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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 344,
+August 5, 1882, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 344, August 5, 1882
+
+Author: Various
+
+Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8717]
+Release Date: August, 2005
+First Posted: August 3, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 344 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles
+Franks and the Distributed Proofreaders Team
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 344
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, August 5, 1882
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 344.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--The Panama Canal. By
+     MANUEL EISSLER. I.--Historical notes.--Spanish Discoveries
+     in Central America.--Early explorations.--Nicaragua
+     projects.--Panama railway, etc.
+
+     Improved Averaging Machine.
+
+     Compound Beam Engine. 4 figures.--Borsig's improved
+     compound beam engine.
+
+     Power Hammers with Movable Fulcrum.--By DANIEL
+     LONGWORTH. 5 figures.
+
+     The Bicheroux System of Furnaces Applied to the Puddling of
+     Iron. 2 figures.
+
+     Gessner's Continuous Cloth Pressing Machine. 3 figures.
+
+     Novelties in Ring Spindles. 4 figures.
+
+     Improvements in Woolen Carding Engines.
+
+II.  NATURAL HISTORY.--Metamorphosis of the Deer's
+     Antlers.--Annual changes. 9 figures.
+
+     Monkeys. By A.R. WALLACE.--Comparison of skeletons of man,
+     orang outang, and chimpanzee.--Other anatomical resemblances
+     and diversities.--The different kinds of monkeys and the
+     countries they inhabit.--American monkeys.--Lemurs.
+     --Distribution, affinities, and zoological rank of monkeys.
+
+     Silk Producing Bombyces and other Lepidoptera reared in
+     1881. By ALFRED WAILLY, Member Lauriat de la Societe
+     d'Acclimatation de France.--An extended and important
+     European, Asiatic, and American silk worms, and other
+     silk producers.
+
+III. MINERALOGY, METALLURGY, ETC.--The Mineralogical
+     Localities In and Around New York City and the Minerals
+     Occurring Therein.--By NELSON H. DARTON.--Chances for
+     collecting within one hour's ride of New York.--Methods
+     of collecting and testing.--Localities on Bergen
+     Hill.--The Weehawken Tunnel.--Minerals and modes of
+     occurrence.--Calcite.--Natrolite.--Pectolite.--Datholite.
+     --Apopholite.--Phrenite.--Iron and copper pyrites.
+     --Stilbite.--Laumonite.--Heulandite.
+
+     Antiseptics.
+
+     Crystallization and its Effects Upon Iron. By N.B. WOOD.--
+     Beauty of Crystals.--Nature of cohesion.--Cleavage.--Growth
+     of crystals.--Some large crystals.--Cast iron.--Influence
+     of phosphorus and sulphur.--Nature of steel.--Burnt
+     steel.--Effect of annealing.
+
+IV.  ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--The Cathedral of Burgos, Spain.
+     --Full page illustration from photograph.
+
+     Description of Burgos Cathedral.
+
+     Photo-Engraving on Zinc and Copper. By LEON VIDAL.
+
+     Meridian Line.--A surveyor's method of finding the true
+     meridian.--By R.W. MCFARLAND.
+
+V.   ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electro Mania. By W. MATTIEU
+     WILLIAMS.--Example of electrical exaggeration and
+     delusion.--Early scientific attempts at electro-motors,
+     electric lamps, etc.
+
+     Action of Magnets Upon the Voltaic Arc. By TH. DU
+     MONCEL. 2 figures.
+
+     Volckmar's Secondary Batteries.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+METAMORPHOSIS OF THE DEER'S ANTLERS.
+
+
+Every year in March the deer loses its antlers, and fresh ones
+immediately begin to grow, which exceed in size those that have just
+been lost. Few persons probably have been able to watch and observe the
+habits of the animal after it has lost its antlers. It will, therefore,
+be of interest to examine the accompanying drawings, by Mr. L. Beckmann,
+one of them showing a deer while shedding its antlers, and the other
+as the animal appears after losing them. In the first illustration the
+animal has just lost one of its antlers, and fright and pain cause it
+to throw its head upward and become disturbed and uneasy. The remaining
+antler draws down one side of the head and is very inconvenient for the
+animal. The remaining antler becomes soon detached from its base,
+and the deer turns--as if ashamed of having lost its ornament and
+weapon--lowers its head, and sorrowfully moves to the adjoining thicket,
+where it hides. A friend once observed a deer losing its antlers, but
+the circumstances were somewhat different. The animal was jumping over a
+ditch, and as soon as it touched the further bank it jumped high in the
+air, arched its back, bent its head to one side in the manner of an
+animal that has been wounded, and then sadly approached the nearest
+thicket, in the same manner as the artist has represented in the
+accompanying picture. Both antlers dropped off and fell into the ditch.
+
+[Illustration: METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--FIRST STAGE.]
+
+Strong antlers are generally found together, but weak ones are lost at
+intervals of two or three days. A few days after this loss the stumps
+upon which the antlers rested are covered with a skin, which grows
+upward very rapidly, and under which the fresh antlers are formed, so
+that by the end of July the bucks have new and strong antlers, from
+which they remove the fine hairy covering by rubbing them against young
+trees. It is peculiar that the huntsman, who knows everything in regard
+to deer, and has seventy-two signs by which he can tell whether a male
+or female deer passes through the woods, does not know at what age the
+deer gets its first antlers and how the antlers indicate the age of the
+animal. Prof. Altum, in Eberswalde, has given some valuable information
+in regard to the relation between the age of the deer and the forms of
+their antlers, but in some respects he has not expressed himself very
+clearly, and I think that my observations given in addition to his may
+be of importance. When the animal is a year old--that is, in June--the
+burrs of the antlers begin to form, and in July the animal has two
+protuberances of the size of walnuts, from which the first branches of
+the antlers rise; these branches having the length of a finger only, or
+being even shorter, as shown at 1, in diagram, on p. 5481. After the
+second year more branches are formed, which are considerably longer and
+much rougher at the lower ends than the first. The third pair of antlers
+is different from its predecessors, inasmuch as it has "roses," that is,
+annular ridges around the bases of the horn, which latter are now bent
+in the shape of a crescent. Either the antler has a single branch (Fig.
+3, _a_), or besides the point it has another short end, which is a most
+rare shape, and is known as a "fork" (Fig. 3, _b_), or it has two forks
+(Fig. 3, _c_). In the following year the antlers take the form shown
+in Fig. 4, and then follows the antler shown in Fig. 5, _a_, which
+generally has "forks" in place of points, and is known as forked antler
+in contradistinction to the point antler shown in Fig. 5, _b_, which
+retains the shape of the antler, Fig. 4, but has additional or
+intermediate prongs or branches. The huntsmen designate the antlers by
+the number of ends or points on the two antlers. For instance, Fig. 4 is
+a six-ender; Fig. 5 shows an eight-ender, etc.; and antlers have been
+known to have as many as twenty-two ends. If the two antlers do not
+have the same number of ends the number of ends on the larger antler
+is multiplied by two and the word "odd" is placed before the word
+designating the number of ends. For instance, if one antler has
+three ends and the other four, the antler would be termed an "odd"
+eight-ender. The sixth antler shown in Fig. 6 is a ten-ender, and
+appears in two different forms, either with a fork at the upper end, as
+shown in Fig. 6, _a_, or with a crown, as shown in Fig. 6, _b_. In Fig.
+7 an antler is shown which the animal carries from its seventh year
+until the month of March of its eighth year. From that time on the
+crowns only increase and change. The increase in the number of points is
+not always as regular as I have described it, for in years when food
+is scarce and poor the antlers are weak and small, and when food is
+plentiful and rich the antlers grow exceedingly large, and sometimes
+skip an entire year's growth.--_Karl Brandt, in Leipziger lllustrirte
+Zeitung_.
+
+[Illustration: METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--SECOND STAGE.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MONKEYS.
+
+By ALFRED R. WALLACE.
+
+
+If the skeleton of an orang-outang and a chimpanzee be compared with
+that of a man, there will be found to be the most wonderful resemblance,
+together with a very marked diversity. Bone for bone, throughout the
+whole structure, will be found to agree in general form, position, and
+function, the only absolute differences being that the orang has nine
+wrist bones, whereas man and the chimpanzee have but eight; and the
+chimpanzee has thirteen pairs of ribs, whereas the orang, like man, has
+but twelve. With these two exceptions, the differences are those of
+shape, proportion, and direction only, though the resulting differences
+in the external form and motions are very considerable. The greatest of
+these are, that the feet of the anthropoid or man-like apes, as well as
+those of all monkeys, are formed like hands, with large opposable thumbs
+fitted to grasp the branches of trees, but unsuitable for erect walking,
+while the hands have weak, small thumbs, but very long and powerful
+fingers, forming a hook, rather than a hand, adapted for climbing up
+trees and suspending the whole weight from horizontal branches. The
+almost complete identity of the skeleton, however, and the close
+similarity of the muscles and of all the internal organs, have produced
+that striking and ludicrous resemblance to man, which every one
+recognizes in these higher apes, and, in a less degree, in the whole
+monkey tribe; the face and features, the motions, attitudes, and
+gestures being often a strange caricature of humanity. Let us, then,
+examine a little more closely in what the resemblance consists, and how
+far, and to what extent, these animals really differ from us.
+
+Besides the face, which is often wonderfully human--although the absence
+of any protuberant nose gives it often a curiously infantile aspect,
+monkeys, and especially apes, resemble us most closely in the hand and
+arm. The hand has well-formed fingers, with nails, and the skin of the
+palm is lined and furrowed like our own. The thumb is, however, smaller
+and weaker than ours, and is not so much used in taking hold of
+anything. The monkey's hand is, therefore, not so well adapted as that
+of man for a variety of purposes, and cannot be applied with such
+precision in holding small objects, while it is unsuitable for
+performing delicate operations, such as tying a knot or writing with a
+pen. A monkey does not take hold of a nut with its forefinger and thumb,
+as we do, but grasps it between the fingers and the palm in a clumsy
+way, just as a baby does before it has acquired the proper use of
+its hand. Two groups of monkeys--one in Africa and one in South
+America--have no thumbs on their hands, and yet they do not seem to be
+in any respect inferior to other kinds which possess it. In most of the
+American monkeys the thumb bends in the same direction as the fingers,
+and in none is it so perfectly opposed to the fingers as our thumbs are;
+and all these circumstances show that the hand of the monkey is, both
+structurally and functionally, a very different and very inferior organ
+to that of man, since it is not applied to similar purposes, nor is it
+capable of being so applied.
+
+When we look at the feet of monkeys we find a still greater difference,
+for these have much larger and more opposable thumbs, and are therefore
+more like our hands; and this is the case with all monkeys, so that even
+those which have no thumbs on their hands, or have them small and weak
+and parallel to the fingers, have always large and well-formed thumbs on
+their feet. It was on account of this peculiarity that the great French
+naturalist Cuvier named the whole group of monkeys Quadrumana, or
+four-handed animals, because, besides the two hands on their fore-limbs,
+they have also two hands in place of feet on their hind-limbs. Modern
+naturalists have given up the use of this term, because they say that
+the hind extremities of all monkeys are really feet, only these feet
+are shaped like hands; but this is a point of anatomy, or rather of
+nomenclature, which we need not here discuss.
+
+Let us, however, before going further, inquire into the purpose and
+use of this peculiarity, and we shall then see that it is simply an
+adaptation to the mode of life of the animals which possess it. Monkeys,
+as a rule, live in trees, and are especially abundant in the great
+tropical forests. They feed chiefly upon fruits, and occasionally eat
+insects and birds'-eggs, as well as young birds, all of which they find
+in the trees; and, as they have no occasion to come down to the ground,
+they travel from tree to tree by jumping or swinging, and thus pass the
+greater part of their lives entirely among the leafy branches of lofty
+trees. For such a mode of existence, they require to be able to move
+with perfect ease upon large or small branches, and to climb up rapidly
+from one bough to another. As they use their hands for gathering fruit
+and catching insects or birds, they require some means of holding on
+with their feet, otherwise they would be liable to continual falls, and
+they are able to do this by means of their long finger-like toes and
+large opposable thumbs, which grasp a branch almost as securely as a
+bird grasps its perch. The true hands, on the contrary, are used chiefly
+to climb with, and to swing the whole weight of the body from one branch
+or one tree to another, and for this purpose the fingers are very long
+and strong, and in many species they are further strengthened by being
+partially joined together, as if the skin of our fingers grew together
+as far as the knuckles. This shows that the separate action of the
+fingers, which is so important to us, is little required by monkeys,
+whose hand is really an organ for climbing and seizing food, while their
+foot is required to support them firmly in any position on the branches
+of trees, and for this purpose it has become modified into a large and
+powerful grasping hand.
