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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #65151 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65151)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of How Old Is It? The Story of Dating in
-Archeaology, by James Schoenwetter
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: How Old Is It? The Story of Dating in Archeaology
-       Museum of New Mexico Press, Popular Series Pamphlet No. 2
-
-Author: James Schoenwetter
-
-Illustrator: Mary Spencer
-             Phyllis Hughes
-
-Release Date: April 24, 2021 [eBook #65151]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading
-             Team at https://www.pgdp.net
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW OLD IS IT? THE STORY OF DATING
-IN ARCHEAOLOGY ***
-
-
-
-
-                             HOW OLD IS IT?
-
-
-                   THE STORY OF DATING IN ARCHAEOLOGY
-
-
-                       MUSEUM OF NEW MEXICO PRESS
-                     POPULAR SERIES PAMPHLET NO. 2
-
-
-
-
-                                                          HOW OLD IS IT?
-                                                   DATING IN ARCHAEOLOGY
-                                                 _by James Schoenwetter_
-
-
-There is a whole field of science devoted to the invention and
-development of dating methods—or “clocks” as we may think of them. It is
-called _geochronology_, the science of dating events. There are
-relatively few geochronologists, scientists trained in the use of all
-kinds of dating methods and in the theories upon which these methods are
-based.
-
-Geochronologists tell us that there are two major types of clocks: those
-that tick at an absolute rate of speed which can be measured, and those
-which tick only once in a while. A clock of the first type yields what
-is called an _absolute_ date, revealing the number of hours, days,
-years, centuries or millennia since an event occurred. A clock of the
-second type yields what is called a _relative_ date, placing an event as
-before or after another event, but does not tell us exactly how far they
-are apart in time nor how long ago they occurred.
-
-Depending upon how accurate his date must be to solve the problem he has
-set for himself, the archaeologist will select absolute or relative
-dating methods. Often, of course, the type of clock he wishes to use is
-not available, and he must use the next best type. Probably he will try
-to use a number of clocks of different kinds on the problem since each
-clock will act as a check on the others.
-
-The absolute clock utilized most widely in archaeology is the historical
-record. Men have used calendars for a long time, and have often left
-records with written dates. On tombstones at a site in old Virginia, on
-the pedestals of statues and other monuments from classical Greece and
-Rome, on the walls of the tombs of Egyptian kings, dates are clearly
-inscribed which can be related to the sites dug into by the
-archaeologists. These dates must often be recalculated in terms of the
-Christian calendar which we use. Most calendars in use in the
-Mediterranean, the Near East and China during classical antiquity have
-been successfully correlated with the one we use today, and a date
-inscribed or noted on such sites can be considered in our own terms.
-Other calendars, such as those developed in the ancient cultures of the
-Maya on the Yucatan Peninsula, have yet to be accurately correlated with
-our own. Such calendars can be used on their own terms of course, and a
-site which has an inscription in the Mayan calendar is known to be so
-many years older or younger than another one with a different date in
-that calendar. We speak of such a situation as a _floating chronology_.
-That is, the sequence of events and the number of years which separate
-them are known, but the dates of those events in absolute time are
-unknown.
-
-    [Illustration: (uncaptioned)]
-
-Tree rings afford another kind of absolute clock, the _dendrological_
-method. Each year a tree adds a growth ring. Depending on the amount of
-water the tree has available to it for cell growth, the ring will be
-wider or narrower. Certain trees whose water requirements are high live
-near streams or other places where their roots can tap a constant supply
-of water. Such trees, referred to as _complacent_, have annual rings
-which are all of about the same width. Other _sensitive_ trees live in
-places where they must depend almost wholly on rainfall for their water
-supply, as on the slopes of hills or in the clefts of rocks. Such trees
-have annual rings which vary in width depending upon the amount of rain
-they receive. In any given area, especially in arid and semiarid
-regions, some years have more rainfall than others. The sensitive trees
-will produce wider rings during years when there is more rainfall and
-narrower rings in years when there is less. Often there are periods of a
-decade or so when all of the sensitive trees will produce the same
-pattern of ring growth; for example, three years of narrow rings, one
-year of wide, two more of narrow and three more of wide. Such a pattern
-is called a _signature_.
-
-Signatures are the basis of tree ring chronologies. All the trees in a
-region did not begin growing at the same time of course, but every time
-there is a series of years which will produce a signature, all the
-sensitive trees still alive will have that signature. Let us say we cut
-down a sensitive tree in 1960 and, by counting back the rings, find
-signatures at 1940-45, 1910-14, 1880-89, 1821-27, 1795-1800 and 1750-58.
-Next we recover a beam from an abandoned Spanish Mission built in 1810.
-It happens to be from a sensitive tree, and we can spot the 1795-1800
-and the 1750-58 signatures near the outer rings. Now we have two records
-which can be said to be _crossdated_. Let us assume that the Spanish
-Mission log give us signatures as far back as 1350. An abandoned Indian
-pueblo produces a log with signatures crossdating those of the Spanish
-Mission log and continuing the record back to 1250. Older and older
-archeological sites will yield older and older signatures with each log
-crossdating some of the signatures of younger logs.
-
-At present we have a tree ring calendar for certain species of trees
-extending back to about 100 B.C. This is called a _master tree ring
-chronology_. A log from an archaeological site may contain only one or
-two signatures and be, in itself, a floating chronology, but by
-comparison with the master chronology one can determine the cutting
-date. Having a series of cutting dates for the construction timbers in
-an archaeological site yields the probable dates at which the site was
-built and occupied.
-
-    [Illustration: _Diagram to Illustrate Tree Ring Dating. Reproduced
-    by special permission from Stallings, “Dating Prehistoric Ruins by
-    Tree-Rings.”_]
-
-  C THIS BEAM CAME FROM AN OLD HOUSE
-  B THIS BEAM CAME FROM A HOUSE
-  A THIS WAS A LIVING TREE WHEN CUT BY US
-  THE RING PATTERNS MATCH AND OVERLAP BACK INTO TIME
-  SPECIMENS TAKEN FROM RUINS, WHEN MATCHED AND OVERLAPPED AS INDICATED,
-          PROGRESSIVELY EXTEND THE DATING BACK INTO PREHISTORIC TIMES.
-
-Not all kinds of trees can be used for dendrochronology. Pine, fir and
-pinyon are the most useful; juniper can sometimes be used. Oak,
-cottonwood, willow and others are very difficult to date and frequently
-cannot be used at all.
