern boundary of the Park. The
-springs were discovered by the pioneer, James Longmire, who acquired
-title to the property and lived there until his death on September 17,
-1897. Members of his family still maintain a resort there. The
-National Park Inn, a postoffice, Park offices, and other conveniences
-make Longmire the capital of the Park. Elevation, 2,761 feet above sea
-level.
-
-=Lost Creek.= Flows across the northeastern boundary of the Park.
-
-=Louise Lake.= In the south-central portion of the Park between Mazama
-Ridge and Tatoosh Range. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=McClure Rock.= On the southeastern slope near Paradise Glacier. It
-marks the place of the tragic death of Professor Edgar McClure, of the
-University of Oregon, in 1897, while descending after taking
-barometric measurements at the summit. Elevation, 7,384 feet above sea
-level.
-
-=McNealey Peak.= A part of Sourdough Mountains in the northern part of
-the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Madcap Falls.= On the southern slope of the mountain, in the Paradise
-River between Narada Falls and Carter Falls.
-
-=Maple Falls.= In a creek of the same name, near the southern boundary
-of the Park. The creek is a tributary of Stevens Creek.
-
-=Marcus Peak.= A part of Sourdough Mountains in the northeastern part
-of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Margaret Falls.= On the southeast slope, between Cowlitz Park and
-Cowlitz Glacier. The name was in honor of one of the daughters of E.
-S. Hall, former Superintendent of the Park.
-
-=Marie Falls.= On the southeast slope, in the upper waters of Nickel
-Creek. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Marjorie Lakes.= Near the north-central boundary of the Park. Origin
-of name not ascertained.
-
-=Marmot Creek.= A tributary of Cataract Creek, draining Seattle Park,
-in the northwestern portion of the Park. The name is for the whistling
-marmot, so plentiful in that region.
-
-=Marsh Lakes.= In the southern part of the Park.
-
-=Martha Falls.= On the southeast slope. The falls were named in honor
-of the wife of the late Elcaine Longmire, by Ben Longmire, the son.
-
-=Martin Peak.= On the northwestern boundary of the Park. Origin of
-name not ascertained.
-
-=Mary Belle Falls.= On the southeast slope in the upper waters of
-Nickel Creek. The name was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen in
-honor of one of the daughters of E. S. Hall, former Superintendent of
-the Park.
-
-=Mazama Ridge.= On the southern slope of the mountain, beginning at
-Sluiskin Falls. Named for the Oregon mountain climbing club whose main
-camp was pitched there in 1905.
-
-=Meadow Creek.= Near the northwestern boundary of the Park. It rises
-near Tolmie Peak and was named by Bailey Willis in 1883.
-
-=Mildred Point.= On the southwest slope, overlooking the foot of Kautz
-Glacier. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Mineral Mountain.= On the north-central slope of the mountain,
-overlooking Mystic Lake. The name tells the hopes of early prospectors
-who worked there before the National Park was created.
-
-=Mirror Lakes.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain, in Indian
-Henrys Hunting Ground.
-
-=Mist Park.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, on the shoulders
-of Mother Mountain. Elevation, 6,000 feet above sea level. This park
-is also known as Cataract Basin.
-
-=Moraine Park.= On the northern slope, bordering Carbon Glacier. It
-was named by Professor I. C. Russell.
-
-=Mosquito Flat.= In the north-central portion of the Park, near Lakes
-James and Ethel. The name indicates that the place was first visited
-at an unfortunate season. Elevation, 4,400 feet above sea level.
-
-=Mother Mountain.= An extensive ridge in the northwestern portion of
-the Park. The name came from the figure of a woman in the rock on the
-northeastern summit of the ridge clearly seen silhouetted against the
-sky by those traveling on the Carbon River trail. Elevation, 6,540
-feet above sea level.
-
-=Mount Ararat.= On the southwest slope, overlooking Indian Henrys
-Hunting Ground. Ben Longmire writes: "I named it because I found there
-some long slabs of wood that had turned to stone and I thought they
-might have been part of old Noah's boat. I also found a stump with a
-ring around it as if his rope might have been tied there. It was all
-stone." Elevation, 5,996 feet above sea level.
-
-=Mount Fremont.= In the northern portion of the Park at the western
-extremity of Sourdough Mountains. The origin of the name has not been
-ascertained. Elevation, 7,300 feet above sea level.
-
-=Mount Pleasant.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, overlooking
-Mist and Spray Parks.
-
-=Mount Rainier.= Named for Admiral Peter Rainier of the British Navy
-by Captain George Vancouver in 1792. For his own account of the
-discovery and naming of the mountain, see Chapter I of this book.
-Elevation, 14,408 feet above sea level.
-
-=Mount Ruth.= On the northeastern slope of the mountain, overlooking
-the Inter and Emmons Glaciers. The name was given in honor of Ruth
-Knapp, daughter of the prospector who built "Knapp's Cabin," a
-landmark for tourists in the Glacier Basin region. Elevation, 8,700
-feet above sea level.