+
+Another striking difference between monkeys and men is that the former
+never walk with ease in an erect posture, but always use their arms in
+climbing or in walking on all-fours like most quadrupeds. The monkeys
+that we see in the streets dressed up and walking erect, only do so
+after much drilling and teaching, just as dogs may be taught to walk in
+the same way; and the posture is almost as unnatural to the one animal
+as it is to the other. The largest and most man-like of the apes--the
+gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang-outang--also walk usually on all-fours;
+but in these the arms are so long and the legs so short that the body
+appears half erect when walking; and they have the habit of resting on
+the knuckles of the hands, not on the palms like the smaller monkeys,
+whose arms and legs are more nearly of an equal length, which tends
+still further to give them a semi-erect position. Still they are never
+known to walk of their own accord on their hind legs only, though they
+can do so for short distances, and the story of their using a stick and
+walking erect by its help in the wild state is not true. Monkeys, then,
+are both four-handed and four-footed beasts; they possess four hands
+formed very much like our hands, and capable of picking up or holding
+any small object in the same manner; but they are also four-footed,
+because they use all four limbs for the purpose of walking, running, or
+climbing; and, being adapted to this double purpose, the hands want the
+delicacy of touch and the freedom as well as the precision of movement
+which ours possess. Man alone is so constructed that he walks erect with
+perfect ease, and has his hands free for any use to which he wishes
+to apply them; and this is the great and essential bodily distinction
+between monkeys and men.
+
+We will now give some account of the different kinds of monkeys and the
+countries they inhabit.
+
+
+THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MONKEYS AND THE COUNTRIES THEY INHABIT.
+
+Monkeys are usually divided into three kinds--apes, monkeys, and
+baboons; but these do not include the American monkeys, which are really
+more different from all those of the Old World than any of the
+latter are from each other. Naturalists, therefore, divide the whole
+monkey-tribe into two great families, inhabiting the Old and the New
+World respectively; and, if we learn to remember the kind of differences
+by which these several groups are distinguished, we shall be able
+to understand something of the classification of animals, and the
+difference between important and unimportant characters.
+
+Taking first the Old World groups, they may be thus defined: apes have
+no tails; monkeys have tails, which are usually long; while baboons have
+short tails, and their faces, instead of being round and with a man-like
+expression as in apes and monkeys, are long and more dog-like. These
+differences are, however, by no means constant, and it is often
+difficult to tell whether an animal should be classed as an ape, a
+monkey, or a baboon. The Gibraltar ape, for example, though it has no
+tail, is really a monkey, because it has callosities, or hard pads of
+bare skin on which it sits, and cheek pouches in which it can stow away
+food; the latter character being always absent in the true apes, while
+both are present in most monkeys and baboons. All these animals,
+however, from the largest ape to the smallest monkey, have the same
+number of teeth as we have, and they are arranged in a similar manner,
+although the tusks or canine teeth of the males are often large, like
+those of a dog.
+
+The American monkeys, on the other hand, with the exception of the
+marmosets, have four additional grinding teeth (one in each jaw on
+either side), and none of them have callosities, or cheek pouches. They
+never have prominent snouts like the baboons; their nostrils are placed
+wide apart and open sideways on the face; the tail, though sometimes
+short, is never quite absent; and the thumb bends the same way as the
+fingers, is generally very short and weak, and is often quite wanting.
+We thus see that these American monkeys differ in a great number of
+characters from those of the Eastern hemisphere; and they have this
+further peculiarity, that many of them have prehensile or grasping
+tails, which are never found in the monkeys of any other country.
+This curious organ serves the purpose of a fifth hand. It has so much
+muscular power that the animal can hang by it easily with the tip curled
+round a branch, while it can also be used to pick up small objects with
+almost as much ease and exactness as an elephant's trunk. In those
+species which have it most perfectly formed it is very long and
+powerful, and the end has the underside covered with bare skin, exactly
+resembling that of the finger or palm of the hand and apparently equally
+sensitive. One of the common kinds of monkeys that accompany street
+organ-players has a prehensile tail, but not of the most perfect kind;
+since in this species the tail is entirely clad with hair to the tip,
+and seems to be used chiefly to steady the animal when sitting on a
+branch by being twisted round another branch near it. The statement is
+often erroneously made that all American monkeys have prehensile tails;
+but the fact is that rather less than half the known kinds have them
+so, the remainder having this organ either short and bushy, or long
+and slender, but entirely without any power of grasping. All
+prehensile-tailed monkeys are American, but all American monkeys are not
+prehensile-tailed.
+
+By remembering these characters it is easy, with a little observation,
+to tell whether any strange monkey comes from America or from the Old
+World. If it has bare seat-pads, or if when eating it fills its mouth
+till its cheeks swell out like little bags, we may be sure it comes from
+some part of Africa or Asia; while if it can curl up the end of its tail
+so as to take hold of anything, it is certainly American. As all the
+tailed monkeys of the Old World have seat-pads (or ischial callosities
+as they are called in scientific language), and as all the American
+monkeys have tails, but no seat-pads, this is the most constant external
+character by which to distinguish them; and having done so we can look
+for the other peculiarities of the American monkeys, especially the
+distance apart of the nostrils and their lateral position.
+
+The whole monkey-tribe is especially tropical, only a few kinds being
+found in the warmer parts of the temperate zone. One inhabits the Rock
+of Gibraltar, and there is one very like it in Japan, and these are the
+two monkeys which live furthest from the equator. In the tropics they
+become very abundant and increase in numbers and variety as we approach
+the equator, where the climate is hot, moist, and equable, and where
+flowers, fruits, and insects are to be found throughout the year. Africa
+has about 55 different kinds, Asia and its islands about 60, while
+America has 114, or almost exactly the same as Asia and Africa together.
+Australia and its islands have no monkeys, nor has the great and
+luxuriant island of New Guinea, whose magnificent forests seem so well
+adapted for them. We will now give a short account of the different
+kinds of monkeys inhabiting each of the tropical continents.
+
+Africa possesses two of the great man-like apes--the gorilla and the
+chimpanzee, the former being the largest ape known, and the one which,
+on the whole, perhaps most resembles man, though its countenance is less
+human than that of the chimpanzee. Both are found in West Africa, near
+the equator, but they also inhabit the interior wherever there are great
+forests; and Dr. Schweinfurth states that the chimpanzee inhabits the
+country about the sources of the Shari River in 28° E. long. and 4° N.
+lat.
+
+The long-tailed monkeys of Africa are very numerous and varied. One
+group has no cheek pouches and no thumb on the hand, and many of these
+have long soft fur of varied colors. The most numerous group are the
+Guenons, rather small long-tailed monkeys, very active and lively,
+and often having their faces curiously marked with white or black, or
+ornamented with whiskers or other tufts of hair; and they all have large
+cheek pouches and good sized thumbs. Many of them are called green
+monkeys, from the greenish yellow tint of their fur, and most of them
+are well formed, pleasing animals. They are found only in tropical
+Africa.
+
+The baboons are larger but less numerous. They resemble dogs in the
+general form and the length of the face or snout, but they have hands
+with well-developed thumbs on both the fore and hind limbs; and this,
+with something in the expression of the face and their habit of sitting
+up and using their hands in a very human fashion, at once shows that
+they belong to the monkey tribe. Many of them are very ugly, and in
+their wild state they are the fiercest and most dangerous of monkeys.
+Some have the tail very long, others of medium length, while it is
+sometimes reduced to a mere stump, and all have large cheek pouches and
+bare seat pads. They are found all over Africa, from Egypt to the Cape
+of Good Hope; while one species, called the hamadryas, extends from
+Abyssinia across the Red Sea into Arabia, and is the only baboon found
+out of Africa. This species was known to the ancients, and it is often
+represented in Egyptian sculptures, while mummies of it have been found
+in the catacombs. The largest and most remarkable of all the baboons
+is the mandrill of West Africa, whose swollen and hog-like face is
+ornamented with stripes of vivid blue and scarlet. This animal has a
+tail scarcely two inches long, while in size and strength it is not much
+inferior to the gorilla. The large baboons go in bands, and are said to
+be a match for any other animals in the African forests, and even to
+attack and drive away the elephants from the districts they inhabit.
+
+Turning now to Asia, we have first one of the best known of the large
+man-like apes--the orang-outang, found only in the two large islands,
+Borneo and Sumatra. The name is Malay, signifying "man of the woods,"
+and it should be pronounced órang-óotan, the accent being on the first
+syllable of both words. It is a very curious circumstance that, whereas
+the gorilla and chimpanzee are both black, like the negroes of the same
+country, the orang-outang is red or reddish brown, closely resembling
+the color of the Malays and Dyaks who live in the Bornean forests.
+Though very large and powerful, it is a harmless creature, feeding on
+fruit, and never attacking any other animal except in self-defense. A
+full-grown male orang-outang is rather more than four feet high, but
+with a body as large as that of a stout man, and with enormously long
+and powerful arms.
+
+Another group of true apes inhabit Asia and the larger Asiatic islands,
+and are in some respects the most remarkable of the whole family. These
+are the Gibbons, or long-armed apes, which are generally of small size
+and of a gentle disposition, but possessing the most wonderful agility.
+In these creatures the arms are as long as the body and legs together,
+and are so powerful that a gibbon will hang for hours suspended from
+a branch, or swing to and fro and then throw itself a great distance
+through the air. The arms, in fact, completely take the place of the
+legs for traveling. Instead of jumping from bough to bough and running
+on the branches, like other apes and monkeys, the gibbons move along
+while hanging suspended in the air, stretching their arms from bough to
+bough, and thus going hand over hand as a very active sailor will climb
+along a rope. The strength of their arms is, however, so prodigious,
+and their hold so sure, that they often loose one hand before they have
+caught a bough with the other, thus seeming almost to fly through the
+air by a series of swinging leaps; and they travel among the network of
+interlacing boughs a hundred feet above the earth with as much ease and
+certainty as we walk or run upon level ground, and with even greater
+speed. These little animals scarcely ever come down to the ground of
+their own accord; but when obliged to do so they run along almost erect,
+with their long arms swinging round and round, as if trying to find some
+tree or other object to climb upon. They are the only apes who naturally
+walk without using their hands as well as their feet; but this does not
+make them more like men, for it is evident that the attitude is not an
+easy one, and is only adopted because the arms are habitually used to
+swing by, and are therefore naturally held upward, instead of downward,
+as they must be when walking on them.
+
+The tailed monkeys of Asia consist of two groups, the first of which
+have no cheek pouches, but always have very long tails, They are
+true forest monkeys, very active and of a shy disposition. The most
+remarkable of these is the long-nosed monkey of Borneo, which is very
+large, of a pale brown color, and distinguished by possessing a long,
+pointed, fleshy nose, totally unlike that of all other monkeys. Another
+interesting species is the black and white entellus monkey of India,
+called the "Hanuman," by the Hindoos, and considered sacred by them.
+These animals are petted and fed, and at some of the temples numbers
+of them come every day for the food which the priests, as well as the
+people, provide for them.
+
+The next group of Eastern monkeys are the Macaques, which are more like
+baboons, and often run upon the ground. They are more bold and vicious
+than the others. All have cheek pouches, and though some have long
+tails, in others the tail is short, or reduced to a mere stump. In some
+few this stump is so very short that there appears to be no tail, as in
+the magot of North Africa and Gibraltar, and in an allied species that
+inhabits Japan.
+
+
+AMERICAN MONKEYS.