-
-Another widely used absolute clock is that based upon the orderly
-decomposition of carbon. This is the _radiocarbon_ or C-14 method of
-dating. Molecules of various substances are made up of atoms. We know
-now that not all atoms of a substance are precisely the same. We speak
-of _isotopes_ of an atom. To clarify this let us think of the atoms of
-carbon as being made up of a mass of ping-pong balls. Some atoms will
-have more ping-pong balls than others, but all will have enough and in
-the proper order to be carbon atoms. Each of the atoms with 14 ping-pong
-balls we shall refer to as the carbon-14 isotope of carbon. There will
-be other isotopes of carbon atoms too.
-
-The carbon-14 isotope is about average in life span. It has been
-determined that in any group of C-14 isotopes half of them will lose two
-of their ping-pong balls and become C-12 isotopes in 5,730 years, plus
-or minus 40. This is known as the _half-life_ of the C-14 isotope. The
-“plus or minus 40” allows for laboratory error in terms of years.
-
-Now all living things contain carbon atoms, and some of those atoms are
-C-14 isotopes. The amount of C-14 isotopes in a living organism quickly
-reaches a stable percentage after which there is no increase or decrease
-while the organism is alive. After it dies, the C-14 supply is not
-replenished, and with the passing of 5,730 plus or minus 40 years, it
-has half the number of C-14 isotopes it had when alive. In 11,460 plus
-or minus 80 years, it will have one quarter as many as it had when
-alive.
-
-The geochronologist takes a certain weight of carbon-bearing matter from
-an organism which once lived. With simple chemistry he can determine the
-number of carbon atoms in the material, usually charcoal, wood, bone or
-shell. He places the material in a chamber equipped with geiger counters
-and records the number of C-14 isotopes converting to C-12 isotopes
-within a certain number of hours or days. Since he knows how many carbon
-atoms there are in the specimen, he knows how many C-14 isotopes there
-would be if the specimen were alive. He also knows that as the number of
-C-14 atoms decreases the number of clicks on the geiger counter will
-decrease too. For example, if there are 2,000 C-14 isotopes, the
-decomposition of half of these over a period of approximately 5,730
-years would register 1,000 clicks on the counter. In the next 5,730 year
-period there would be 1,000 isotopes left, and only 500 of them would
-decompose to register as geiger counter clicks.
-
-The geochronologist does the counting and analysis of the results and
-sends the information back to the archaeologist in the form of the
-number of years that have elapsed since the carbon was part of a living
-creature; for example, 1,500 plus or minus 150 years BP (before
-present). The archaeologist, converting this to the Christian calendar
-in 1964, would come up with A.D. 464 plus or minus 150 years. When was
-the sample actually alive? We don’t know exactly, but statistically we
-have a ninety-five percent chance of being right if we say sometime
-between A.D. 164 and 764. This clock ticks in centuries. But the
-radiocarbon clock doesn’t tick very long, even in centuries, before
-running down. By the time 30,000 to 40,000 years have gone by, the C-14
-in any sample is almost gone, and there is too little left to give
-enough geiger counter clicks unless one is willing to wait a lifetime to
-record two or three clicks.
-
-The C-14 dating technique measures time by radioactive decomposition of
-materials. There are other clocks which depend on the chemical
-decomposition of materials. The forgery of the Piltdown Man fossil was
-detected by a dating method which depends on the decomposition of bone
-protein and its replacement by fluorine. Fluorine is an element which
-occurs naturally as a gas, but which combines readily with other
-elements to form compounds. Some of these elements are common in bones.
-Since fluorine is one of nature’s most reactive elements, it tends to
-escape from the compound it is in and to form other compounds. As the
-protein in a bone decays, it is often replaced by fluorine. The amount
-of fluorine in old bones, then, is expected to be more than in young
-bones since it has had more time to accumulate. Since fluorine does not
-accumulate at a constant rate, it affords only a relative measure of
-age.
-
-In the case of Piltdown, a group of bones was discovered at a site, and
-was said to contain those of one individual who lived about 60,000 years
-ago. Almost 100 years after they were discovered, these bones were put
-to the fluorine test. It was found that (1) some of the bones had less
-fluorine than others, so not all were of the same antiquity and could
-not have belonged to the same individual, (2) the younger bones had as
-much fluorine in them as modern bones, and (3) the older bones had more
-fluorine in them than bones known to be 60,000 years old.
-
-    [Illustration: (uncaptioned)]
-
-Another form of absolute dating of importance to archaeology is that
-called the _varve_ method. This can only be utilized as an absolute
-clock under very special circumstances however. Varves are like tree
-rings in a way. In a lake which is sufficiently deep, or at the edge of
-a glacier, particles of sediment are being deposited continuously as a
-sort of fallout from the water. During the winter, when the glacier
-freezes or the density of the water in the lake increases because of the
-cooler temperature, less particles are deposited, and those which are
-deposited are usually of a characteristic color or texture. During the
-summer, when the glacier melts or the lake warms up, more and different
-particles are deposited. The bands of deposited sediment are called
-varves; every year two varves are formed. Starting from the top, one can
-count back the number of years in a varve series. If the top varve is of
-known date such as the present year, one has a calendar with each varve
-having a known date. Attempts are made to correlate one varve series
-with another in order to recover even longer series. If the
-archaeologist is lucky, and it is not rare in Europe, there will be
-materials from a site buried in the local varve sequence. Counting back
-gives an absolute age for the artifacts embedded in the site and thus an
-approximate age for the site. The European varve chronology is believed
-to extend back to about 9650 B.C.
-
-Most of the clocks which the archaeologist uses to produce relative
-dates, the before-or-after kind, have as their theoretical basis the
-principle of _stratigraphy_. In effect the principle of stratigraphy
-assumes two things: that the rocks of the earth are constantly wearing
-down by erosion, and that things which appear to be alike actually are
-alike and are probably more or less the same age.
-
-If rocks are constantly wearing down, it follows that the surface of the
-ground is constantly building up. Thus the surface we walk on is a
-younger, higher surface than that which our ancestors walked on. When we
-dig below the surface, those things we find which are at higher levels
-are younger than those which we find at lower levels. The deeper we dig,
-the older things get.