-
-=Mount Wow.= In the southwestern corner of the Park. It is sometimes
-called Goat Mountain. Elevation, 6,045 feet above sea level.
-
-=Mountain Meadows.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. The name
-originated with Bailey Willis in 1883. Elevation, 4,000 feet above sea
-level.
-
-=Mowich Glaciers.= On the western and northwestern slopes of the
-mountain are two beautiful glaciers known as North and South Mowich.
-The name is from the Chinook jargon, meaning "deer." Who first
-suggested the name has not been ascertained. Each glacier has its
-draining stream. These flow together, making Mowich River, which
-crosses the northwestern boundary of the Park. North Mowich was once
-called Willis Glacier and South Mowich was called Edmunds Glacier.
-
-=Muddy Fork.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain. One of
-several sources of the Cowlitz River, it drains from the foot of the
-large Cowlitz Glacier.
-
-=Myrtle Falls.= On the southern slope in Edith Creek, a tributary of
-the Paradise River. The name was given by Jules Stampfler, the guide,
-in 1907. Myrtle was a member of one of his parties, but he has
-forgotten the rest of her name.
-
-=Mystic Lake.= On the northern slope of the mountain, between the
-Winthrop and Carbon Glaciers. It is a favorite place for campers who
-expect to attempt the ascent of the mountain on its northern slopes.
-Elevation, 5,750 feet above sea level. Named by Prof. J. B. Flett and
-H. H. Garretson on account of a mysterious temporary whirlpool seen
-near its outlet.
-
-=Nahunta Falls.= On the south slope. At one time the falls had the
-name Marie, but it was changed at the suggestion of Secretary Josephus
-Daniels of the United States Navy Department. He says: "The name was
-familiar to me as one given by the Carolina Tuscarora to a river in
-North Carolina and also to their largest fort or 'head town.'"
-Secretary Daniels obtained from the Bureau of American Ethnology
-information that the name has appeared under various spellings and may
-mean "tall trees" or "tall timbers."
-
-=Narada Falls.= On the south-central slope, the principal feature of
-the lower Paradise River. An effort was recently made to change the
-name to Cushman Falls in honor of the late Congressman F. W. Cushman,
-a strong friend of the Park. The present name is of Theosophical
-origin. Narada was a spiritual being worshipped by the Brahman people
-in India by reason of his service to the first race of men. Among
-modern Theosophists the word has become a metaphysical subject, the
-greater part of which is given to esoteric students and cannot be
-revealed. The word itself means "uncontaminated." The wonderful beauty
-of the scene, in its pure and original form, suggested the name to an
-early group of visitors, Theosophists, consisting of the following
-persons: Professor E. O. Schwaegerl, Mr. and Mrs. George A. Sheffield,
-Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Knight, Miss Ida Wright (now Mrs. Vern Mudgett),
-Mrs. Addie G. Barlow and Mr. Henry Carter. Elevation, 4,572 feet above
-sea level.
-
-=National Park Inn.= At Longmire Springs near the southwestern
-entrance to the Park. This attractive hotel has frequently been so
-overrun with guests that numerous tents have been used for sleeping
-quarters. These are placed in the groves of pines and firs on the bank
-of the Nisqually River. Many trips to interesting parts of the
-mountain are made from the Inn. Elevation, 2,761 feet above sea level.
-
-=Natural Bridge.= In the north-central portion of the Park. Many
-photographers have scrambled to the scene of this natural curiosity.
-Elevation, 5,400 feet above sea level.
-
-=Needle Creek.= Near the east-central boundary of the Park. It is a
-tributary of Kotsuck Creek and takes its rise near the sharp cliffs of
-Cowlitz Chimneys, which may have suggested the name "Needle."
-
-=Needle Rock.= On the northwest slope, overlooking the North Mowich
-Glacier. The name was given by Professor J. B. Flett from its supposed
-resemblance to Cleopatra's Needle. Elevation, 7,587 feet above sea
-level.
-
-=Nisqually Glacier.= The large glacier flowing from the southern flank
-of Mount Rainier. It was named by Stevens and Van Trump in 1870 when
-they found it to be the source of Nisqually River.
-
-=Nisqually River.= Rising at the foot of Nisqually Glacier, it flows
-southwesterly through the Park and empties into Puget Sound between
-Tacoma and Olympia. It was mentioned in the Journal of John Work of
-the Hudson's Bay Company, as early as 1824. The first settlement by
-white men on Puget Sound was made by the Hudson's Bay Company near its
-mouth in May, 1833. That trading post was called Nisqually House. Rev.
-Myron Eells, the talented missionary, says the word comes from the
-native word, "Squally-o-bish," from the tribe of that name.
-
-=North Mowich.= See Mowich.
-
-=North Park.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Elevation, about
-5,000 feet above sea level.
-
-=Northern Crags.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, overlooking
-Elysian Fields.