+
+The monkeys which inhabit America form three very distinct groups:
+1st, the Sapajous, which have prehensile or grasping tails; 2nd, the
+Sagouins, which have ordinary tails, either long or short; and, 3rd, the
+Marmosets, very small creatures, with sharp claws, long tails which are
+not prehensile, and a smaller number of teeth than all other American
+monkeys. Each of these three groups contain several sub-groups, or
+_genera_, which often differ remarkably from each other, and from all
+the monkeys of the Old World.
+
+We will begin with the howling monkeys, which are the largest found in
+America, and are celebrated for the loud voice of the males. Often in
+the great forests of the Amazon or Oronooko a tremendous noise is heard
+in the night or early morning, as if a great assemblage of wild beasts
+were all roaring and screaming together. The noise may be heard for
+miles, and it is louder and more piercing than that of any other
+animals, yet it is all produced by a single male howler, sitting on the
+branches of some lofty tree. They are enabled to make this extraordinary
+noise by means of an organ that is possessed by no other animal. The
+lower jaw is unusually deep, and this makes room for a hollow bony
+vessel about the size of a large walnut, situated under the root of the
+tongue, and having an opening into the windpipe by which the animal
+can force air into it. This increases the power of its voice, acting
+something like the hollow case of a violin, and producing those
+marvelous rolling and reverberating sounds which caused the celebrated
+traveler Waterton to declare that they were such as might have had their
+origin in the infernal regions. The howlers are large and stout bodied
+monkeys, with bearded faces, and very strong and powerfully grasping
+tails. They inhabit the wildest forests; they are very shy, and are
+seldom taken captive, though they are less active than many other
+American monkeys.
+
+Next come the spider monkeys, so called from their slender bodies and
+enormously long limbs and tail. In these monkeys the tail is so long,
+strong, and perfect, that it completely takes the place of a fifth hand.
+By twisting the end of it round a branch the animal can swing freely in
+the air with complete safety; and this gives them a wonderful power of
+climbing end passing from tree to tree, because the distance they can
+stretch is that of the tail, body, and arm added together, and these are
+all unusually long. They can also swing themselves through the air for
+great distances, and are thus able to pass rapidly from tree to tree
+without ever descending to the ground, just like the gibbons in the
+Malayan forests. Although capable of feats of wonderful agility, the
+spider monkeys are usually slow and deliberate in their motions, and
+have a timid, melancholy expression, very different from that of most
+monkeys. Their hands are very long, but have only four fingers, being
+adapted for hanging on to branches rather than for getting hold of small
+objects. It is said that when they have to cross a river the trees on
+the opposite banks of which do not approach near enough for a leap,
+several of them form a chain, one hanging by its tail from a lofty
+overhanging branch and seizing hold of the tail of the one below it,
+then gradually swinging themselves backward and forward till the lower
+one is able to seize hold of a branch on the opposite side. He then
+climbs up the tree, and, when sufficiently high, the first one lets go,
+and the swing either carries him across to a bough on the opposite side
+or he climbs up over his companions.
+
+Closely allied to the last are the woolly monkeys, which have an equally
+well developed prehensile tail, but better proportioned limbs, and a
+thick woolly fur of a uniform gray or brownish color. They have well
+formed fingers and thumbs, both on the hands and feet, and are rather
+deliberate in their motions, and exceedingly tame and affectionate in
+captivity. They are great eaters, and are usually very fat. They are
+found only in the far interior of the Amazon valley, and, having a
+delicate constitution, seldom live long in Europe. These monkeys are not
+so fond of swinging themselves about by their tails as are the spider
+monkeys, and offer more opportunities of observing how completely this
+organ takes the place of a fifth hand. When walking about a house, or on
+the deck of a ship, the partially curled tail is carried in a horizontal
+position on the ground, and the moment it touches anything it twists
+round it and brings it forward, when, if eatable, it is at once
+appropriated; and when fastened up the animal will obtain any food that
+may be out of reach of its hands with the greatest facility, picking up
+small bits of biscuit, nuts, etc., much as an elephant does with the tip
+of his trunk.
+
+We now come to a group of monkeys whose prehensile tail is of a less
+perfect character, since it is covered with hair to the tip, and is of
+no use to pick up objects. It can, however, curl round a branch, and
+serves to steady the animal while sitting or feeding, but is never used
+to hang and swing by in the manner so common with the spider monkeys and
+their allies. These are rather small-sized animals, with round heads and
+with moderately long tails. They are very active and intelligent, their
+limbs are not so long as in the preceding group, and though they have
+five fingers on each hand and foot, the hands have weak and hardly
+opposable thumbs. Some species of these monkeys are often carried about
+by itinerant organ men, and are taught to walk erect and perform many
+amusing tricks. They form the genus _Cebus_ of naturalists.
+
+The remainder of the American monkeys have non-prehensile tails, like
+those of the monkeys of the Eastern hemisphere; but they consist of
+several distinct groups, and differ very much in appearance and habits.
+First we have the Sakis, which have a bushy tail and usually very long
+and thick hair, something like that of a bear. Sometimes the tail is
+very short, appearing like a rounded tuft of hair; many of the species
+have fine bushy whiskers, which meet under the chin, and appear as if
+they had been dressed and trimmed by a barber, and the head is often
+covered with thick curly hair, looking like a wig. Others, again, have
+the face quite red, and one has the head nearly bald, a most remarkable
+peculiarity among monkeys. This latter species was met with by Mr. Bates
+on the Upper Amazon, and he describes the face as being of a vivid
+scarlet, the body clothed from neck to tail with very long, straight,
+and shining white hair, while the head was nearly bald, owing to the
+very short crop of thin gray hairs. As a finish to their striking
+physiognomy these monkeys have bushy whiskers of a sandy color meeting
+under the chin, and yellowish gray eyes. The color of the face is so
+vivid that it looks as if covered with a thick coat of bright scarlet
+paint. These creatures are very delicate, and have never reached Europe
+alive, although several of the allied forms have lived some time in our
+Zoological Gardens.
+
+An allied group consists of the elegant squirrel monkeys, with long,
+straight, hairy tails, and often adorned with pretty variegated colors.
+They are usually small animals; some have the face marked with black and
+white, others have curious whiskers, and their nails are rather sharp
+and claw like. They have large round heads, and their fur is more glossy
+and smooth than in most other American monkeys, so that they more
+resemble some of the smaller monkeys of Africa. These little creatures
+are very active, running about the trees like squirrels, and feeding
+largely on insects as well as on fruit.
+
+Closely allied to these are the small group of night monkeys, which have
+large eyes, and a round face surrounded by a kind of ruff of whitish
+fur, so as to give it an owl like appearance, whence they are sometimes
+called owl-faced monkeys. They are covered with soft gray fur, like that
+of a rabbit, and sleep all day long concealed in hollow trees. The
+face is also marked with white patches and stripes, giving it a rather
+carnivorous or cat like aspect, which, perhaps, serves as a protection,
+by causing the defenseless creature to be taken for an arboreal tiger
+cat or some such beast of prey.
+
+This finishes the series of such of the American monkeys as have a
+larger number of teeth than those of the Old World. But there is another
+group, the Marmosets, which have the same number of teeth as Eastern
+monkeys, but differently distributed in the jaws, a premolar being
+substituted for a molar tooth. In other particulars they resemble the
+rest of the American monkeys. They are very small and delicate creatures
+some having the body only seven inches long. The thumb of the hands
+is[1] not opposable, and instead of nails they have sharp compressed
+claws. These diminutive monkeys have long, non-prehensile tails, and
+they have a silky fur often of varied and beautiful colors. Some are
+striped with gray and white, or are of rich brown or golden brown tints,
+varied by having the head or shoulders white or black, while in many
+there are crests, frills, manes, or long ear tufts, adding greatly to
+their variety and beauty. These little animals are timid and restless;
+their motions are more like those of a squirrel than a monkey. Their
+sharp claws enable them to run quickly along the branches, but they
+seldom leap from bough to bough like the larger monkeys. They live on
+fruits and insects, but are much afraid of wasps, which they are said to
+recognize even in a picture.
+
+[Transcribers note 1: Changed from '... it not opposable', ...]
+
+This completes our sketch of the American monkeys, and we see that,
+although they possess no such remarkable forms as the gorilla or the
+baboons, yet they exhibit a wonderful diversity of external characters,
+considering that all seem equally adapted to a purely arboreal life.
+In the howlers we have a specially developed voice organ, which is
+altogether peculiar; in the spider monkeys we find the adaptation to
+active motion among the topmost branches of the forest trees carried to
+an extreme point of development; while the singular nocturnal monkeys,
+the active squirrel monkeys, and the exquisite little marmosets, show
+how distinct are the forms under which the same general type, may be
+exhibited, and in how many varied ways existence may be sustained under
+almost identical conditions.
+
+
+LEMURS.
+
+In the general term, monkeys, considered as equivalent to the order
+Primates, or the Quadrumana of naturalists, we have to include another
+sub-type, that of the Lemurs. These animals are of a lower grade than
+the true monkeys, from which they differ in so many points of structure
+that they are considered to form a distinct sub-order, or, by some
+naturalists, even a separate order. They have usually a much larger head
+and more pointed muzzle than monkeys; they vary considerably in the
+number, form, and arrangement of the teeth; their thumbs are always well
+developed, but their fingers vary much in size and length; their tails
+are usually long, but several species have no tail whatever, and they
+are clothed with a more or less woolly fur, often prettily variegated
+with white and black. They inhabit the deep forests of Africa,
+Madagascar, and Southern Asia, and are more sluggish in their movements
+than true monkeys, most of them being of nocturnal and crepuscular
+habits. They feed largely on insects, eating also fruits and the eggs or
+young of birds.
+
+The most curious species are--the slow lemurs of South India, small
+tailless nocturnal animals, somewhat resembling sloths in appearance,
+and almost as deliberate in their movements, except when in the act of
+seizing their insect prey; the Tarsier, or specter lemur, of the Malay
+islands, a small, long tailed nocturnal lemur, remarkable for the
+curious development of the hind feet, which have two of the toes very
+short, and with sharp claws, while the others have nails, the third toe
+being exceedingly long and slender, though the thumb is very large,
+giving the feet a very irregular and _outré_ appearance; and, lastly,
+the Aye-aye, of Madagascar, the most remarkable of all. This animal has
+very large ears and a squirrel like tail, with long spreading hair.
+It has large curved incisor teeth, which add to its squirrel like
+appearance, and caused the early naturalists to class it among the
+rodents. But its most remarkable character is found in its fore feet
+or hands, the fingers of which are all very long and armed with sharp
+curved claws, but one of them, the second, is wonderfully slender,
+being not half the thickness of the others. This curious combination of
+characters shows that the aye-aye is a very specialized form--that is,
+one whose organization has been slowly modified to fit it for a peculiar
+mode of life. From information received from its native country, and
+from a profound study of its organization, Professor Owen believes
+that it is adapted for the one purpose of feeding on small wood-boring
+insects. Its large feet and sharp claws enable it to cling firmly to the
+branches of trees in almost any position; by means of its large delicate
+ears it listens for the sound of the insect gnawing within the branch,
+and is thus able to fix its exact position; with its powerful curved
+gnawing teeth it rapidly cuts away the bark and wood till it exposes the
+burrow of the insect, most probably the soft larva of some beetle, and
+then comes into play the extraordinary long wire-like finger, which
+enters the small cylindrical burrow, and with the sharp bent claw hooks
+out the grub. Here we have a most complex adaptation of different parts
+and organs, all converging to one special end, that end being the same
+as is reached by a group of birds, the woodpeckers, in a different way;
+and it is a most interesting fact that, although woodpeckers abound in
+all the great continents, and are especially common in the tropical
+forests of Asia, Africa, and America, they are quite absent from
+Madagascar. We may, therefore, consider that the aye-aye really occupies
+the same place in nature in the forests of this tropical island, as do
+the woodpeckers in other parts of the world.
+
+
+DISTRIBUTION, AFFINITIES, AND ZOOLOGICAL RANK OF MONKEYS.