-
-There is no reason to believe that the rate of deposition on the surface
-is the same everywhere. If we dig two feet in one place we may be at a
-level which is now five feet below the surface in another location. If
-we find a particular object, say a type of pottery, on the surface at
-site A and the same kind of pottery five feet below the surface at site
-B, we can use the second of our assumptions and maintain that both
-pieces are of the same age. Then any objects found at higher levels than
-five feet at site B are younger than the piece of pottery and are
-younger than anything found at site A. This is the principle of
-stratigraphy.
-
-Like tree rings, objects in _stratigraphic sequence_ can be crossdated.
-These sequences may be of various kinds as any object will do.
-Distinctive bands of sediment, distinctive artifacts, types of fossils,
-specific details of chemistry or any other phenomenon may be used with
-varying amounts of success. Suppose we have the following sequences of
-objects at sites A and B:
-
-    [Illustration: (uncaptioned)]
-
-                A                               B
-
-          _Black earth_                    _Brown dust_
-            _Caliche_                     _Black earth_
-          _Eroded layer_                    _Caliche_
-            _Cobbles_                     _Yellow silt_
-              _Soil_                       _Brown silt_
-           _Brown silt_                   _Eroded layer_
-                                            _Cobbles_
-
-Now there are some things that are similar about these two _profiles_
-and other things that are different. Both profiles contain layers of
-black earth, caliche, an eroded layer and cobbles. Both profiles contain
-pottery, and both contain arrow points. The type of pottery in profile A
-is the same as that in profile B, but in B there is brown dust above the
-black earth. In profile B the brown silt is above the eroded layer,
-while in A it is below the eroded layer. In profile A the arrow points
-have different shapes than the ones in profile B. What we need to
-correlate the sequences are _horizon markers_, objects that are enough
-alike to be in the same time range.
-
-The pots in both cases look the same and are embedded in the same kind
-of sediment, the black earth. They form one horizon. The caliche may be
-a horizon marker, but this is not positive since at profile A it is
-above the eroded layer, while at profile B it is above the yellow silt.
-The eroded layer sits above cobbles at both profiles, which makes the
-eroded layer-cobbles complex a pretty good horizon marker. The brown
-silt is not a horizon marker because it is above the eroded layer at one
-profile and below it at the other. Furthermore, the arrow points which
-it contains are not all of the same kind. The correlated sequence, using
-the horizon markers, must be as shown in the accompanying chart.
-
-The stratigraphy proves that the arrowheads in the upper brown silt must
-be younger than those in the lower brown silt. The next time we find
-arrowheads of the types recovered in the upper brown silt we will know,
-regardless of the stratigraphic sequence in the new locality, that they
-must be younger than the types found in the lower brown silt, and they
-must also be older than pottery of the type found in the black earth. We
-won’t know how many years old they are, but we have dated them in the
-sense that we know they are older than some things and younger than
-others.
-
-The principle of stratigraphy is one of the archaeologist’s most useful
-theoretical tools as it allows one site to be compared with others. Our
-example has shown how artifacts (pots and arrowheads in this case) and
-sediment types can be placed in stratigraphic order to provide a clock
-for archaeological dating. Other objects which are commonly used as
-horizon markers in stratigraphic sequences are fossils. Remains of
-extinct animals are often used to prove extreme antiquity. Remains of
-plants and animals will often indicate similarity of ecological
-conditions at two sites and allow them to be crossdated.
-
-    [Illustration: (uncaptioned)]
-
-                              _Brown dust_
-                             _Black earth_
-                               _Caliche_
-                             _Yellow silt_
-                              _Brown silt_
-                             _Eroded layer_
-                               _Cobbles_
-                                 _Soil_
-                              _Brown silt_
-
-The _geologic-climatic_ method of dating combines the principle of
-stratigraphy with an interpretation of the meaning of natural
-occurrences. When geologists demonstrated that the earth had recently
-gone through a period when enormous glaciers advanced and retreated
-across the northern and southern hemispheres, they began to speculate on
-the effects of such conditions on the landscape. The surface would be
-scraped down to bare rock by the advancing ice sheet. When the ice
-retreated, its load of rocks and cobbles would tend to be left behind,
-while the smaller particles of dirt would be flushed away in the rivers
-formed by the melting ice. If the archaeologist found tools among the
-boulders and cobbles, those tools should date to the period when the
-cobble and boulder stratum was formed, the period when the glacier was
-retreating. Here the geology gave clues to the climate, and if the age
-of the climatic event was known, artifacts associated with the geology
-could be dated.
-
-It is through the geologic-climatic method of dating that archaeologists
-discovered that human beings lived in southern Europe at the margin of
-the last great glacier, and therefore the date of their occupation was
-on the order of 20,000 years ago.
-
-It is not necessary to use the geologic aspect of geologic-climatic
-dating if one has other clues to the climate. Plant and animal fossils
-are clues to ancient climates, since living organisms have a tendency to
-live in climates to which they are best adapted. If we find the fossil
-bones of a giraffe or an ostrich in the Sahara Desert, we can conclude
-that at some time in the past the Sahara was not a desert but a veldt,
-since giraffes and ostriches live in the veldt today. If stratigraphy
-allows us to relate artifacts to those fossils, we can maintain that the
-makers of those artifacts lived at the time the veldt existed in what is
-now the Sahara area. Now if we can relate the fossils to a date when
-such a climate could have obtained in the area, we have a date for the
-artifacts.
-
-Animal fossils are relatively rare, and fossil remains of plants which
-can be seen with the naked eye are even rarer. But microscopic pollen
-grains are not particularly rare in the stratigraphic sequences of
-sediments, and are directly associated with artifacts in many kinds of
-sediment. The pollen of most plants is protected by a tough coat like
-that on many seeds. Millions of pollen grains are produced by local
-vegetation each year, and a percentage of them are buried in the yearly
-accumulation of sediment. Once they are buried, the tough outer covering
-is preserved.
-
-    [Illustration: (uncaptioned)]
-
-When pollen grains are extracted from their sediment matrix, the
-different types of plants which grew in the area at the time the
-sediment was laid down can be recognized from the distinctive
-characteristics of their pollen grains. The _pollen analyst_ has the job
-of interpreting this information to discover the nature of the
-vegetation patterns in the past and the climates associated with them.
-Through dating those climates, the artifacts with which the pollen
-sample was associated are dated.
-
-Some archaeological sites do not allow dating by any of these methods.