-
-=Observation Rock.= On the northwest slope near Flett Glacier. In 1885
-it was named Observation Point by Prof. L. F. Henderson. An extensive
-view of western Washington is to be had from its top. Elevation, 8,364
-feet above sea level.
-
-=Ohanapecosh Glacier.= On the east-central slope of the mountain.
-Below the glacier lies the beautiful Ohanapecosh Park, from which
-flows the river of the same name, which passes out of the Park at the
-northeastern corner of the boundary. The name is Indian, but its
-meaning has not been ascertained.
-
-=Old Desolate.= A ridge in the northwestern portion of the Park
-between Moraine and Vernal Parks.
-
-=Ollala Creek.= In the southeastern corner of the Park. The name is
-from the Chinook jargon, meaning "berries."
-
-=Owyhigh Lakes.= Near the east-central boundary of the Park. The
-Yakima had a great war leader, Chief Owhigh, and this is apparently an
-honor for him. See narrative by Theodore Winthrop in this book,
-Chapter IV.
-
-=Panhandle Gap.= On the east-central slope of the mountain, above the
-Sarvent Glaciers. Elevation, about 7,000 feet above sea level.
-
-=Panorama Point.= On the southern slope of the mountain, overlooking
-Nisqually Glacier.
-
-=Paradise Glacier.= On the southeast slope. In 1870, Stevens and Van
-Trump called it Little Nisqually Glacier.
-
-=Paradise River.= Stevens and Van Trump called the river Glacier Creek
-in 1870.
-
-=Paradise Valley.= On the south-central slope. This is the best known
-part of the Park. David Longmire says that his mother (wife of the
-pioneer, James Longmire) and a Mrs. Jameson were the first women to
-visit the region. As they wound up the zigzag trail through the forest
-they were suddenly in the midst of most wonderful mountain scenery.
-"O, what a paradise!" exclaimed one. "Yes, a real paradise," answered
-the other. That was in 1885, and the name Paradise has remained in use
-for the valley and has also been extended to the river and the glacier
-from which it takes its source.
-
-=Paul Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of name
-not ascertained.
-
-=Peak Success.= The southern summit of Mount Rainier. It was named in
-1870 by Stevens and Van Trump on the occasion of their making the
-first ascent of the mountain. The new map calls it Point Success.
-Elevation, 14,150 feet above sea level.
-
-=Pearl Creek.= On the southern slope of the mountain, draining Pyramid
-Glacier into Kautz Creek. About midway in its course the creek plunges
-over what are known as Pearl Falls.
-
-=Pigeon Creek.= Near the north-central boundary of the Park.
-
-=Pinnacle Peak.= One of the most dominant peaks of the Tatoosh Range
-in the south-central portion of the Park. Its height is marked at
-6,562 feet. On its northern slope lies an ice field called Pinnacle
-Glacier. The ascent of this peak is attempted by many visitors
-starting from Paradise Valley.
-
-=Plummer Peak.= Near the south-central boundary of the Park. The name
-was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen in honor of the late Fred
-G. Plummer, Geographer of the United States Forest Service.
-
-=Point Success.= See Peak Success.
-
-=Prospector Creek.= A tributary of Huckleberry Creek in the
-northeastern part of the Park.
-
-=Ptarmigan Ridge.= On the northwestern slope of the mountain, lying
-north of the North Mowich Glacier and south of the Flett and Russell
-Glaciers. The name was given on account of the large number of
-ptarmigan families found there each summer. Named by Prof. J. B. Flett
-and H. H. Garretson.
-
-=Puyallup Cleaver.= The large ridge of rocks on the western slope of
-the mountain, dividing the Puyallup and Tahoma Glaciers.
-
-=Puyallup Glacier.= On the western slope. Its name comes from the fact
-that it feeds one of the branches of the Puyallup River.
-
-=Puyallup River.= Two forks of this river rise from the glaciers on
-the western and southwestern slopes of the mountain. The river empties
-into Puget Sound at Tacoma Harbor. There have been many spellings of
-the word in early annals. Rev. Myron Eells says the tribe of Indians
-living on the river called themselves "Puyallupnamish."
-
-=Pyramid Park.= On the southern slope of the mountain, adjacent to
-Pyramid Peak. From the park flows a stream called Pyramid Creek, and
-above the park lies Pyramid Glacier, between South Tahoma and Kautz
-Glaciers.
-
-=Pyramid Peak.= On the southwestern slope, overlooking Indian Henrys
-Hunting Ground. It was named by James L. Mosman, of Yelm, because of
-its resemblance to a perfect pyramid. The same name has been extended
-to a small park and glacier to the northeastward of the peak.
-Elevation, 6,937 feet above sea level.
-
-=Rainier.= See Mount Rainier.
-
-=Rampart Ridge.= On the southern slope of the mountain. This ridge is
-a prominent group of crags rising above Longmire Springs. Elevation,
-3,800 feet above sea level. The nearer and higher portion of the ridge
-is known as The Ramparts. The name is an old one, but who first
-suggested it has not been ascertained. Elevation of The Ramparts,
-4,080 feet above sea level.