+
+Having thus sketched an outline of the monkey tribe as regards their
+more prominent external characters and habits, we must say a few words
+on their general relations as a distinct order of mammalia. No other
+group so extensive and so varied as this, is so exclusively tropical in
+its distribution, a circumstance no doubt due to the fact that monkeys
+depend so largely on fruit and insects for their subsistence. A very
+few species extend into the warmer parts of the temperate zones, their
+extreme limits in the northern hemisphere being Gibraltar, the Western
+Himalayas at 11,000 feet elevation, East Thibet, and Japan. In America
+they are found in Mexico, but do not appear to pass beyond the tropic.
+In the Southern hemisphere they are limited by the extent of the forests
+in South Brazil, which reach about 30° south latitude. In the East,
+owing to their entire absence from Australia, they do not reach the
+tropic; but in Africa, some baboons range to the southern extremity of
+the continent.
+
+But this extreme restriction of the order to almost tropical lands is
+only recent. Directly we go back to the Pliocene period of geology,
+we find the remains of monkeys in France, and even in England. In the
+earlier Miocene, several kinds, some of large size, lived in France,
+Germany, and Greece, all more or less closely allied to living forms of
+Asia and Africa. About the same period monkeys of the South American
+type inhabited the United States. In the remote Eocene period the same
+temperate lands were inhabited by lemurs in the East, and by curious
+animals believed to be intermediate between lemurs and marmosets in the
+West. We know from a variety of other evidence that throughout these
+vast periods a mild and almost sub-tropical climate extended over all
+Central Europe and parts of North America, while one of a temperate
+character prevailed as far north as the Arctic circle. The monkey tribe
+then enjoyed a far greater range over the earth, and perhaps filled a
+more important place in nature than it does now. Its restriction to the
+comparatively narrow limits of the tropics is no doubt mainly due to the
+great alteration of climate which occurred at the close of the Tertiary
+period, but it may have been aided by the continuous development of
+varied forms of mammalian life better fitted for the contrasted seasons
+and deciduous vegetation of the north temperate regions. The more
+extensive area formerly inhabited by the monkey tribe, would have
+favored their development into a number of divergent forms, in distant
+regions, and adapted to distinct modes of life. As these retreated
+southward and became concentrated in a more limited area, such as were
+able to maintain themselves became mingled together as we now find them,
+the ancient and lowly marmosets and lemurs subsisting side by side with
+the more recent and more highly developed howlers and anthropoid apes.
+
+Throughout the long ages of the Tertiary period monkeys must have been
+very abundant and very varied, yet it is but rarely that their fossil
+remains are found. This, however, is not difficult to explain. The
+deposits in which mammalian remains most abound are those formed in
+lakes or in caverns. In the former the bodies of large numbers of
+terrestrial animals were annually deposited, owing to their having been
+caught by floods in the tributary streams, swallowed up in marginal bogs
+or quicksands, or drowned by the giving way of ice. Caverns were the
+haunts of hyenas, tigers, bears, and other beasts of prey, which dragged
+into them the bodies of their victims, and left many of their bones to
+become embedded in stalagmite or in the muddy deposit left by floods,
+while herbivorous animals were often carried into them by these floods,
+or by falling down the swallow-holes which often open into caverns from
+above. But, owing to their arboreal habits, monkeys were to a great
+extent freed from all these dangers. Whether devoured by beasts or birds
+of prey, or dying a natural death, their bones would usually be left on
+dry land, where they would slowly decay under atmospheric influences.
+Only under very exceptional circumstances would they become embedded
+in aqueous deposits; and instead of being surprised at their rarity
+we should rather wonder that so many have been discovered in a fossil
+state.
+
+Monkeys, as a whole, form a very isolated group, having no near
+relations to any other mammalia. This is undoubtedly an indication of
+great antiquity. The peculiar type which has since reached so high a
+development must have branched off the great mammalian stock at a very
+remote epoch, certainly far back in the Secondary period, since in the
+Eocene we find lemurs and lemurine monkeys already specialized. At this
+remoter period they were probably not separable from the insectivora,
+or (perhaps) from the ancestral marsupials. Even now we have one living
+form, the curious Galeopithecus or flying lemur, which has only recently
+been separated from the lemurs, with which it was formerly united, to be
+classed as one of the insectivora; and it is only among the Opossums and
+some other marsupials that we again find hand-like feet with opposable
+thumbs, which are such a curious and constant feature of the monkey
+tribe.
+
+This relationship to the lowest of the mammalian tribes seems
+inconsistent with the place usually accorded to these animals at the
+head of the entire mammalian series, and opens up the question whether
+this is a real superiority or whether it depends merely on the obvious
+relationship to ourselves. If we could suppose a being gifted with
+high intelligence, but with a form totally unlike that of man, to have
+visited the earth before man existed in order to study the various forms
+of animal life that were found there, we can hardly think he would have
+placed the monkey tribe so high as we do. He would observe that their
+whole organization was specially adapted to an arboreal life, and this
+specialization would be rather against their claiming the first rank
+among terrestrial creatures. Neither in size, nor strength, nor beauty,
+would they compare with many other forms, while in intelligence they
+would not surpass, even if they equaled, the horse or the beaver. The
+carnivora, as a whole, would certainly be held to surpass them in the
+exquisite perfection of their physical structure, while the flexible
+trunk of the elephant, combined with his vast strength and admirable
+sagacity, would probably gain for him the first rank in the animal
+creation.
+
+But if this would have been a true estimate, the mere fact that the ape
+is our nearest relation does not necessarily oblige us to come to any
+other conclusion. Man is undoubtedly the most perfect of all animals,
+but he is so solely in respect of characters in which he differs from
+all the monkey tribe--the easily erect posture, the perfect freedom
+of the hands from all part in locomotion, the large size and complete
+opposability of the thumb, and the well developed brain, which enables
+him fully to utilize these combined physical advantages. The monkeys
+have none of these; and without them the amount of resemblance they have
+to us is no advantage, and confers no rank. We are biased by the too
+exclusive consideration of the man-like apes. If these did not exist
+the remaining monkeys could not be thereby deteriorated as to their
+organization or lowered in their zoological position, but it is doubtful
+if we should then class them so high as we now do. We might then dwell
+more on their resemblances to lower types--to rodents, to insectivora,
+and to marsupials, and should hardly rank the hideous baboon above the
+graceful leopard or stately stag. The true conclusion appears to be,
+that the combination of external characters and internal structure which
+exists in the monkeys, is that which, when greatly improved, refined,
+and beautified, was best calculated to become the perfect instrument
+of the human intellect and to aid in the development of man's higher
+nature; while, on the other hand, in the rude, inharmonious, and
+undeveloped state which it has reached in the quadrumana, it is by no
+means worthy of the highest place, or can be held to exhibit the most
+perfect development of existing animal life.--_Contemporary Review_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS.]
+
+
+
+
+SILK-PRODUCING BOMBYCES AND OTHER LEPIDOPTERA REARED IN 1881.
+
+By ALFRED WAILLY, Membre Lauréat de la Société d'Acclimatation de
+France.
+
+
+By referring to my reports for the years 1879 and 1880, which appeared
+in the _Journal of the Society of Arts_, February 13 and March 5, 1880,
+February 25 and March 4, 1881, it will be seen that the bad weather
+prevented the successful rearing in the open air of most species of
+silk-producing larvæ. In 1881, the weather was extremely favorable up
+to the end of July, but the incessant and heavy rains of the month of
+August and beginning of September, proved fatal to most of the larvæ
+when they were in their last stages. However, in spite of my many
+difficulties, I had the satisfaction of seeing them to their last
+stage. Larvæ of all the silk-producing bombyces were preserved in their
+different stages, and can be seen in the Bethnal-green Museum. In July,
+when the weather was magnificent, the little trees in my garden were
+literally covered with larvæ of more species than I ever had before, and
+two or three more weeks of fair weather would have given me a good crop
+of cocoons, instead of which I only obtained a very small number. The
+sparrows, as usual, also destroyed a quantity of worms, in spite of wire
+or fish-netting placed over some of the trees.
+
+On the trees were to be seen--_Attacus cynthia_ (the Ailantus silkworm),
+the rearing of which was, as usual, most successful; _Samia cecropia_
+and _Samia gloveri_, from America; also hybrids of _Gloveri cecropia_
+and _Cecropia gloveri_; _Samia promethea_ and _Telea polyphemus_;
+_Attacus pernyi_, and a new hybrid, which I obtained this last season by
+the crossing of Pernyi with Royle. For the first time I reared _Actias
+selene_, from India, on a nut-tree in the garden, and _Attacus atlas_,
+on the ailantus. The _Selene_ larvæ reached their fifth and last stage.
+The Atlas larvæ only reached the third stage, and were destroyed by the
+heavy rains; only two remained on the tree till about the 8th or 9th of
+September, when they had to be removed. I shall now reproduce the notes
+I took on some of the various species I reared.
+
+_Actias Selene_.--With sixty cocoons I only obtained one pairing. The
+moths emerged from the beginning of March till the 13th of August,
+at intervals of some duration, or in batches of males or females. I
+obtained a pairing of Selene on the 30toh of June, 1881, and the worms
+commenced to hatch on the 13th of July. The larvæ in first stage are of
+a fine brown-red, with a broad black band in the middle of the body. The
+second stage commenced on the 20th of July; larvæ, of a lighter reddish
+color, without the black band; tubercles black. Third stage commenced on
+the 28th of July; larvæ green; the first four tubercles yellow, with a
+black ring at the base; other tubercles, orange yellow. Fourth stage
+commenced on the 6th of August; larvæ green; first four tubercles
+golden-yellow, the others orange-red. Fifth stage commenced on the 19th
+of August; first four tubercles yellow, with a black ring at the base;
+other tubercles yellow, slightly tinged with orange-red; lateral band
+brown and greenish yellow; head and forelegs dark-brown. As stated
+before, the larvæ were reared on a nut-tree in the garden, till the last
+stage. Selene feeds on various trees--walnut, wild cherry, wild pear,
+etc. In Ceylon (at Kandy), it is found on the wild olive tree. As far as
+I am informed by correspondents in Ceylon, this species is not found--or
+is seldom found--on the coasts, but _Attacus atlas_ and Mylitta are
+commonly found there.
+
+_Attacus (antheroea) roylei_ (with sixty cocoons); three pairings only
+were obtained, and this species I found the most difficult to pair in
+captivity. Two moths emerged on the 5th of March, a male and a female,
+and a pairing was obtained; but the weather being then too cold, the ova
+were not fertile, the female moth, after laying about two hundred eggs,
+lived till the 22d of March, which is a very long time; this was owing
+to the low temperature. The moths emerged afterward from the 8th of
+April till the 25th of June. A pairing took place on the 2d of June, and
+another on the 6th of June.
+
+Roylei (the Himalaya oak silkworm) is very closely allied to Pernyi, the
+Chinese oak silkworm; the Roylei moths are of a lighter color, but the
+larvæ of both species can hardly be distinguished from one another.
+The principal difference between the two species is in the cocoon. The
+Roylei cocoon is within a very large and tough envelope, while that of
+Pernyi has no outer envelope at all. The larvæ of Roylei I reared did
+not thrive, and the small number I had only went to the fourth stage,
+owing to several causes. I bred them under glass, in a green-house. A
+certain number of the larvæ were unable to cut the shell of the egg.
+
+Here are a few notes I find in my book: Ova of Roylei commenced to hatch
+on the 29th of June; second stage commenced on the 9th of July. The
+larvæ in the first two stages seemed to me similar to those of Pernyi,
+as far as I could see. In second stage, the tubercles were of a
+brilliant orange-red; on anal segment, blue dot on each side. Third
+stage, four rows of orange-yellow tubercles, two blue dots on anal
+segment, brilliant gold metallic spots at the base of the tubercles on
+the back, and silver metallic spots at the base of the tubercles on the
+sides. No further notes taken.
+
+One of my correspondents in Vienna (Austria) obtained a remarkable
+success in the rearing of Roylei. From the twenty-five eggs he had
+twenty-three larvæ hatched, which produced twenty-three fine cocoons.
+The same correspondent, with thirty-five eggs of _Samia gloveri_,
+obtained twenty cocoons. My other correspondents did not obtain any
+success in rearing these two species, as far as I know.