-The farmer plowing a field may pick up an arrowhead and wonder how old
-it is. Can the archaeologist date the arrowhead? The answer is a
-qualified yes. What the archaeologist will try to do is give an educated
-guess as to the age of the arrowhead. He might, for example, know that
-arrowheads of that type are found at a site which is dated about A.D.
-1000 by various methods. By correlation, he could apply that date.
-
-If the arrowhead is not of a type which has been reliably dated, the
-archaeologist may rely upon the method of dating known as _seriation_.
-This method depends on the second assumption basic to the principle of
-stratigraphy, that similar objects tend to be about the same age. The
-farmer’s arrowhead may not be exactly like any which has ever been
-discovered, but it probably will be more like some known ones than
-others. Observing the general style of the arrowhead and the way in
-which it is made, the archaeologist can make a pretty good estimate of
-when it was made.
-
-Let us assume that the archaeologist goes into an unexplored area where
-no absolute or relative dating techniques are available. There he finds
-a number of sites with potsherds of types new to archaeology. Can he
-date these sites? Again he uses seriation, but this time he inverts the
-logical proposition. If things which look alike tend to be of the same
-age, things which do not look alike should tend to be of different ages.
-
-His first task would be to separate all the different types of
-potsherds. Taking a specimen of each type, he lays them out in a row. If
-there is any difference in the sites through time, the styles of pottery
-will change correspondingly. But there will be some styles which change
-slowly and some which will influence others. For example, if we were to
-seriate the style of automobile rear fenders for the period 1956 to
-1964, we would observe that they began to sprout taller and taller fins;
-then the size of the fins became reduced more and more. Some of the
-style aspects of pre-1956 rear fenders went along with the development
-of fins and others dropped out. Some of the style aspects which were
-developed with the fins were retained after the fins decreased in size.
-
-Seriation of the design styles on the potsherds will result in a series
-of developments in style which are probably in chronological order.
-Broad straight line designs may give way to mixed broad and narrow
-straight lines, then to narrow straight lines, then to narrow wavy
-lines. The archaeologist could then maintain that sites which have
-potsherds with broad straight lines are separate in time from those with
-sherds having narrow wavy lines. He won’t know which is the older,
-because the sequence could work either way. Stratigraphy or the cultural
-similarity between other artifacts at the sites will probably resolve
-this problem.
-
-The reader will now have realized that many of the clocks used by
-archaeologists are interrelated. Relative dating clocks such as
-stratigraphy, pollen dating and geologic-climatic dating are utilized
-together where possible, and all are dependent upon the principle of
-stratigraphy. Crossdating is thus of vital importance and is constantly
-undertaken. The archaeologist tries to employ both absolute and relative
-clocks to find out the age of a site. Stratigraphy yields a series of
-relative dates for artifacts within the site; geologic-climatic and
-pollen dating yield a series of dates for types of sediment and samples
-collected in association with those artifacts; tree ring dates yield the
-absolute age of the site which allows the pollen, stratigraphic and
-geologic-climatic dates to be comprehended in terms of absolute age.
-Radiocarbon dates act as a check on the tree ring dates and, if they
-agree, lend support to the pollen and geologic-climatic dates. The
-pollen and geologic-climatic dates from the site are compared with
-similar dates from other sites as additional checks. Since the clocks
-used by the archaeologist tick at different rates of speed, and since
-not all of them are dating the same thing, the archaeologist usually
-ends with a series of dates for any given site.
-
-New geochronological techniques are always being invented and perfected.
-Here is a list of some that are expected to become available in the next
-few years:
-
-1. The _obsidian hydration_ method. Obsidian, a naturally formed glass,
-is so constituted chemically that it takes chemicals from its
-environment at a slow rate. As it does so, the outside layer changes
-from transparent to translucent or opaque. The depth of the opaque
-layer, it is hoped, can be used as a measure of the amount of time since
-the surface was exposed. As many artifacts were made by chipping
-obsidian to form a sharp edge, this method may reveal the time since an
-obsidian artifact was made.
-
-2. The _thermoluminescence_ method. The chemical properties of certain
-minerals change when the minerals are heated to high temperatures. If
-they are heated again they will glow, and the amount of time they glow
-upon reheating depends on the amount of time that has elapsed since they
-were heated originally. As yet the rate has not been accurately
-calculated, nor is it yet understood what effect different kinds of
-soils and atmospheres may have on this rate. If the method is proven, it
-will be invaluable to archaeology since it will afford a way of dating
-pottery directly on an absolute time scale.
-
-3. The _paleomagnetism_ method. When an object containing particles
-which can be magnetized is heated, the magnetic particles line up
-according to the earth’s magnetic field. When the object cools, the
-particles are trapped in this position. We know that the earth’s
-magnetic field is changeable, and that at different times it has been
-oriented in different directions. Work is now in progress to determine
-how the field has varied through time and how successfully one can date
-materials such as pottery or hearths which were exposed to high
-temperatures in the past by the difference between the present magnetic
-field and that trapped in the object.
-
-
-                       Museum of New Mexico Press
-                            Santa Fe    1965
-
-                     _Illustrations by Mary Spencer
-                          and Phyllis Hughes_
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber’s Notes
-
-
-—Silently corrected a few typos.
-
-—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
-  is public-domain in the country of publication.
-
-—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
-  _underscores_.
-
-
-
-*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW OLD IS IT? THE STORY OF DATING
-IN ARCHEAOLOGY ***
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-
-<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of How Old Is It? The Story of Dating in Archeaology, by James Schoenwetter</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<table style='min-width:0; padding:0; margin-left:0; border-collapse:collapse'>
-  <tr><td>Title:</td><td>How Old Is It? The Story of Dating in Archeaology</td></tr>
-  <tr><td></td><td>Museum of New Mexico Press, Popular Series Pamphlet No. 2</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: James Schoenwetter</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Illustrator: Mary Spencer and Phyllis Hughes</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: April 24, 2021 [eBook #65151]</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div>
-
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW OLD IS IT? THE STORY OF DATING IN ARCHEAOLOGY ***</div>
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="How Old Is It? The Story of Dating in Archaeology" width="1000" height="1608" />
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<h1>HOW OLD IS IT?</h1>
-<p class="center">THE STORY OF DATING IN ARCHAEOLOGY</p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="ss">MUSEUM OF NEW MEXICO PRESS
-<br />POPULAR SERIES PAMPHLET NO. 2</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div>
-<h2 id="c1"><span class="small"><span class="jri">HOW OLD IS IT?</span></span>
-<br /><span class="jr">DATING IN ARCHAEOLOGY</span>
-<br /><span class="jr"><i>by James Schoenwetter</i></span></h2>
-<p class="tb">There is a whole field of science devoted to the invention and
-development of dating methods&mdash;or &ldquo;clocks&rdquo; as we may think of
-them. It is called <i>geochronology</i>, the science of dating events.