-
-=Ranger Creek.= In the northwestern corner of the Park, flowing into
-Carbon River near the Ranger Station at the boundary of the Park.
-
-=Redstone Peak.= In the north-central portion of the Park, between the
-headwaters of Van Horn Creek and White River.
-
-=Reese's Camp.= On the south-central slope of the mountain, in
-Paradise Park. For a number of years John L. Reese has accommodated
-visitors in a log and canvas hotel with numerous tents for sleeping
-rooms. The name of his camp has grown so familiar that other names are
-forgotten. The site of his hotel was once known as Theosophy Ridge.
-Beginning with 1916, the Rainier National Park Company, a new
-corporation composed of prominent citizens, will supplant Reese's Camp
-with a modern hotel and will provide garages, lunch-stations and other
-conveniences for the tourists. The elevation at Reese's Camp is 5,557
-feet above sea level.
-
-=Reflection Lakes.= On the south-central slope of the mountain. These
-lakes are visited by all who make the trip to Pinnacle Peak from
-Paradise Valley. Elevation, 4,861 feet above sea level.
-
-=Register Rock.= On the rim of the crater, where there is securely
-fastened in the rocks a record on which all successful climbers by
-way of the Gibraltar route sign their names. Elevation, 14,161 feet
-above sea level, or 247 feet below Columbia Crest, the actual summit.
-
-=Ricksecker Point.= On the southern slope. It was named in honor of
-Eugene Ricksecker, the engineer, who had charge of building the
-government road in the Park. Elevation, 4,212 feet above sea level.
-
-=Round Pass.= Near the southwestern boundary of the Park. It is
-understood that the name is to be changed to Halls Pass in honor of
-former Superintendent E. S. Hall.
-
-=Rushingwater Creek.= Flows from the Golden Lakes across the
-west-central boundary of the Park.
-
-=Russell Cliff.= At the summit, east of Liberty Cap. It was named by
-The Mountaineers Club, during an ascent in 1909, in honor of Professor
-I. C. Russell.
-
-=Russell Glacier.= On the northern slope, just west of Carbon Glacier.
-It was named in honor of Professor I. C. Russell.
-
-=Rust Ridge.= In the northwestern corner of the Park.
-
-=St. Andrews Park.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain. Among
-the first campers in that region was a group of choir boys from St.
-Mark's (Episcopal) Church of Seattle. It is said that they called the
-place St. Andrews Park. The stream flowing out of it is now called St.
-Andrews Creek, and high up on the western slope is St. Andrews Rock,
-at the entrance to Sunset Amphitheatre.
-
-=St. Elmo Pass.= On the north slope, through the ridge that divides
-the Winthrop and Inter Glaciers. It was named by Major E. S. Ingraham,
-who says: "In 1887, I camped on the ridge with my party. During the
-night a great thunderstorm arose and we could hear the peals of
-thunder below. A couple of boys who were with the party were sleeping
-above us. Suddenly they called out that the storm was over because
-they could see the stars. I, too, saw stars, but I did not think they
-were real. I got up and began to investigate. What the boys thought
-were stars was St. Elmo fire which had settled on their alpenstocks.
-Even the cooking utensils were aflame with it, and our heads shone. I
-explained the phenomenon and the place was called St. Elmo Pass."
-Elevation, 7,415 feet above sea level.
-
-=St. Jacobs Lake.= A small lake in the southeastern corner of the
-Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Sarvent Glaciers.= Two small but interesting glaciers on the
-east-central slope, draining into Fryingpan Creek. They were named in
-honor of Henry M. Sarvent, the engineer, who made the first detailed
-map of the mountain.
-
-=Scarface.= Near the north-central boundary of the Park. The name is
-descriptive. Elevation, 6,100 feet above sea level.
-
-=Seattle Park.= A small but beautiful area in the northwestern portion
-of the Park between the Russell and Carbon Glaciers. It was named for
-the City of Seattle.
-
-=Shadow Lake.= On the east-central slope of the mountain, east of
-Burroughs Mountain. Elevation, 6,200 feet above sea level.
-
-=Shaw Creek.= A tributary of White River near the eastern boundary of
-the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Silvan Island.= On the south side of Emmons Glacier. Named by Prof.
-J. B. Flett.
-
-=Silver Falls.= In the southeastern corner of the Park.
-
-=Skyscraper Mountain.= In the north-central portion of the Park,
-overlooking Berkeley Park. It is a recent name and comes from its
-supposed resemblance to a modern style of architecture. Elevation,
-7,650 feet above sea level.
-
-=Slide Mountain.= In the northeastern corner of the Park. Elevation,
-6,630 feet above sea level.
-
-=Sluiskin Falls.= On the southeastern slope, in the upper waters of
-Paradise River. Named by Stevens and Van Trump, in 1870, in honor of
-their Indian guide. Elevation, 5,900 feet above sea level.