+
+_Hybrid Roylei-Pernyi_.--I have said that it is extremely difficult to
+obtain the pairing of Roylei moths in captivity. But the male Pernyi
+paired readily with the female Roylei. I obtained six such pairings, and
+a large quantity of fertile ova. The pairings of Roylei (female) with
+Pernyi (male) took place as follows: two on the 21st of May, one on the
+3d of June, two on the 4th of June, and one on the 6th.
+
+The larvæ of this new hybrid, _Roylei-Pernyi_, contrary to what might
+have been expected, were much easier to rear than those of Roylei, and
+the cocoons obtained are far superior to those of Roylei, in size,
+weight, and richness of silk. The cocoon of my new hybrid has, like
+Roylei, an envelope, but there is no space between this envelope and the
+true cocoon inside. Therefore, this time, the crossing of two different
+species (but, it must be added, two very closely allied species) has
+produced a hybrid very superior, at least to one of the types, that of
+Roylei. The cocoons of the hybrid _Roylei-Pernyi_ seem to me larger and
+heavier than any Pernyi cocoons I have as yet seen.
+
+The larvæ of this new hybrid have been successfully reared in France,
+in Germany, in Austria, and in the United States of North America. The
+cocoons obtained by Herr L. Huessman, one of my German correspondents,
+are remarkable for their size and beauty. The silk is silvery white.
+
+I have seventeen cocoons of this hybrid species, which number may be
+sufficient for its reproduction. But the question arises, "Will the
+moths obtained from these cocoons be susceptible of reproduction?"
+
+In my report on Lepidoptera for the year 1879, I stated, with respect to
+hybrids and degeneracy, that hybrids had been obtained by the crossing
+of _Attacus pernyi_ and _Attacus yama-maï_, but that, although the moths
+(some of which may be seen in the Bethnal-green Museum) are large and
+apparently perfect in every respect, yet these hybrids could not be
+reproduced. It must be stated that these two species differ essentially
+in one particular point. _Yama-maï_ hibernates in the _ovum_ state,
+while Pernyi hibernates in the _pupa_ state. The hybrids hibernated in
+the _pupa_ state. Roylei, as Pernyi, hibernates in the _pupa_ state.
+
+In the November number, 1881, of "The Entomologist," Mr. W.F. Kirby,
+of the British Museum, wrote an article having for its title,
+"Hermaphrodite-hybrid Sphingidæ," in which, referring to hybrids of
+_Smerinthus ocellatus_ and _populi_, he says that hermaphroditism is the
+usual character of such hybrids.
+
+I extract the following passage from his article: "I was under the
+impression that hermaphroditism was the usual character of these
+hybrids; and it has suggested itself to my mind as a possibility, which
+I have not, at present, sufficient data either to prove or to disprove,
+that the sterility of hybrids in general (still a somewhat obscure
+subject) may perhaps be partly due to hybridism having a tendency to
+produce hermaphroditism."
+
+Now, will the moths of new hybrid Roylei pernyi (which I expect will
+emerge in May or June, 1882) have the same tendency to hermaphroditism
+as has been observed with the hybrids obtained by the crossing of
+_Smerinthus populi_ with _Sm. ocellatus_? I do not think that such will
+be the case with the moths of the hybrid Roylei-pernyi, on account of
+the close relationship of Roylei with Pernyi, but nothing certain can be
+known till the moths have emerged. Here are the few notes taken on the
+hybrid Roylei-pernyi: Ova commenced to hatch on the 12th of June; these
+were from the pairing which had taken place on the 21st of May. Larvæ,
+black, with long white hairs. Second stage commenced on the 21st of
+June. Larva, of a beautiful green; tubercles orange-yellow; head dark
+brown. Third stage commenced on the 1st of July; fourth stage on the
+7th. Larva of same color in those stages; tubercles on the back,
+violet-blue or mauve; tubercles on the sides, blue. Fifth stage
+commenced on the 18th of July. Larva, with tubercles on back and sides,
+blue, or violet-blue. First cocoon commenced on the 10th of August. Want
+of time prevented me from taking fuller and more accurate notes.
+
+_Attacus Atlas_.--For the first time, as stated before, I attempted the
+rearing of a small number of Atlas larvæ in the open air on the ailantus
+tree, but had to remove the last two remaining larvæ in September; the
+others had all disappeared in consequence of the heavy and incessant
+rains. These larvæ were from eggs sent to me by one of my German
+correspondents. The pairing of the moths had taken place on the 17th of
+July, and the eggs had commenced to hatch on the 4th of August.
+
+I had about eighty cocoons of another and larger race of Atlas imported
+from the Province of Kumaon, but only eight moths emerged at intervals
+from the 31st of July to the 30th of September. Not only did the moths
+emerge too late in the season, but there never was a chance of obtaining
+a pairing. In my report on Indian silkworms, published in the November
+number of the "Bulletin de la Societe d'Acclimatation," for the year
+1881, compiled from the work of Mr. J. Geoghegan, I reproduce the first
+appendix of Captain Thomas Hutton to Mr. Geoghegan's work, in which are
+given the names of all the Indian silkworms known by him up to the year
+1871.
+
+Of _Attacus atlas_, Captain Hutton says: "It is common at 5,500 feet at
+Mussoorie, and in the Dehra Doon; it is also found in some of the deep
+warm glens of the outer hills. It is also common at Almorah, where the
+larva feeds almost exclusively upon the 'Kilmorah' bush or _Berberis
+asiatica_; while at Mussoorie it will not touch that plant, but feeds
+exclusively upon the large milky leaves of _Falconeria insignis_.
+The worm is, perhaps, more easily reared than any other of the wild
+bombycidæ."
+
+I will now quote from letters received from one of my correspondents in
+Ceylon, a gentleman of great experience and knowledge in sericulture.
+
+In a letter dated 24th August, 1881, my correspondent says: "The Atlas
+moth seems to be a near relation of the Cynthia, and would probably feed
+on the Ailantus. Here it feeds on the cinnamon and a great number of
+other trees of widely different species; but the tree on which I
+have kept it most successfully in a domestic state is the _Milnea
+roxburghiana_, a handsome tree, with dark-green ternate leaves, which
+keep fresh long after being detached from the tree. I do not think the
+cocoon can ever be reeled, as the thread usually breaks when it comes
+to the open end. I have tried to reel a great many Atlas cocoons, but
+always found the process too tedious and troublesome for practical use.
+
+"The Mylitta (Tusser) is a more hardy species than the Atlas, and I have
+had no difficulty in domesticating it. Here it feeds on the cashew-nut
+tree, on the so-called almond of this country (_Terminalia catappa_),
+which is a large tree entirely different from the European almond, and
+on many other trees. Most of the trees whose leaves turn red when about
+to fall seem to suit it, but it is not confined to these. In the case of
+the Atlas moth, I discovered one thing which may be well worth knowing,
+and that was, that with cocoons brought to the seaside after the larvæ
+had been reared in the Central Provinces, in a temperature ten or twelve
+degrees colder, the moths emerged in from ten to twenty days after the
+formation of the cocoon. The duration of the _pupa_ stage in this, and
+probably in other species, therefore, depends upon the temperature in
+which the larvæ have lived, as well as the degree of heat in which the
+cocoons are kept; and in transporting cocoons from India to Europe, I
+think it will be found that the moths are less liable to be prematurely
+forced out by the heat of the Red Sea when the larvæ have been reared in
+a warm climate than when they have been reared in a cold one.
+
+"I do not agree with the opinion expressed in one of your reports, that
+the short duration of the larva stage, caused by a high temperature, has
+the effect of diminishing the size of the cocoons, because the Atlas
+and Tusser cocoons produced at the sea-level here are quite as large as
+those found in the Central Provinces at elevations of three thousand
+feet or more. According to the treatise on the "Silk Manufacture," in
+"Lardner's Cyclopedia," the Chinese are of opinion that one drachm
+of mulberry silkworms' eggs will produce 25 ounces of silk if the
+caterpillars attain maturity within twenty-five days; 20 ounces if the
+commencement of the cocoons be delayed until the twenty-eighth day; and
+only 10 ounces if it be delayed until between the thirtieth and fortieth
+day. If this is correct, a short-lived larva stage must, instead of
+causing small cocoons, produce just the contrary effect."
+
+In another letter, dated November 25, 1881, my correspondent says: "I am
+sorry that you have not had better success in the rearing of your
+larvæ, but you should not despair. It is possible that the choice of an
+improper food-plant may have as much to do with failures as the coldness
+and dampness of the English climate. I lost many thousands of Atlas
+caterpillars before I found out the proper tree to keep them on in a
+domesticated state; and when I did attain partial success, I could
+not keep them for more than one generation, till I found the _Milnea
+roxburghiana_ to be their proper food plant. I do not know the proper
+food-plant of the Mylitta (Tusser), but I have succeeded very well with
+it, as it is a more hardy species than the Atlas. Though a Bombyx be
+polyphagous in a state of nature, yet I think most species have a tree
+proper to themselves, on which they are more at home than on any
+other plant. I should like, if you could find out from some your
+correspondents in India, on what species of tree Mylitta cocoons are
+found in the largest numbers, and what is about the greatest number
+found on a single tree. The Mylitta is common enough here, but there
+does not seem to be any kind of tree here on which the cocoons are to be
+found in greater numbers than twos and threes; and there must be some
+tree in India on which the cocoons are to be found in much greater
+plenty, because they could not otherwise be collected in sufficient
+quantity for manufacturing purposes. The Atlas is here found on twenty
+or more different kinds of trees, but a hundred or a hundred and fifty
+cocoons or larvæ may be found on a single tree of _Milnea roxburghiana_,
+while they are to be found only singly, or in twos and threes, on any
+other tree that I know of. The Atlas and Mylitta seem to be respectively
+the Indian relations of the Cynthia and Pernyi. It is, therefore,
+probable that the Ailantus would be the most suitable European tree for
+the Atlas, and the oak for the Mylitta."
+
+_Attacus mylitta_ (_Antheræa paphia_).--I did not receive a single
+cocoon of this species for the season 1881. My stock consisted of seven
+cocoons, from the lot received from Calcutta at the end of February,
+1880. Five were female, and two male cocoons; one of the latter died,
+thus reducing the number to six. The moths emerged as follows: One
+female on the 21st of June, one female on the 26th, one female on the
+28th, one female on the 1st of July, and one male on the 3d of August;
+the latter emerging thirty-four days too late to be of any use for
+rearing purposes. The last female moth emerged, I think, about the end
+of September. These cocoons had hibernated twice, as has been the case
+with other Indian species. I had Indian cocoons which hibernated even
+three times.
+
+_Attacus cynthia_, from the province of Kumaon.--With the Atlas cocoons,
+a large quantity of Cynthia cocoons were collected in the province
+of Kumaon. Both species had, no doubt, fed on the same trees; as the
+Cynthia, like the Atlas cocoons, were all inclosed in leaves of the
+_Berberis vulgaris_, which shows that Cynthia is also a polyphagous
+species. It is already known that it feeds on several species of trees,
+besides the ailantus, such as the laburnum, lilac, cherry, and, I think,
+also on the castor-oil plant; the common barberry has, therefore, to be
+added to the above food plants.
+
+These Kumaon Cynthia cocoons were somewhat smaller and much darker in
+color than those of the acclimatized Cynthia reared on the ailantus. The
+moths of this wild Indian Cynthia were also of a richer color than those
+of the cultivated species in Europe.
+
+During the summer 1881, I saw cocoons of my own Cynthia race obtained
+from worms which had been reared on the laburnum tree. These cocoons
+were, as far as I can remember, of a yellowish or saffron color; which
+I had never seen before. This difference in the color of the cocoon was
+very likely produced by the change of food, although it has been stated,
+and I think it may be quite correct, that with many species of native
+lepidoptera the change of food-plants does not produce any difference of
+color in the insects obtained. With respect to the Cynthia worms reared
+on the laburnum instead of the ailantus, it may be that the moths, which
+will emerge from the yellow cocoons, will be similar to those obtained
+from cocoons spun by worms bred on the ailantus, and that the only
+difference will be in the color of the cocoons.