-There are relatively few geochronologists, scientists trained in the
-use of all kinds of dating methods and in the theories upon which
-these methods are based.</p>
-<p>Geochronologists tell us that there are two major types of
-clocks: those that tick at an absolute rate of speed which can be
-measured, and those which tick only once in a while. A clock of
-the first type yields what is called an <i>absolute</i> date, revealing the
-number of hours, days, years, centuries or millennia since an event
-occurred. A clock of the second type yields what is called a <i>relative</i>
-date, placing an event as before or after another event, but does
-not tell us exactly how far they are apart in time nor how long ago
-they occurred.</p>
-<p>Depending upon how accurate his date must be to solve the
-problem he has set for himself, the archaeologist will select absolute
-or relative dating methods. Often, of course, the type of clock
-he wishes to use is not available, and he must use the next best
-type. Probably he will try to use a number of clocks of different
-kinds on the problem since each clock will act as a check on the
-others.</p>
-<p>The absolute clock utilized most widely in archaeology is the
-historical record. Men have used calendars for a long time, and
-have often left records with written dates. On tombstones at a site
-in old Virginia, on the pedestals of statues and other monuments
-from classical Greece and Rome, on the walls of the tombs of
-Egyptian kings, dates are clearly inscribed which can be related to
-the sites dug into by the archaeologists. These dates must often be
-recalculated in terms of the Christian calendar which we use. Most
-calendars in use in the Mediterranean, the Near East and China
-<span class="pb" id="Page_2">2</span>
-during classical antiquity have been successfully correlated with
-the one we use today, and a date inscribed or noted on such sites
-can be considered in our own terms. Other calendars, such as
-those developed in the ancient cultures of the Maya on the Yucatan
-Peninsula, have yet to be accurately correlated with our own.
-Such calendars can be used on their own terms of course, and a
-site which has an inscription in the Mayan calendar is known to
-be so many years older or younger than another one with a different
-date in that calendar. We speak of such a situation as a <i>floating
-chronology</i>. That is, the sequence of events and the number of
-years which separate them are known, but the dates of those events
-in absolute time are unknown.</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p01.jpg" id="ncfig1" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="600" height="567" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div>
-<p>Tree rings afford another kind of absolute clock, the <i>dendrological</i>
-method. Each year a tree adds a growth ring. Depending
-on the amount of water the tree has available to it for cell growth,
-the ring will be wider or narrower. Certain trees whose water requirements
-are high live near streams or other places where their
-roots can tap a constant supply of water. Such trees, referred to as
-<i>complacent</i>, have annual rings which are all of about the same
-width. Other <i>sensitive</i> trees live in places where they must depend
-almost wholly on rainfall for their water supply, as on the slopes
-of hills or in the clefts of rocks. Such trees have annual rings
-which vary in width depending upon the amount of rain they receive.
-In any given area, especially in arid and semiarid regions,
-some years have more rainfall than others. The sensitive trees will
-produce wider rings during years when there is more rainfall and
-narrower rings in years when there is less. Often there are periods
-of a decade or so when all of the sensitive trees will produce the
-same pattern of ring growth; for example, three years of narrow
-rings, one year of wide, two more of narrow and three more of
-wide. Such a pattern is called a <i>signature</i>.</p>
-<p>Signatures are the basis of tree ring chronologies. All the trees
-in a region did not begin growing at the same time of course, but
-every time there is a series of years which will produce a signature,
-all the sensitive trees still alive will have that signature. Let
-us say we cut down a sensitive tree in 1960 and, by counting back
-the rings, find signatures at 1940-45, 1910-14, 1880-89, 1821-27,
-1795-1800 and 1750-58. Next we recover a beam from an abandoned
-Spanish Mission built in 1810. It happens to be from a
-sensitive tree, and we can spot the 1795-1800 and the 1750-58
-signatures near the outer rings. Now we have two records which
-can be said to be <i>crossdated</i>. Let us assume that the Spanish Mission
-log give us signatures as far back as 1350. An abandoned Indian
-pueblo produces a log with signatures crossdating those of
-the Spanish Mission log and continuing the record back to 1250.
-Older and older archeological sites will yield older and older signatures
-with each log crossdating some of the signatures of younger
-logs.</p>
-<p>At present we have a tree ring calendar for certain species of
-trees extending back to about 100 <span class="smaller">B.C.</span> This is called a <i>master
-tree ring chronology</i>. A log from an archaeological site may contain
-only one or two signatures and be, in itself, a floating chronology,
-but by comparison with the master chronology one can
-determine the cutting date. Having a series of cutting dates for the
-construction timbers in an archaeological site yields the probable
-dates at which the site was built and occupied.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="648" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Diagram to Illustrate Tree Ring Dating. Reproduced by special permission from Stallings, &ldquo;Dating Prehistoric
-Ruins by Tree-Rings.&rdquo;</i></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt><b>C</b> <span class="ssn smaller">THIS BEAM CAME FROM AN OLD HOUSE</span></dt>
-<dt><b>B</b> <span class="ssn smaller">THIS BEAM CAME FROM A HOUSE</span></dt>
-<dt><b>A</b> <span class="ssn smaller">THIS WAS A LIVING TREE WHEN CUT BY US</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="ssn smaller">THE RING PATTERNS MATCH AND OVERLAP BACK INTO TIME</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="ssn smaller">SPECIMENS TAKEN FROM RUINS, WHEN MATCHED AND OVERLAPPED AS INDICATED, PROGRESSIVELY EXTEND THE DATING BACK INTO PREHISTORIC TIMES.</span></dt></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div>
-<p>Not all kinds of trees can be used for dendrochronology. Pine,
-fir and pinyon are the most useful; juniper can sometimes be used.