-
-=Sluiskin Mountain.= In the north-central portion of the Park,
-overlooking Vernal Park. Evidently an additional, though later, honor
-for the Indian guide of Stevens and Van Trump. Elevation, 7,015 feet
-above sea level.
-
-=Snow Lake.= Near the southern boundary of the Park.
-
-=Sotolick Point.= On the southwest slope. The name is spelled
-"Satulick" on the map. It was suggested by P. B. Van Trump, who says
-Sotolick was the name of Indian Henry. Elevation, 5,574 feet above sea
-level.
-
-=South Mowich.= See Mowich.
-
-=South Tahoma.= See Tahoma.
-
-=Spray Falls.= On the northwestern slope of the mountain. The highest
-and most beautiful falls on the north side of the mountain. It was
-probably named when the Bailey Willis trail was built by it in 1883.
-The abundant water breaks into a mass of spray. Elevation, 5,300 feet
-above sea level.
-
-=Spray Park.= Above Spray Falls lies this extensive and most beautiful
-park. Its elevation is from 6,000 to 8,000 feet above sea level.
-Several lakes drain into Spray Creek, which produces Spray Falls. The
-name originated at the falls and was later extended to the creek and
-park.
-
-=Spukwush Creek.= Flowing from Chenuis Mountain to Carbon River in the
-northwestern portion of the Park. The name seems to be Indian, but its
-origin has not been ascertained.
-
-=Squaw Lake.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain, near the
-entrance to Indian Henrys Hunting Ground. It is said that the Squaw
-camped there while her hunter husband went further up the slopes for
-his game.
-
-=Starbo Camp.= In Glacier Basin, on the northern slope of the
-mountain. It is named for the miner who has maintained a camp there
-for a number of years. Further information is given under the head of
-Glacier Basin.
-
-=Steamboat Prow.= On the north slope of the mountain. The
-appropriateness of this name is apparent to any who have visited the
-upper ice fields of the Winthrop and Emmons Glaciers. The pointed
-cliff seems to be buffeting a sea of ice. Elevation, 9,500 feet above
-sea level.
-
-=Stevens Glacier.= On the southeastern slope, adjoining Paradise
-Glacier. The name is in honor of General Hazard Stevens who, with P.
-B. Van Trump, made the first ascent of the mountain in 1870. The creek
-flowing from the glacier is called Stevens Creek; its deep bed is
-Stevens Canyon, and the overlooking crags are Stevens Ridge.
-
-=Stevens Peak.= Near the southern boundary of the Park. The name is
-probably an additional honor for General Hazard Stevens. Elevation,
-6,511 feet above sea level.
-
-=Success Glacier.= On the southern slope of the mountain, flowing into
-Kautz Glacier. Between Success Glacier and South Tahoma Glacier lies a
-ridge called Success Cleaver. For the origin of the name see Peak
-Success.
-
-=Summer Land.= One of the mountain's most beautiful parks, on the
-east-central slope, above Fryingpan Creek. It was named by Major E. S.
-Ingraham in 1888.
-
-=Sunbeam Falls.= On the southern slope of the mountain, in a tributary
-of Stevens Creek.
-
-=Sunrise Ridge.= Appropriately named as being at the northeastern edge
-of the Park. A stream flowing from the ridge is called Sunrise Creek.
-Elevation, about 6,000 feet above sea level.
-
-=Sunset Amphitheatre.= A huge cirque extending up toward Liberty Cap
-on the western side of the mountain. From it flow the Puyallup and
-Tahoma Glaciers.
-
-=Sunset Park.= So named because it extends to the west-central
-boundary of the Park.
-
-=Sweet Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of name
-not ascertained. Elevation, 4,500 feet above sea level.
-
-=Sylvia Falls.= On the southeastern slope, in Stevens Creek. Ben
-Longmire, who is quite a wag, says: "Bill Stafford named some falls,
-Sylvia Falls, after his sweetheart, and she has not spoken to him
-since."
-
-=Tahoma Glacier.= On the southwest slope of the mountain, beginning
-at Sunset Amphitheatre and draining into the South Fork of the
-Puyallup River. Just south of this glacier is another called South
-Tahoma Glacier, which drains into Tahoma Creek, which in turn flows
-into the Nisqually River at the southwestern corner of the Park. The
-name is one of the forms of the word Tacoma. Stevens and Van Trump
-gave the name to what is now known as Liberty Cap at the summit. The
-name is also applied to a most prominent peak on the eastern slope of
-the mountain. See Little Tahoma.
-
-=Tamanos Mountain.= Near the east-central boundary of the Park. The
-name is apparently one way of spelling the Chinook jargon word meaning
-"spirit."
-
-=Tato Falls.= On the southern slope, near the foot of Nisqually
-Glacier. The name was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen.
-
-=Tatoosh Range.= Near the south-central boundary of the Park. The
-Indian word is said to mean "nourishing breast." A stream from the
-mountains is called Tatoosh Creek. Highest elevation, at Unicorn Peak,
-6,939 feet above sea level.