+
+The Kumaon Cynthia cocoons, as I found it to be the case with Indian
+species introduced for the first time into Europe, did not produce moths
+at the same time, nor as regularly as the acclimatized species. The
+moths emerged as follows: One female on the 22d of July; one female on
+the 25th; one male on the 3d August; one female on the 19th; one male on
+the 28th of August; one male on the 2d September; one female on the 3d.
+A pairing was obtained with the latter two. Two males emerged on the 4th
+of September; one male on the 6th; one male and one female on the 22d;
+one female on the 23d; and one female on the 25th of September. Five
+cocoons, which did not produce any moths, contain pupæ, which are still
+in perfect condition; and the moths will no doubt emerge next summer
+(1882). As seen in my note, a pairing of this wild Indian Cynthia took
+place; this was from the evening of the 4th to the 5th of September. The
+eggs laid by the female moth were deposited in a most curious way, in
+smaller or larger quantities, but all forming perfect triangles. These
+eggs I gave to a florist who has been very successful in the rearing
+of silk-producing and other larvæ; telling him to rear the Cynthia on
+lilacs grown in pots and placed in a hot-house, which was done. The
+worms, which hatched in a few days, as they were placed in a hot-house,
+thrived wonderfully well, and I might say they thrived too well, as they
+grew so fast and became so voracious that the growth of the lilac trees
+could not keep pace with the growth of the worms. These, at the fourth
+stage, became so large that the foliage was entirely devoured, and, of
+course, the consequence was that all the worms were starved. I only
+heard of the result of that experiment long after the death of the
+larvæ; otherwise I should have suggested the use of another plant after
+the destruction of the foliage of the lilacs; the privet (_Ligustrum
+vulgare_) might have been tried, and success obtained with it.
+
+Of such species as _Attacus pyri_, of Central Europe, and _Attacus
+pernyi_, the North Chinese oak silkworm, which I have mentioned in my
+previous reports, and bred every season for several years, I shall only
+say that I never could rear Pyri in the open air in London, up to the
+formation of the cocoon. As to Pernyi, I had, in 1881, an immense
+quantity of splendid moths, from which I obtained the largest quantity
+of ova I ever had of this species. I had many thousands of fertile ova
+of Pernyi, which I was unable to distribute. Many schoolboys reared
+Pernyi worms, but with what success I do not yet know. The number of
+fertile ova obtained from Pyri moths was also more considerable than in
+former years, which was due partly to the good quality of the pupæ, and
+partly to the very favorable weather in June, at the time the pairings
+of the moths took place.
+
+Leaving these, I now come to the North American species.
+
+_Telea polyphemus_.--As I have stated in former years, this is the best
+North American silkworm, producing a closed cocoon, somewhat smaller
+than that of Pernyi, but the silk seems as good as that of Pernyi.
+
+The cocoons of Polyphemus I had in 1881 were smaller and inferior in
+quality to those I had before. Those received in 1878 and 1879 were
+considerably finer and larger than those which were sent in 1880 and
+1881; besides, they were sent in much larger quantities. The cocoons
+received this year (1882) are finer than those of 1881, but yet they
+cannot be compared with those of 1878 and 1879.
+
+With about sixty cocoons of _Telea polyphemus_ I only obtained three
+pairings, which I attribute solely to the weakness of the moths, as
+the weather was all that could be desired for the pairings. The moths
+emerged from the 1st of June to the 20th of July. One male moth emerged
+on the 7th September. This latter was one from a small number of cocoons
+received from Alabama; the other cocoons of the same race had emerged at
+the same time as the cocoons from the Northern States. In the Northern
+States the species is single-brooded; in the Southern States it is
+double-brooded.
+
+The larvæ of Polyphemus can be bred in the open air in England, almost
+as easily as those of Pernyi, and even Cynthia; they will pass through
+their five stages and spin their cocoons on the trees, unless the
+weather should be unexceptionally cold and wet, as was the case during
+the month of August, 1881, when the larvæ had reached their full size;
+they were reared this year on the nut-tree, and some on the oak. The
+species is extremely polyphagous, and will feed well on oak, birch,
+chestnut, beech, willow, nut, etc.
+
+The moth of Polyphemus is very beautiful, and, as in some other species,
+varies in its shades of color. The larva is of a transparent green, of
+extreme beauty; the head is light brown; without any black dots, as in
+Pernyi; the spines are pink, and at the base of each of them there is a
+brilliant metallic spot. When the sun shines on them the larvæ seem to
+be covered with diamonds. These metallic spots at the base of the spines
+are also seen on Pernyi, Yama mai, Mylitta, and other species of the
+genus Antheræa, all having a closed cocoon, but none of these have so
+many as Polyphemus.
+
+The cocoons of the species of the genus Actias are closed, but the larvæ
+have not the metallic spots of the species of the genus Antheræa.
+
+_Samia Gloveri_.--Three North American silk-producing bombyces, very
+closely allied, have been mentioned in my previous reports; they are;
+_Samia ceanothi_, from California; _Samia gloveri_, from Utah and
+Arizona; and _Samia cecropia_, commonly found in most of the Northern
+States--the latter is the best and largest silk producer. Crossings of
+these species took places in 1880, and, as I stated before, the ova
+obtained from a long pairing between a Ceanothi female with a Gloveri
+male, were the only ones which were fertile. The Gloveri cocoons
+received in 1880 were of a very inferior quality, and produced moths
+from which no pairings could be obtained, although some crossings took
+place. In 1881, the Gloveri cocoons, on the contrary, produced fine,
+healthy moths; yet only five pairings could be obtained, with about one
+hundred cocoons. Besides these five pairings, a quantity of fertile
+ova were obtained by the crossings of _S. gloveri_ (female) with _S.
+cecropia_ (male), and Cecropia (female) with Gloveri (male). No success,
+so far as I know, was obtained with the rearing of the hybrid larvæ; the
+rearings of the larvæ of pure Gloveri were also, I think, a failure,
+only one correspondent having been successful; but some correspondents
+have not yet made the result of their experiments known to me. The larvæ
+of _Samia cecropia, S. gloveri_, and _S. ceanothi_, are very much alike;
+and hardly any difference can be observed in the first two stages. In
+the third and fourth stages, the larvæ of _S. cecropia_ and _S. gloveri_
+are also nearly alike; the principal difference between these two
+species and _S. cecropia_ being that the tubercles on the back are of a
+uniform color--orange-red, or yellow--while on Cecropia the first four
+dorsal tubercles are red, and the rest yellow. The tubercles on the
+sides are blue on the three species.
+
+The larvæ of the hybrids _Gloveri-cecropia_ were, as far as I could
+observe, like those of Cecropia, but I noticed some with six red
+tubercles on the back instead of four, as on Cecropia. They were reared
+on plum, apple, and _Salix caprea_; in the open air.
+
+The larvæ of _Samia gloveri_ were reared, during the first four stages
+on a wild plum-tree, then on _Salix, caprea_, and I reproduce the notes
+taken on this species, which I bred this year (1881) for the first time.
+
+Gloveri moths emerged from the 15th of May to the end of June; five
+pairings took place as follows: 1st, 4th, 9th, 24th, and 26th of June.
+First stage--larvæ quite black. Second stage--larvæ orange, with black
+spines. Third stage--dorsal spines, orange-red; spines on sides blue.
+Fourth stage--dorsal spines, orange or yellow, spines on the sides blue;
+body light blue on the back, and greenish yellow on the sides; head,
+green; legs, yellow. Fifth and sixth stage--larvæ nearly the same;
+tubercles on the back yellow, the first four having a black ring at the
+base; side tubercles ivory-white, with a dark-blue base.
+
+The above-mentioned American species, like most other silk-producing
+bombyces, were bred in the open air; but besides these, I reared three
+other species of American bombyces in the house, under glass, and with
+the greatest success. These are: _Hyperchiria io_, a beautiful species
+mentioned in my report for the year 1879; _Orgyia leucostigma_, from ova
+received on December 29, 1880, from Madison, Wis., which hatched on the
+27th of May, 1881.
+
+The third American species reared under glass is the following very
+interesting bombyx: _Ceratocampa (Eacles) imperialis_. The pupæ of
+this species are rough, and armed with small, sharp points at all the
+segments; the last segment having a thick, straight, and bifid tail. The
+moths, which measure from four to about six inches in expanse of wings,
+are bright yellow, with large patches and round spots of reddish-brown,
+with a purple gloss; besides these patches and round spots, the wings
+are covered with small dark dots. The male moth is much more blotched
+than the female, and although of a smaller size, is much more showy than
+the female.
+
+With twenty-four pupæ of Imperialis I obtained nineteen moths from the
+21st of June to the 19th of July; five pupæ died. Two pairings took
+place; the first from the evening of the 13th to the morning of the
+14th; the second from the evening of the 15th to the morning of the 16th
+of July.
+
+The ova, which are about the size of those of Yama-mai, Pernyi, or
+Mylitta, are rather flat and concave on one side, of an amber-yellow
+color and transparent, like those of sphingidæ. When the larvæ have
+absorbed the yellow liquid in the egg, and are fully developed; they can
+be seen through the shell of the egg, which is white or colorless when
+the larva has come out.
+
+The larvæ of Imperialis, which have six stages, commenced to hatch on
+the 31st of July; the second stage commenced on the 7th of August; the
+third, on the 17th; the fourth, on the 29th of August; the fifth, on
+the 18th of September; and the sixth, on the 1st of October. The larvæ
+commenced to pupate on 13th of October.
+
+The larvæ of this curious species vary considerably in color. Some are
+of a yellowish color, others are brown and tawny, others are black or
+nearly black. My correspondent in Georgia, who bred this species the
+same season as I did, in 1881, had some of the larvæ that were green. In
+all the stages the larvæ have five conspicuous spines or horns; two on
+the third segment, two on the fourth, and one on the last segment but
+one; this is taking the head as the first segment with regard to the
+first four spines These spines are rough and covered with sharp points
+all round, and their extremities are fork-like. In the first three
+stages they are horny; in the last three stages these spines are fleshy,
+and much shorter in proportion than they are in the first three
+stages. The color of the spines in the last three stages is coral-red,
+yellowish, or black. In the fifth and sixth stages the spine on the last
+segment but one is very short.
+
+Here are a few and short notes from my book:
+
+1st stage. Larvæ, about one-third of an inch; head, brown, shiny, and
+globulous.
+
+2d stage. Larvæ, dark-brown, almost black; spines, white at the base,
+and black at the extremities; head shiny and light brown.
+
+3d stage. Larve, fine black; head black; white hairs on the back;
+spines, whitish, buff, or yellowish at the base, and black at the
+extremities; other larvæ of a brown color.
+
+4th stage. Larvæ, black granulated with white; long white hairs; horns,
+brown-orange with white tips; on each segment two brown spots. Spiracles
+well marked with outer circle, brown, then black; white and black dot in
+the center. Anal segment with brown ribs, the intervals black with white
+dots; head shining, black with two brown bands on the face, forming a
+triangle. Other larvæ in fourth stage, velvety black, with coral-red
+spines; others with black spines.
+
+5th stage. Larvæ, entirely black, with showy eye-like spiracles,
+polished black head; other larvæ having the head brown and black. Larvæ
+covered with long white hair; spines black or red. No difference noticed
+between the fifth and sixth stages.