-Oak, cottonwood, willow and others are very difficult to date and
-frequently cannot be used at all.</p>
-<p>Another widely used absolute clock is that based upon the orderly
-decomposition of carbon. This is the <i>radiocarbon</i> or C-14
-method of dating. Molecules of various substances are made up of
-atoms. We know now that not all atoms of a substance are precisely
-the same. We speak of <i>isotopes</i> of an atom. To clarify this
-let us think of the atoms of carbon as being made up of a mass of
-ping-pong balls. Some atoms will have more ping-pong balls than
-others, but all will have enough and in the proper order to be carbon
-atoms. Each of the atoms with 14 ping-pong balls we shall
-refer to as the carbon-14 isotope of carbon. There will be other isotopes
-of carbon atoms too.</p>
-<p>The carbon-14 isotope is about average in life span. It has been
-determined that in any group of C-14 isotopes half of them will
-lose two of their ping-pong balls and become C-12 isotopes in
-5,730 years, plus or minus 40. This is known as the <i>half-life</i> of the
-C-14 isotope. The &ldquo;plus or minus 40&rdquo; allows for laboratory error in
-terms of years.</p>
-<p>Now all living things contain carbon atoms, and some of those
-atoms are C-14 isotopes. The amount of C-14 isotopes in a living
-organism quickly reaches a stable percentage after which there is
-no increase or decrease while the organism is alive. After it dies,
-the C-14 supply is not replenished, and with the passing of 5,730
-plus or minus 40 years, it has half the number of C-14 isotopes it
-had when alive. In 11,460 plus or minus 80 years, it will have one
-quarter as many as it had when alive.</p>
-<p>The geochronologist takes a certain weight of carbon-bearing
-matter from an organism which once lived. With simple chemistry
-he can determine the number of carbon atoms in the material,
-usually charcoal, wood, bone or shell. He places the material in a
-chamber equipped with geiger counters and records the number of
-C-14 isotopes converting to C-12 isotopes within a certain number
-of hours or days. Since he knows how many carbon atoms there
-<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span>
-are in the specimen, he knows how many C-14 isotopes there
-would be if the specimen were alive. He also knows that as the
-number of C-14 atoms decreases the number of clicks on the geiger
-counter will decrease too. For example, if there are 2,000 C-14
-isotopes, the decomposition of half of these over a period of approximately
-5,730 years would register 1,000 clicks on the counter.
-In the next 5,730 year period there would be 1,000 isotopes left,
-and only 500 of them would decompose to register as geiger
-counter clicks.</p>
-<p>The geochronologist does the counting and analysis of the results
-and sends the information back to the archaeologist in the
-form of the number of years that have elapsed since the carbon
-was part of a living creature; for example, 1,500 plus or minus 150
-years BP (before present). The archaeologist, converting this to
-the Christian calendar in 1964, would come up with <span class="smaller">A.D.</span> 464
-plus or minus 150 years. When was the sample actually alive? We
-don&rsquo;t know exactly, but statistically we have a ninety-five percent
-chance of being right if we say sometime between <span class="smaller">A.D.</span> 164 and
-764. This clock ticks in centuries. But the radiocarbon clock
-doesn&rsquo;t tick very long, even in centuries, before running down. By
-the time 30,000 to 40,000 years have gone by, the C-14 in any
-sample is almost gone, and there is too little left to give enough
-geiger counter clicks unless one is willing to wait a lifetime to record
-two or three clicks.</p>
-<p>The C-14 dating technique measures time by radioactive decomposition
-of materials. There are other clocks which depend on
-the chemical decomposition of materials. The forgery of the Piltdown
-Man fossil was detected by a dating method which depends
-on the decomposition of bone protein and its replacement by fluorine.
-Fluorine is an element which occurs naturally as a gas, but
-which combines readily with other elements to form compounds.
-Some of these elements are common in bones. Since fluorine is one
-of nature&rsquo;s most reactive elements, it tends to escape from the
-compound it is in and to form other compounds. As the protein in
-a bone decays, it is often replaced by fluorine. The amount of
-fluorine in old bones, then, is expected to be more than in young
-bones since it has had more time to accumulate. Since fluorine
-does not accumulate at a constant rate, it affords only a relative
-measure of age.</p>
-<p>In the case of Piltdown, a group of bones was discovered at a
-<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span>
-site, and was said to contain those of one individual who lived
-about 60,000 years ago. Almost 100 years after they were discovered,
-these bones were put to the fluorine test. It was found that
-(1) some of the bones had less fluorine than others, so not all were
-of the same antiquity and could not have belonged to the same individual,
-(2) the younger bones had as much fluorine in them as
-modern bones, and (3) the older bones had more fluorine in them
-than bones known to be 60,000 years old.</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p03.jpg" id="ncfig2" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="600" height="625" />
-</div>
-<p>Another form of absolute dating of importance to archaeology
-is that called the <i>varve</i> method. This can only be utilized as an
-absolute clock under very special circumstances however. Varves
-are like tree rings in a way. In a lake which is sufficiently deep, or
-at the edge of a glacier, particles of sediment are being deposited
-<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span>
-continuously as a sort of fallout from the water. During the winter,
-when the glacier freezes or the density of the water in the lake
-increases because of the cooler temperature, less particles are deposited,
-and those which are deposited are usually of a characteristic
-color or texture. During the summer, when the glacier melts
-or the lake warms up, more and different particles are deposited.
-The bands of deposited sediment are called varves; every year two
-varves are formed. Starting from the top, one can count back the
-number of years in a varve series. If the top varve is of known date
-such as the present year, one has a calendar with each varve having
-a known date. Attempts are made to correlate one varve series
-with another in order to recover even longer series. If the archaeologist
-is lucky, and it is not rare in Europe, there will be materials
-from a site buried in the local varve sequence. Counting back
-gives an absolute age for the artifacts embedded in the site and
-thus an approximate age for the site. The European varve chronology
-is believed to extend back to about 9650 <span class="smaller">B.C.</span></p>
-<p>Most of the clocks which the archaeologist uses to produce
-relative dates, the before-or-after kind, have as their theoretical
-basis the principle of <i>stratigraphy</i>. In effect the principle of stratigraphy
-assumes two things: that the rocks of the earth are constantly
-wearing down by erosion, and that things which appear to
-be alike actually are alike and are probably more or less the same
-age.</p>
-<p>If rocks are constantly wearing down, it follows that the surface
-of the ground is constantly building up. Thus the surface we
-walk on is a younger, higher surface than that which our ancestors
-walked on. When we dig below the surface, those things we find
-which are at higher levels are younger than those which we find at
-lower levels. The deeper we dig, the older things get.</p>
-<p>There is no reason to believe that the rate of deposition on the
-surface is the same everywhere. If we dig two feet in one place we
-may be at a level which is now five feet below the surface in another
-location. If we find a particular object, say a type of pottery,
-on the surface at site A and the same kind of pottery five feet below
-the surface at site B, we can use the second of our assumptions
-and maintain that both pieces are of the same age. Then any objects
-found at higher levels than five feet at site B are younger
-than the piece of pottery and are younger than anything found at
-site A. This is the principle of stratigraphy.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div>
-<p>Like tree rings, objects in <i>stratigraphic sequence</i> can be crossdated.