-
-=Tenas Creek.= Flowing from Mount Wow across the boundary in the
-southwest corner of the Park. The name is from the Chinook jargon
-meaning "little."
-
-=The Burn.= Near the southern boundary of the Park. The name is too
-suggestive of a departed forest.
-
-=The Castle.= A part of the Tatoosh Range, in the southern portion of
-the Park.
-
-=The Fan.= On the southeastern slope, just south of the lower part of
-Cowlitz Glacier. It is a lake whose name was suggested by its shape.
-
-=The Palisades.= A ridge jutting northwestward from Sourdough
-Mountains, in the northeastern part of the Park.
-
-=The Ramparts.= See Rampart Ridge.
-
-=The Wedge.= On the north slope of the mountain, between the Winthrop
-and Emmons Glaciers. A large mass with Steamboat Prow at the upper or
-"sharpened" edge. Named by Prof. I. C. Russell and his party in 1896.
-
-=Theosophy Ridge.= See Reese's Camp.
-
-=Tilicum Point.= On the northwestern slope of the mountain, a part of
-Ptarmigan Ridge. The name is from the Chinook jargon, meaning
-"friend." Elevation, 6,654 feet above sea level.
-
-=Tirzah Peak.= A portion of Chenuis Mountain near the northwestern
-boundary of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. Elevation, 5,212
-feet above sea level.
-
-=Tokaloo Rock.= On the western slope, at the lower end of Puyallup
-Cleaver. Origin of name not ascertained. Elevation, 7,675 feet above
-sea level.
-
-=Tolmie Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. It is named in
-honor of Dr. William Fraser Tolmie, the Hudson's Bay Company surgeon,
-who was the first white man to approach the mountain. It was in 1833
-that he climbed this peak. In 1883, Bailey Willis wrote: "The point
-remained unvisited for fifty years; last summer I was able to identify
-it and named it Tolmie Peak." A near-by stream is called Tolmie Creek.
-Elevation of the peak, 5,939 feet above sea level.
-
-=Trixie Falls.= On the southeastern slope, in Cowlitz Park. The name
-was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen in honor of one of the
-daughters of former Superintendent E. S. Hall.
-
-=Tumtum Peak.= In the southwestern corner of the Park, visible to all
-on the road to and from Longmire. The name is from the Chinook jargon,
-meaning "heart," and was suggested by the form of the mountain.
-Elevation, 4,678 feet above sea level.
-
-=Twin Falls.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain, in the lower
-part of Cowlitz Park.
-
-=Tyee Peak.= A part of Chenuis Mountain in the northwestern portion of
-the Park. The name is from the Chinook jargon, meaning "chief."
-Elevation, 6,030 feet above sea level.
-
-=Unicorn Peak.= Where the Tatoosh Range approaches the south-central
-boundary of the Park, this peak rises to a height of 6,939 feet. On
-its western flank is an ice field called Unicorn Glacier.
-
-=Van Horn Creek.= On the northern slope, toward the boundary of the
-Park. The name was suggested by Thomas E. O'Farrell, Park Ranger, in
-honor of Rev. F. J. Van Horn, one of The Mountaineers' party of 1909.
-The beautiful falls in the creek received the same name. Elevation of
-the falls, about 4,400 feet above sea level.
-
-=Van Trump Glacier.= On the southern slope. It is named in honor of P.
-B. Van Trump who, with General Hazard Stevens, made the first ascent
-of the mountain in 1870. The creek flowing from the glacier has the
-same name, and the flower-strewn region above the creek is called Van
-Trump Park. Elevation of the park, about 5,500 feet above sea level.
-
-=Vernal Park.= In the north-central portion of the Park, just south of
-Sluiskin Mountain.
-
-=Virginia Peak.= Near the northwestern boundary of the Park. Origin of
-name not ascertained. Elevation, 4,934 feet above sea level.
-
-=Wahpenayo Peak.= Between the Tatoosh Range and the south-central
-boundary of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. Elevation, 6,234
-feet above sea level.
-
-=Wallace Peak.= A portion of Chenuis Mountain near the northwestern
-boundary of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. Elevation, 5,800
-feet above sea level.
-
-=Wapowety Cleaver.= On the southern slope, overlooking Kautz Glacier.
-Mr. Van Trump says that Wapowety was the Indian guide of Lieutenant A.
-V. Kautz during his attempted ascent in 1857. Elevation, about 9,500
-feet above sea level.
-
-=Washington Cascades.= On the southern slope of the mountain, in the
-Paradise River above Narada Falls.
-
-=Wauhaukaupauken Falls.= On the east slope, in Ohanapecosh Park. This
-is one of the remarkable features of the mountain streams. The meaning
-and origin of the Indian name have not been ascertained.
-
-=Weer Rock.= On the western slope. The name does not appear on the
-map, but it is said to have been agreed upon as an honor to J. H.
-Weer, of Tacoma, who has done extensive exploration work upon and
-around the mountain. He was leader of The Mountaineers, in 1915, when
-the first large party encircled the mountain at snow-line.