+
+One larva on fourth stage was different from all others, and was
+described at the British Museum by Mr. W. F. Kirby as follows: "Larva
+reddish-brown, sparingly clothed with long slender white hairs, with
+four reddish stripes on the face, two rows of red spots on the back,
+spiracles surrounded with yellow, black and red rings; legs red, prolegs
+black, spotted with red. On segments three and four are four long
+coral-red fleshy-branched spines, two on each segment, below which, on
+each side, are two rudimentary ones just behind the head; in front of
+segment two are four similar rudimentary orange spines or tubercles;
+last segment black, strongly granulated and edges triangularly above and
+at the sides, with coral-red; several short rudimentary fleshy spines
+rising from the red portion; the last segment but one is reddish above,
+with a short red spine in the middle, and the one before it has a long
+coral-red spine in the middle similar to those of segments three and
+four, but shorter"
+
+As soon as my Imperialis larvæ had hatched, I gave them various kinds of
+foliage, plane-tree, oak, pine, sallow, etc. At first they did not touch
+any kind of foliage, or they did not seem to touch any; and I was afraid
+I should be unable to rear them; but on the second or third day of their
+existence, they made up their minds and decided upon eating the foliage
+of some of the European trees I had offered them. They attacked oak,
+sallow, and pine, but did not touch the plane-tree leaves. In America,
+the larvæ of Imperialis feed on button-wood, which is the American
+plane-tree (_Platanus occidentalis_), yet they did not take to _Platanus
+orientalis_. After a little time I reduced the foliage to oak and sallow
+branches, and ultimately gave them the sallow (_Salix caprea_) only, on
+which they thrived very well. I was pleased with this success; as I had
+previously read in a volume of the "Naturalist's Library" a description
+of _Ceratocampa imperialis_, which ends as follows: "The caterpillars
+are not common, and are the most difficult to bring to perfection in
+confinement, as they will not eat in that situation; and, even if they
+change into a chrysalis, they die afterward."
+
+Before I finish with _C. imperialis_, I must mention a peculiar fact.
+During the first stage, and, I think, also during the second, several
+larvæ disappeared without leaving any traces. I also saw two smaller
+larvæ held tight by the hind claspers of two larger ones. The larvæ thus
+held and pressed were perfectly dead when I observed them, and I removed
+them. My impression then was that these larvae were carnivorous, not
+from this last fact alone, as I had previously observed it with larvæ
+of Catocalæ when they are too crowded, but from the fact that some had
+disappeared entirely from the glass under which they were confined. I
+began to reduce their numbers, and put six only under each glass, so as
+to be able to watch them better. Whether I had made a mistake or not
+previously to this I do not exactly know; but from this moment the
+larvae behaved in a most exemplary manner, especially when they became
+larger. They crawled over each other's backs without the least sign of
+spite or animosity, even when they were in sleep, in which case larvæ
+are generally very sensitive and irritable, all were of a most pacific
+nature. It is, therefore, with the greatest pleasure that, for want of
+sufficient evidence, I withdraw this serious charge of cannibalism which
+I first intended to bring against them.
+
+From what has been said respecting the rearing of exotic silk-producing
+bombyces, especially tropical species, it must have been observed
+that several difficulties, standing in the way of success, have to be
+overcome. The moths of North American species emerge regularly enough
+during the months of May, June, or July, but Indian and other tropical
+species may emerge at any time of the year, if the weather is mild, as
+has been the case during this unusually mild winter of 1881-1882. From
+the end of December to the present time (March 14, 1882) moths of four
+species of Indian silk-producers, especially _Antheræa roylei_ and
+_Actias selene_, have constantly emerged, but only one or two at a time.
+These moths emerged from cocoons received in December and January last.
+
+It is only when these tropical species shall have been already reared in
+Europe that the emergence of the moths will be regular; then they will
+be single-brooded in Northern or Central Europe, and some will very
+likely become double-brooded in Southern Europe. But when just imported
+the moths of these tropical species will always be uncertain and
+irregular in their emergence; hence the importance of having a
+sufficient number of cocoons so as to meet this difficulty, i.e., the
+loss of the moths that emerge prematurely or irregularly.
+
+Before I conclude, I shall repeat what I already stated in a previous
+report, that the sending of live cocoons and pupæ from India and other
+distant countries to Europe, can easily be done, so that they will
+arrive alive and in good condition, if care be taken that the boxes
+containing these live cocoons and pupæ should not be left in the sun or
+near a fire (which has been the case before), and that they should at
+once be put in a cool place or in the ice-room of the steamer. The
+cocoons and pupæ should be sent from October to March or April,
+according to distance, and it is most important to write on the cases,
+"Living silkworm cocoons or pupæ, the case to be placed in the ice
+room."
+
+By taking this simple precaution, live cocoons and pupæ, when newly
+formed, can be safely sent from very distant countries of Europe.
+
+To continue these interesting and useful studies, I shall always be glad
+to buy any number of live cocoons, or exchange them for other species,
+if preferable.
+
+ALFRED WAILLY.
+
+110 Clapham Road, London, S.W.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MOSQUITO OIL.
+
+
+A correspondent from Sheepshead Bay, a place celebrated for the size of
+its mosquitoes and the number of its amateur fishermen, recommends the
+following as a very good mixture for anointing the face and hands while
+fishing:
+
+  Oil of tar.           1 ounce.
+  Olive oil.            1 ounce.
+  Oil of pennyroyal.    ½ ounce.
+  Spirit of camphor.    ½ ounce.
+  Glycerine.            ½ ounce.
+  Carbolic acid.        2 drachms.
+
+Mix. Shake well before using.--_Drug. Circular_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS.
+
+
+This most remarkable structure, in the province of the same name, adorns
+the city of Burgos, 130 miles north of Madrid. The corner stone was laid
+July 20, A.D. 1221, by Fernando III., and his Queen Beatrice, assisted
+by Archbishop Mauricio. The world is indebted to Mauricio for the
+selection of the site, and for the general idea and planning of what he
+intended should be, and in fact now is, the finest temple of worship in
+the world. This immense stone structure, embellished with airy columns,
+pointed arches, statues, inscriptions, delicate crestings, and flanked
+by two needles or aerial arrows, rises toward the heavens, a sublime
+invocation of Christian genius.
+
+Illuminated by the morning sun it appears, at a certain distance, as if
+the pyramids were floating in space; further on is seen the marvelous
+dome of the transept, crowned with eight towers of chiseled lace-work,
+over the center of the church.
+
+Pubic worship was held in a portion of the edifice nine years after the
+work was begun; from that time onward for three hundred years, various
+additional portions were completed. On March 4, 1539, the great
+transept, built fifty years previous, fell down; but was soon restored.
+August 16, 1642, at 6½ o'clock, P.M., a furious hurricane overthrew the
+eight little towers that form the exterior corner of the dome; but in
+two years they were replaced, namely July 19, 1644: the same night the
+great bells sounded an alarm of fire, the transept having in some way
+become ignited. The activity of the populace, however, prevented the
+loss of the edifice, which for a time was in great danger.
+
+The first architect publicly mentioned in the archives of the edifice
+was the Master Enrique. He also directed the work of the Cathedral of
+Leon. He died July 10, 1277. The second architect was Juan Perez, who
+died in 1296, and was buried in the cloister, under the cathedral. He is
+believed to have been either the son or brother of the celebrated Master
+Pedro Perez, who designed the Cathedral of Toledo, and who died in 1299.
+The third architect of the Cathedral of Burgos was Pedro Sanchez, who
+directed the work in 1384; after him followed Juan Sanchez de Molina,
+Martin Fernandez, the three Colonias, Juan de Vallejo, Diego de Siloe,
+the elder Nicolas de Vergara, Matienzo, Pieredonda, Gil, Regines, and
+others. It is worthy of note that a number of Moorish architects were
+employed on the work during the 14th and 15th centuries, such as
+Mohomad, Yunce, the Master Hali, the Master Mahomet de Aranda, the
+Master Yunza de Carrion, the Master Carpenter Brahen. Among the figure
+sculptors employed were Juan Sanchez de Fromesta, the Masters Gil and
+Copin, the famous Felipe de Vigardi, Juan de Lancre, Anton de Soto, Juan
+de Villareal, Pedro de Colindres, and many others. Our engraving is from
+a recent number of _La Ilustracion Espanola y Americana_.
+
+[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS, SPAIN.--PHOTOGRAPH BY DE
+LAURENT.--DRWAWING BY M. HEBERT.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PANAMA CANAL.
+
+By MANUEL EISSLER, M.E., of San Francisco, Cal.
+
+I.
+
+HISTORICAL NOTES.
+
+
+When Cortez, in the year 1530, made the observation that the two great
+oceans could be seen from the peaks of mountains, he, in those remote
+days, preoccupied himself with the question to cut through the
+Cordilleras.
+
+Therefore, the idea of an interoceanic canal is by no means a modern
+one, as travelers and navigators observed that there was a great
+depression among the hills of the Isthmus of Panama. As Professor T.E.
+Nurse, of the U.S.N., says in his memoirs:
+
+"This problem of interoceanic communication has been justly said to
+possess not only practical value, but historical grandeur. It clearly
+links itself back to the era of the conquest of Cortez, three and a half
+centuries." [1] It is a problem which has been left for our modern era
+to solve, but nevertheless its history is thereby rendered still more
+interesting, having needed so many centuries to bring it to an issue.
+
+[Footnote 1: From Prof. Nurse's historical essay. See Survey of
+Nicaragua Canal, by Com. Lull.]
+
+Spain, which acquired through her Columbus a new empire, lying near, as
+it was supposed, to the riches of Asia, could not be indifferent, from
+the moment of her discoveries, to the means of crossing these lands to
+yet richer ones beyond.
+
+India, from the days of Alexander and of the geographers, Mela, Strabo,
+and Ptolemy, was the land of promise, the home of the spices, the
+inexhaustible fountain of wealth. The old routes of commerce thither had
+been closed one by one to the Christians; the overland trade had fallen
+into the hands of the Arabs; and at the fall of Constantinople, 1453,
+the commerce of the Black Sea and of the Bosphorus, the last of the old
+routes to the East, finally failed the Christian world. Yet even beyond
+the fame of the East, which tradition had brought down from Greek and
+Roman, much more had the crusaders kindled for Asia (Cathay) and its
+riches an ardor not easily suppressed in men's minds.
+
+The error of the Spanish Admiral in supposing that the eastern shores
+of Asia extended 240 degrees east of Spain, or to the meridian of
+the modern San Diego, in California--this error, insisted on in his
+dispatches and adopted and continued by his followers, still further
+animated the earlier Spanish sovereigns and the men whom they sent into
+the New World to reach Asia by a short and easy route.
+
+Nobody in Europe dreamt that Columbus had discovered a new continent,
+and when Balbao, in 1513, discovered the South Sea, then it was known
+that Asia lay beyond, and navigators directed their course there. On
+his deathbed, in 1506, Columbus still held to his delusion that he had
+reached Zipanga, Japan. In 1501 he was exploring the coast of Veragua,
+in Central America, still looking for the Ganges, and announcing his
+being informed on this coast of a sea which would bear ships to the
+mouth of that river, while about the same time the Cabots, under Henry
+VII., were taking possession of Newfoundland, believing it to be part of
+the island coast of China.
+
+Although these were grave blunders in geography and in navigation, the
+discoveries really made in the rich tropical zones, the acquirement of
+a new world, and the rich products continually reaching Europe from it,
+for a time aroused Spain from her lethargy. The world opened east and
+west. The new routes poured their spices, silks, and drugs through new
+channels into all the Teutonic countries. The strong purposes of having
+near access to the East were deepened and perpetuated doubly strong, by
+the certainties before men's eyes of what had been attained.
+
+Balbao, in 1513, gained from a height on the Isthmus of Panama the first
+proof of its separation from Asia; and Magellan enters the South Sea
+at the southern extremity of the country, now first proven to be thus
+separate and a continent. Men in those days began to think that creation
+was doubled, and that such discovered lands must be separate from India,
+China, and Japan. And the very successes of the Portuguese under Vasco
+da Gama, bringing from their eastern course the expectancy of Asia's
+wealth, intensely excited the Spaniards to renew their western search.
+
+The Portuguese, led around the Cape of Good Hope, had brought home vast
+treasures from the East, while the Spanish discoverers, as yet, had not
+reached the countries either of Montezuma or of the Inca. Their success
+"troubled the sleep of the Spaniards."
+
+Everything, then, of personal ambition and national pride, the thirst
+for gold, the zeal of religious proselytism, and the cold calculations
+of state policy, now concurred in the disposition to sacrifice what
+Spain already had of most value on the American shores in order to seize
+upon a greater good, the Indies, still supposed to be near at hand. And
+since it was now certain that the new lands were not themselves Asia,
+the next aim was to find the secret of the narrow passage across
+them which must lead thither. The very configuration of the isthmus
+strengthened the belief in the existence of such a passage by the number
+of its openings, which seemed to invite entrance in the expectancy that
+some one of them must extend across the narrow breadth of land.