-These sequences may be of various kinds as any object will
-do. Distinctive bands of sediment, distinctive artifacts, types of
-fossils, specific details of chemistry or any other phenomenon may
-be used with varying amounts of success. Suppose we have the
-following sequences of objects at sites A and B:</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p04.jpg" id="ncfig3" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="777" height="1000" />
-</div>
-<table class="center">
-<tr class="th"><th>A </th><th>B</th></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Black earth</i> </td><td class="c"><i>Brown dust</i></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Caliche</i> </td><td class="c"><i>Black earth</i></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Eroded layer</i> </td><td class="c"><i>Caliche</i></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Cobbles</i> </td><td class="c"><i>Yellow silt</i></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Soil</i> </td><td class="c"><i>Brown silt</i></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Brown silt</i> </td><td class="c"><i>Eroded layer</i></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"> </td><td class="c"><i>Cobbles</i></td></tr>
-</table>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div>
-<p>Now there are some things that are similar about these two
-<i>profiles</i> and other things that are different. Both profiles contain
-layers of black earth, caliche, an eroded layer and cobbles. Both
-profiles contain pottery, and both contain arrow points. The type
-of pottery in profile A is the same as that in profile B, but in B
-there is brown dust above the black earth. In profile B the brown
-silt is above the eroded layer, while in A it is below the eroded
-layer. In profile A the arrow points have different shapes than the
-ones in profile B. What we need to correlate the sequences are
-<i>horizon markers</i>, objects that are enough alike to be in the same
-time range.</p>
-<p>The pots in both cases look the same and are embedded in the
-same kind of sediment, the black earth. They form one horizon.
-The caliche may be a horizon marker, but this is not positive since
-at profile A it is above the eroded layer, while at profile B it is
-above the yellow silt. The eroded layer sits above cobbles at both
-profiles, which makes the eroded layer-cobbles complex a pretty
-good horizon marker. The brown silt is not a horizon marker because
-it is above the eroded layer at one profile and below it at the
-other. Furthermore, the arrow points which it contains are not all
-of the same kind. The correlated sequence, using the horizon
-markers, must be as shown in the accompanying <a href="#ncfig4">chart</a>.</p>
-<p>The stratigraphy proves that the arrowheads in the upper
-brown silt must be younger than those in the lower brown silt.
-The next time we find arrowheads of the types recovered in the
-upper brown silt we will know, regardless of the stratigraphic
-sequence in the new locality, that they must be younger than the
-types found in the lower brown silt, and they must also be older
-than pottery of the type found in the black earth. We won&rsquo;t know
-how many years old they are, but we have dated them in the sense
-that we know they are older than some things and younger than
-others.</p>
-<p>The principle of stratigraphy is one of the archaeologist&rsquo;s most
-useful theoretical tools as it allows one site to be compared with
-others. Our example has shown how artifacts (pots and arrowheads
-in this case) and sediment types can be placed in stratigraphic
-order to provide a clock for archaeological dating. Other
-objects which are commonly used as horizon markers in stratigraphic
-sequences are fossils. Remains of extinct animals are often
-used to prove extreme antiquity. Remains of plants and animals
-will often indicate similarity of ecological conditions at two sites
-and allow them to be crossdated.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p05.jpg" id="ncfig4" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="444" height="1000" />
-</div>
-<p class="center"><i>Brown dust</i>
-<br /><i>Black earth</i>
-<br /><i>Caliche</i>
-<br /><i>Yellow silt</i>
-<br /><i>Brown silt</i>
-<br /><i>Eroded layer</i>
-<br /><i>Cobbles</i>
-<br /><i>Soil</i>
-<br /><i>Brown silt</i></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div>
-<p>The <i>geologic-climatic</i> method of dating combines the principle
-of stratigraphy with an interpretation of the meaning of natural
-occurrences. When geologists demonstrated that the earth had recently
-gone through a period when enormous glaciers advanced
-and retreated across the northern and southern hemispheres, they
-began to speculate on the effects of such conditions on the landscape.
-The surface would be scraped down to bare rock by the
-advancing ice sheet. When the ice retreated, its load of rocks and
-cobbles would tend to be left behind, while the smaller particles
-of dirt would be flushed away in the rivers formed by the melting
-ice. If the archaeologist found tools among the boulders and cobbles,
-those tools should date to the period when the cobble and
-boulder stratum was formed, the period when the glacier was retreating.
-Here the geology gave clues to the climate, and if the age
-of the climatic event was known, artifacts associated with the geology
-could be dated.</p>
-<p>It is through the geologic-climatic method of dating that archaeologists
-discovered that human beings lived in southern Europe
-at the margin of the last great glacier, and therefore the date
-of their occupation was on the order of 20,000 years ago.</p>
-<p>It is not necessary to use the geologic aspect of geologic-climatic
-dating if one has other clues to the climate. Plant and animal fossils
-are clues to ancient climates, since living organisms have a
-tendency to live in climates to which they are best adapted. If we
-find the fossil bones of a giraffe or an ostrich in the Sahara Desert,
-we can conclude that at some time in the past the Sahara was not
-a desert but a veldt, since giraffes and ostriches live in the veldt
-today. If stratigraphy allows us to relate artifacts to those fossils,
-we can maintain that the makers of those artifacts lived at the time
-the veldt existed in what is now the Sahara area. Now if we can
-relate the fossils to a date when such a climate could have obtained
-in the area, we have a date for the artifacts.</p>
-<p>Animal fossils are relatively rare, and fossil remains of plants
-which can be seen with the naked eye are even rarer. But microscopic
-pollen grains are not particularly rare in the stratigraphic
-sequences of sediments, and are directly associated with artifacts in
-many kinds of sediment. The pollen of most plants is protected by
-a tough coat like that on many seeds. Millions of pollen grains are
-<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span>
-produced by local vegetation each year, and a percentage of them
-are buried in the yearly accumulation of sediment. Once they are
-buried, the tough outer covering is preserved.</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p06.jpg" id="ncfig5" alt="(uncaptioned)" width="600" height="608" />
-</div>
-<p>When pollen grains are extracted from their sediment matrix,
-the different types of plants which grew in the area at the time the
-sediment was laid down can be recognized from the distinctive
-characteristics of their pollen grains. The <i>pollen analyst</i> has the
-job of interpreting this information to discover the nature of the
-vegetation patterns in the past and the climates associated with
-them. Through dating those climates, the artifacts with which the
-pollen sample was associated are dated.</p>
-<p>Some archaeological sites do not allow dating by any of these
-methods. The farmer plowing a field may pick up an arrowhead
-and wonder how old it is. Can the archaeologist date the arrowhead?