-
-=White River.= This river drains most of the glaciers on the
-northeastern slopes of the mountain. With a grand sweep around the
-mountain, the river flows through its valley to unite with the Black
-River near Seattle, becoming the Duwamish River, which empties into
-Puget Sound at Seattle Harbor. Its name came from the glacial
-character of the water.
-
-=White River Park.= Lying between Sourdough Mountains and Sunrise
-Ridge in the northeastern part of the Park.
-
-=Whitman Glacier.= On the eastern slope of the mountain flowing from
-the side of Little Tahoma. The name is in honor of Doctor Marcus
-Whitman, who gave his life as a missionary among the Indians. He, his
-wife, and twelve others were murdered by the Indians near Walla Walla
-in 1847. The ridge of rocks east of the glacier is called Whitman
-Crest.
-
-=Wigwam Camp.= In Indian Henrys Hunting Ground, on the southwestern
-slope of the mountain. For several years a tent and log-cabin camp has
-been maintained here by George B. Hall for the accommodation of
-visitors. Elevation, 5,300 feet above sea level.
-
-=Willis Wall.= On the northern face of the mountain at the head of
-Carbon Glacier. The great vertical cliff, 3,600 feet high, over which
-avalanches of snow crash throughout the summer months, is one of the
-attractive features of the great mountain. It was named in honor of
-Bailey Willis, on account of his extensive explorations in 1883.
-
-=Williwakas Glacier.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain,
-flowing from Paradise Glacier. The stream draining the glacier is
-known as Williwakas Creek. Origin of name not ascertained.
-
-=Wilson Glacier.= On the southern slope, above Nisqually Glacier. It
-was named in honor of A. D. Wilson, who, with S. F. Emmons, made the
-second ascent of the mountain in 1870.
-
-=Windy Gap.= In the northern portion of the Park, between the ridges
-of Chenuis and Crescent Mountains.
-
-=Winthrop Glacier.= On the northern slope, where its head joins that
-of Emmons Glacier. It is named in honor of Theodore Winthrop, who
-passed close by the mountain in 1853 and recorded his observations in
-his book entitled "The Canoe and the Saddle." The same name is given
-to a creek that drains this glacier into White River. The glacier was
-formerly mapped as White Glacier.
-
-=Wright Creek.= A tributary of Fryingpan Creek, taking its rise near
-the Cowlitz Chimneys, on the eastern slope of the mountain. Origin of
-name not ascertained.
-
-=Yakima Park.= On the northeastern slope, on the shoulders of
-Sourdough Mountains. The name is that of a tribe of Indians living
-east of the Cascade Mountains. It has there been used as the name of a
-county and a city.
-
-=Yellowstone Cliffs.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, at the
-southeastern end of Chenuis Mountain.
-
-
-Printed in the United States of America.
-
-
-
-
-    The following pages contain advertisements of
-    books by the same author or on kindred subjects.
-
-
-           _BY THE SAME AUTHOR_
-
-  =Vancouver's Discovery of Puget Sound=
-
-            BY EDMOND S. MEANY
-
-                              _Illustrated, 8vo, $2.50_
-
-A carefully edited and extra-illustrated reproduction of the 1801
-edition of Vancouver's "Journal" of discoveries on the Northwest
-Coast. This is preceded by a life of the great navigator, and accounts
-of others who made explorations in that region. A large number of
-portrait-plates additional to the reproduction of those in the
-original Journal, and several maps, embellish the work.
-
-     "A remarkably interesting volume--the most valuable addition
-     to American history that ever came out of the Pacific
-     Northwest, if not indeed from the whole Pacific
-     Coast."--_Seattle Daily Times._
-
-     "A noteworthy addition to the subject of Americana in its
-     largest sense."--_Review of Reviews._
-
-     "An excellent specimen of the best historical work, written
-     with fairness and impartiality."--_San Francisco Chronicle._
-
-
-           _BY THE SAME AUTHOR_
-
-    =United States History for Schools=
-
-            BY EDMOND S. MEANY
-
-                              _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00_
-
-A complete and well-balanced treatment of United States history.
-Industrial and social changes, rather than the traditional grouping of
-topics on changes of administration, etc., have determined the
-division of the subject into periods and of the periods into chapters.
-The space devoted to wars has been reduced to the minimum and more
-space has been given to the record of the nation's political,
-industrial, and social progress, emphasizing the advancement of the
-United States within the last fifty years. It presents American
-history as a part of world history. The treatment covers all the
-important points required by the Committee of Eight in its Report to
-the American Historical Association. The style is vivid and
-interesting; the sentences are short and vigorous and the paragraphs
-are topical units. The book abounds in illuminating "side lights"
-always interesting and relevant. Suggestions for collateral study and
-reading are provided and study questions are given at the close of
-each chapter.