-<span class="pb" id="Page_14">14</span>
-The answer is a qualified yes. What the archaeologist will
-try to do is give an educated guess as to the age of the arrowhead.
-He might, for example, know that arrowheads of that type are
-found at a site which is dated about <span class="smaller">A.D.</span> 1000 by various methods.
-By correlation, he could apply that date.</p>
-<p>If the arrowhead is not of a type which has been reliably dated,
-the archaeologist may rely upon the method of dating known as
-<i>seriation</i>. This method depends on the second assumption basic to
-the principle of stratigraphy, that similar objects tend to be about
-the same age. The farmer&rsquo;s arrowhead may not be exactly like any
-which has ever been discovered, but it probably will be more like
-some known ones than others. Observing the general style of the
-arrowhead and the way in which it is made, the archaeologist can
-make a pretty good estimate of when it was made.</p>
-<p>Let us assume that the archaeologist goes into an unexplored
-area where no absolute or relative dating techniques are available.
-There he finds a number of sites with potsherds of types new to
-archaeology. Can he date these sites? Again he uses seriation, but
-this time he inverts the logical proposition. If things which look
-alike tend to be of the same age, things which do not look alike
-should tend to be of different ages.</p>
-<p>His first task would be to separate all the different types of potsherds.
-Taking a specimen of each type, he lays them out in a row.
-If there is any difference in the sites through time, the styles of
-pottery will change correspondingly. But there will be some styles
-which change slowly and some which will influence others. For
-example, if we were to seriate the style of automobile rear fenders
-for the period 1956 to 1964, we would observe that they began to
-sprout taller and taller fins; then the size of the fins became reduced
-more and more. Some of the style aspects of pre-1956 rear
-fenders went along with the development of fins and others
-dropped out. Some of the style aspects which were developed with
-the fins were retained after the fins decreased in size.</p>
-<p>Seriation of the design styles on the potsherds will result in a
-series of developments in style which are probably in chronological
-order. Broad straight line designs may give way to mixed broad
-and narrow straight lines, then to narrow straight lines, then to
-narrow wavy lines. The archaeologist could then maintain that
-sites which have potsherds with broad straight lines are separate in
-time from those with sherds having narrow wavy lines. He won&rsquo;t
-<span class="pb" id="Page_15">15</span>
-know which is the older, because the sequence could work either
-way. Stratigraphy or the cultural similarity between other artifacts
-at the sites will probably resolve this problem.</p>
-<p>The reader will now have realized that many of the clocks
-used by archaeologists are interrelated. Relative dating clocks such
-as stratigraphy, pollen dating and geologic-climatic dating are utilized
-together where possible, and all are dependent upon the principle
-of stratigraphy. Crossdating is thus of vital importance and is
-constantly undertaken. The archaeologist tries to employ both
-absolute and relative clocks to find out the age of a site. Stratigraphy
-yields a series of relative dates for artifacts within the site;
-geologic-climatic and pollen dating yield a series of dates for types
-of sediment and samples collected in association with those artifacts;
-tree ring dates yield the absolute age of the site which allows
-the pollen, stratigraphic and geologic-climatic dates to be comprehended
-in terms of absolute age. Radiocarbon dates act as a check
-on the tree ring dates and, if they agree, lend support to the pollen
-and geologic-climatic dates. The pollen and geologic-climatic dates
-from the site are compared with similar dates from other sites as
-additional checks. Since the clocks used by the archaeologist tick
-at different rates of speed, and since not all of them are dating the
-same thing, the archaeologist usually ends with a series of dates
-for any given site.</p>
-<p>New geochronological techniques are always being invented
-and perfected. Here is a list of some that are expected to become
-available in the next few years:</p>
-<p>1. The <i>obsidian hydration</i> method. Obsidian, a naturally
-formed glass, is so constituted chemically that it takes chemicals
-from its environment at a slow rate. As it does so, the outside layer
-changes from transparent to translucent or opaque. The depth of
-the opaque layer, it is hoped, can be used as a measure of the
-amount of time since the surface was exposed. As many artifacts
-were made by chipping obsidian to form a sharp edge, this method
-may reveal the time since an obsidian artifact was made.</p>
-<p>2. The <i>thermoluminescence</i> method. The chemical properties
-of certain minerals change when the minerals are heated to high
-temperatures. If they are heated again they will glow, and the
-amount of time they glow upon reheating depends on the amount
-of time that has elapsed since they were heated originally. As yet
-the rate has not been accurately calculated, nor is it yet understood
-<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span>
-what effect different kinds of soils and atmospheres may have on
-this rate. If the method is proven, it will be invaluable to archaeology
-since it will afford a way of dating pottery directly on an absolute
-time scale.</p>
-<p>3. The <i>paleomagnetism</i> method. When an object containing
-particles which can be magnetized is heated, the magnetic particles
-line up according to the earth&rsquo;s magnetic field. When the
-object cools, the particles are trapped in this position. We know
-that the earth&rsquo;s magnetic field is changeable, and that at different
-times it has been oriented in different directions. Work is now in
-progress to determine how the field has varied through time and
-how successfully one can date materials such as pottery or hearths
-which were exposed to high temperatures in the past by the difference
-between the present magnetic field and that trapped in the
-object.</p>
-<p class="tbcenter">Museum of New Mexico Press
-<br />Santa Fe <span class="hst">1965</span></p>
-<p class="center"><i>Illustrations by Mary Spencer
-<br />and Phyllis Hughes</i></p>
-<h2>Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</h2>
-<ul>
-<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li>
-<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li>
-<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li>
-</ul>
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW OLD IS IT? THE STORY OF DATING IN ARCHEAOLOGY ***</div>
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