-
-
-           _BY THE SAME AUTHOR_
-
-  =A History of the State of Washington=
-
-            BY EDMOND S. MEANY
-
-                              _Illustrated, decorated cloth, 8vo, $2.25_
-                              _School edition. Ill., 12mo, $1.25_
-
-An interesting and valuable work on the growth and development of the
-State of Washington, especially timely on account of the present
-exposition. It is not, however, an account of the isolated growth of
-one state, but in a great measure the history of the whole Pacific
-slope.
-
-    "It would be difficult to exaggerate the interest and charm of
-    these vivid pages, written, as they were, under the spell and
-    inspiration of a new world."--_Literary Digest._
-
-
-          _By WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBS_
- Professor of Geology, University of Michigan
-
-      =Earth Features and their Meaning=
-
-=A Textbook for Cultural Courses on General Geology=
-
-                              _Profusely illustrated, 8vo, $3.00_
-
-    "The purpose of 'Earth Features and their Meaning,' by
-    Professor W. H. Hobbs, is primarily to furnish a readable work
-    on miscellaneous topics of modern geology and physical
-    geography. In his preface the author lays stress on the fact
-    that the book is a series of readings to stimulate the
-    traveler to appreciate the landscape wherever he may go. A
-    special emphasis is laid upon earthquakes, volcanoes, the work
-    of water, desert processes, and glaciers....
-
-    "The book is noteworthy for the importance given to the
-    experimental method in geology, for good reading references at
-    the end of each chapter, for an unusually good analysis of
-    weathering and the surface processes of dry regions, such as
-    dune accumulations in the deserts, and for original treatment
-    of glaciation."--_Nation._
-
-    "The subject matter is presented in such an interesting and
-    intelligent manner that the general reader and student will
-    receive from its study such an understanding of the subject
-    that he will be able, in his travels, to recognize many of the
-    earth's features about which he has read. The landscapes which
-    are represented are very largely those which are along the
-    routes of travel. Much stress has been placed on the
-    dependence of the chief geological processes of a region, upon
-    the general climatic conditions there existing....
-
-    "This is a book which should be possessed by every teacher of
-    earth science and geology, whether in secondary school or
-    college. It deserves and doubtless will have a large
-    circulation."--_School Science and Mathematics._
-
-    "The book is an excellent reference volume for students who
-    are interested in a simple outline of geology. The volume
-    has been tested in class work and should prove its
-    worth."--_Bulletin of American Geographical Society._
-
-
-    =Characteristics of Existing Glaciers=
-
-                              _Illustrated, cloth, 8vo, $3.25_
-
-    "Every geographer and geologist interested in ice will
-    appreciate these clear descriptions and excellent illustrations
-    of the earth's great glaciers--they make up into a most
-    presentable book."--_Nature._
-
-
-             THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
-  Publishers    64-66 Fifth Avenue    New York
-
-
-
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber's note:
-
-Obvious typographical errors were corrected. Hyphenation variants
-present in the original were retained.
-
-Author/subject illustrations have been re-positioned to the beginning
-of chapters to which they pertain.
-
-Company information at bottom of each ad page was reduced to one
-placement at the end of the ads.
-
-
-
-***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOUNT RAINIER***
-
-
-******* This file should be named 42314.txt or 42314.zip *******
-
-
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/3/1/42314
-
-
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
-will be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
-one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
-(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
-permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
-set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
-copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
-protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
-Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
-charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
-do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
-rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
-such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
-research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
-practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
-subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
-redistribution.
-
-
-
-*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-  www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-
-Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works
-
-1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
-all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
-If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
-terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
-entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
-
-1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
-paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
-and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
-or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
-collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
-individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
-located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
-copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
-works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
-are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
-Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
-freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
-this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
-the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
-keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
-a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
-the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
-before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
-creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
-Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
-the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
-States.
-
-1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
-access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
-whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
-copied or distributed:
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
-
-1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
-from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
-posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
-and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
-or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
-with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
-work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
-through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
-Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
-1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
-terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
-to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
-permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
-word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
-distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
-"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
-posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
-you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
-copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
-request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
-form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
-that
-
-- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
-     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
-     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
-     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
-     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
-     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
-     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
-     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
-     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
-     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-     License.  You must require such a user to return or
-     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
-     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
-     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
-     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
-     of receipt of the work.
-
-- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
-forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
-both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
-Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
-Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
-collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
-"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
-corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
-property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
-computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
-your equipment.
-
-1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
-your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
-the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
-refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
-providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
-receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
-is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
-opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
-WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
-WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
-If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
-law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
-interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
-the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
-provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
-with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
-promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
-harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
-that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
-or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
-work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
-Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
-
-
-Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
-including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
-because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
-people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
-To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
-and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
-Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
-permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
-Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
-throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at 809
-North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887.  Email
-contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the
-Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-     Chief Executive and Director
-     gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
-SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
-particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
-To donate, please visit:  www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-
-Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
-with anyone.  For forty years, he produced and distributed Project
-Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
-unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
-keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
-
-     www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/42314.zip b/42314.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index 4255d2b..0000000
--- a/42314.zip
+++ /dev/null