+
+For this the Spanish government, in 1514, gave secret orders to
+D'Avilla, Governor of Castila del Oro, and to Juan de Solis, the
+navigator, to determine whether Castila del Oro were an island, and to
+send to Cuba a chart of the coast, if any strait were possible. For
+this, De Solis visited Nicaragua and Honduras; and later, led far to the
+south, perished in the La Plata. For this, Magellan entered the straits,
+which, strangely enough, he affirmed before setting out, that he "would
+enter," since he "had seen them marked out on the geographer Martin
+Behaim's globe." For this, Cortez sent out his expeditions on both
+coasts, exposing his own life and treasure, and sending home to the
+emperor, in his second relation, a map of the entire Gulf of Mexico
+(Dispatch from Cortez to Charles V., October 15, 1524). For this great
+purpose, and in full expectancy of success in it, the whole coast of
+the New World on each side, from Newfoundland on the northeast, curving
+westward on the south, around the whole sweep of the Gulf of Mexico,
+thence to Magellan's Straits, and thence through them up the Pacific to
+the Straits of Behring, was searched and researched with diligence.
+"Men could not get accustomed," says Humboldt, "to the idea that the
+continent extended uninterruptedly both so far north and south." Hence
+all these large, numerous, and persevering expeditions by the European
+powers.
+
+Among them, by priority of right and by her energy, was Spain. The great
+emperor was urgent on the conqueror of Mexico, and on all in subordinate
+positions in New Spain, to solve the secret of the strait. All Spain was
+awakened to it. "How majestic and fair was she," says Chevalier, "in the
+sixteenth century; what daring, what heroism and perseverance! Never had
+the world seen such energy, activity, or good fortune. Hers was a will
+that regarded no obstacles. Neither rivers, deserts, nor mountains far
+higher than those in Europe, arrested her people. They built grand
+cities, they drew their fleets, as in a twinkling of the eye, from the
+very forests. A handful of men conquered empires. They seemed a race of
+giants or demi-gods. One would have supposed that all the work necessary
+to bind together climates and oceans would have been done at the word of
+the Spaniards as by enchantment, and since nature had not left a passage
+through the center of America, no matter, so much the better for
+the glory of the human race; they would make it up by artificial
+communication. What, indeed, was that for men like them? It were done
+at a word. Nothing else was left for them to conquer, and the world was
+becoming too small for them."
+
+Certainly, had Spain remained what she then was, what had been in vain
+sought from nature would have been supplied by man. A canal or several
+canals would have been built to take the place of the long-desired
+strait. Her men of science urged it. In 1551, Gomara, the author of the
+"History of the Indies," proposed the union of the oceans by three of
+the very same lines toward which, to this hour, the eye turns with hope.
+
+"It is true," said Gomara, "that mountains obstruct these passes, but if
+there are mountains there are also hands; let but the resolve be made,
+there will be no want of means; the Indies, to which the passage will
+be made, will supply them. To a king of Spain, with the wealth of the
+Indies at his command, when the object to be obtained is the spice
+trade, what is possible is easy.
+
+But the sacred fire suddenly burned itself out in Spain. The peninsula
+had for its ruler a prince who sought his glory in smothering free
+thought among his own people, and in wasting his immense resources in
+vain efforts to repress it also outside of his own dominions through all
+Europe. From that hour, Spain became benumbed and estranged from all
+the advances of science and art, by means of which other nations, and
+especially England, developed their true greatness.
+
+Even after France had shown, by her canal of the south, that boats could
+ascend and pass the mountain crests, it does not appear that the
+Spanish government seriously wished to avail itself of a like means of
+establishing any communication between her sea of the Antilles and the
+South Sea. The mystery enveloping the deliberations of the council of
+the Indies has not always remained so profound that we could not know
+what was going on in that body. The Spanish government afterward opened
+up to Humboldt free access to its archives, and in these he found
+several memoirs on the possibility of a union between the two oceans;
+but he says that in no one of them did he find the main point, the
+height of the elevations on the isthmus, sufficiently cleared up, and
+he could not fail to remark that the memoirs were exclusively French or
+English. Spain herself gave it no thought. Since the glorious age of
+Balbao among the people, indeed, the project of a canal was in every
+one's thoughts. In the very wayside talks, in the inns of Spain, when a
+traveler from the New World chanced to pass, after making him tell of
+the wonders of Lima and Mexico, of the death of the Inca, Atahualpa,
+and the bloody defeat of the Aztecs, and after asking his opinion of El
+Dorado, the question was always about the two oceans, and what great
+things would happen if they could succeed in joining them.
+
+During the whole of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Spain
+had need of the best mode of conveyance for her treasures across the
+isthmus. Yet those from Peru came by the miserable route from Panama to
+the deadliest of climates. Porto Bello and her European wares for
+her colonies toiled up the Chagres river, while the roughest of
+communication farther north connected the Chimalapa and the Guasacoalcos
+in Mexico, and the trade there was limited sternly to but one port on
+each side. As late as Humboldt's visit, in 1802, when remarking upon the
+"unnatural modes of communication" by which, through painful delays, the
+immense treasures of the New World passed from Acapulco, Guayaquil,
+and Lima, to Spain, he says: "These will soon cease whenever an active
+government, willing to protect commerce, shall construct a good road
+from Panama to Porto Bello. The aristocratic nonchalance of Spain, and
+her fear to open to strangers the way to the countries explored for her
+own profit, only kept those countries closed." The court forbade, on
+pain of death, the use of plans at different times proposed. They
+wronged their own colonies by representing the coasts as dangerous and
+the rivers impassable. On the presentation of a memoir for improving the
+route through Tehuantepec, by citizens of Oaxaca, as late as 1775,
+an order was issued forbidding the subject to be mentioned. The
+memorialists were censured as intermeddlers, and the viceroy fell under
+the sovereign's displeasure for having seemed to favor the plans.
+
+The great isthmus was, however, further explored by the Spanish
+government for its own purposes; the recesses were traversed, and the
+lines of communication which we know to-day were then noted.
+
+In addition to the fact that comparatively little was explored north or
+south of that which early became the main highway, the Panama route,
+there is confirmation here of the truth that Spain concealed and even
+falsified much of her generally accurately made surveys. No stronger
+proof of this need be asked than that which Alcedo gives in connection
+with the proposal by Gogueneche, the Biscayan pilot, to open
+communication by the Atrato and the Napipi. "The Atrato," says the
+historian, "is navigable for many leagues, but the navigation of it is
+prohibited under pain of death, without the exception of any person
+whatever."
+
+The Isthmus of Nicaragua has always invited serious consideration for
+a ship canal route by its very marked physical characteristics, among
+which is chiefly its great depression between two nearly parallel ranges
+of hills, which depression is the basin of its large lake, a natural and
+all-sufficient feeder for such a canal.
+
+In 1524 a squadron of discovery sent out by Cortez on the coast of the
+South Sea, announced the existence of a fresh water sea at only
+three leagues from the coast; a sea which, they said, rose and fell
+alternately, communicating, it was believed, with the Sea of the North.
+Various reconnoissances were therefore made, under the idea that here
+the easy transit would be established between Spain and the spice lands
+beyond.
+
+It was even laid down on some of the old maps, that this open
+communication by water existed from sea to sea; while later maps
+represented a river, under the name of Rio Partido, as giving one of
+its branches to the Pacific Ocean and the other to Lake Nicaragua. An
+exploration by the engineer, Bautista Antonelli, under the orders of
+Philip II., corrected the false idea of an open strait.
+
+In the eighteenth century a new cause arose for jealousy of her
+neighbors and for keeping her northern part of the isthmus from their
+view. In the years 1779 and 1780 the serious purposes of the English
+government for the occupancy of Nicaragua, awakened the solicitudes of
+the Spanish government for this section. The English colonels, Hodgson
+and Lee, had secretly surveyed the lake and portions of the country,
+forwarding their plans to London, as the basis of an armed incursion,
+to renew such as had already been made by the superintendent of the
+Mosquito coast, forty years before, when, crossing the isthmus, he took
+possession of Realejo, on the Pacific, seeking to change its name to
+Port Edward. In 1780, Captain, afterward Lord Nelson, under orders from
+Admiral Sir Peter Parker, convoyed a force of two thousand men to San
+Juan de Nicaragua, for the conquest of the country.
+
+In his dispatches, Nelson said: "In order to give facility to the great
+object of government, I intend to possess the lake of Nicaragua, which,
+for the present, may be looked upon as the inland Gibraltar of Spanish
+America. As it commands the only water pass between the oceans, its
+situation must ever render it a principal post to insure passage to the
+Southern Ocean, and by our possession of it Spanish America is severed
+into two."
+
+The passage of San Juan was found to be exceedingly difficult; for the
+seamen, although assisted by the Indians from Bluetown, scarcely forced
+their boats up the shoals. Nelson bitterly regretted that the expedition
+had not arrived in January, in place of the close of the dry season. It
+was a disastrous failure, costing the English the lives of one thousand
+five hundred men, and nearly losing to them their Nelson.
+
+At this period, Charles III., of Spain, sent a commission to explore the
+country. These commissioners reported unfavorably as regarded the route;
+but fearing further intrusion from England, forbade all access to the
+coast; even falsifying and suppressing its charts and permanently
+injuring the navigation of the San Juan and the Colorado by obstructions
+in their beds.
+
+It is, however, a relief here to learn that when Humboldt visited the
+New World, he could say: "The time is passed when Spain, through a
+jealous policy, refused to other nations a thoroughfare across the
+possessions of which they kept the whole world so long in ignorance.
+Accurate maps of the coasts, and even minute plans of military
+positions, are published." It is also true that the Spanish Cortes,
+in 1814, decreed the opening of a canal, a decree deferred and never
+executed.
+
+It was reserved for our century to see this great project carried into
+execution, and it is but just that as a chronicler of events I should
+connect with the Canal of Panama the name of a family who have done much
+to bring the scheme, so to say, into practical execution.
+
+As early as the year 1836, Mr. Joly de Sabla turned his views toward the
+cutting of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. He resided at the time
+on the Island of Guadeloupe, one of the French West India Islands,
+where he possessed large estates. Of a high social position, the
+representative of one of France's ancient and noble families, with large
+means at his disposal and of an enterprising spirit much in advance of
+his time, he was well calculated to carry out such a grand scheme.
+
+He soon set about procuring from the Government of New Granada (now
+Colombia) the necessary grants and concessions, but much time and many
+efforts were spent before these could be brought to a satisfactory
+condition, and it was not until the year 1841 that he could again visit
+the Isthmus, bringing with him this time, on a vessel chartered by him
+for the purpose, a corps of engineers and employes, medical staff, etc.,
+etc. After two years spent in exploring and surveying a country at that
+time very imperfectly known, he returned to Guadeloupe to find his
+residence and most of his estates destroyed by the terrible earthquake
+that visited the island in February, 1843.
+
+Undaunted by this unexpected and severe blow, Mr. De Sabla persisted in
+his efforts, and in the same year obtained from the French government
+the establishment of a Consulate at Panama to insure protection to the
+future canal company, and also the sending of two government engineers
+of high repute (Messrs. Garella and Courtines), to verify the surveys
+already made and complete them.
+
+After receiving the respective reports of Garella and Courtines, Mr.
+De Sabla decided upon first constructing a railway across the Isthmus,
+postponing the cutting of the canal until this indispensable auxiliary
+should have rendered it practicable and profitable. He then presented
+the scheme in that shape to his friends in Paris and London, and formed
+a syndicate of thirteen members, among whom we may recall the names of
+the well known Bankers Caillard of Paris, and Baimbridge of London,
+of Sir John Campbell, then Vice President of the Oriental Steamship
+Company, of Viscount Chabrol de Chameane, and of Courtines, the
+exploring engineer.
+
+A new contract was then entered upon with New Granada in June, 1847, and
+early in 1848, the Syndicate was about to forward to the Isthmus the
+expedition which was to execute the preliminary works, while the company
+was being finally organized in Paris, and its stock placed.
+
+The success of the undertaking seemed to be assured beyond peradventure,
+when the unexpected breaking out of the French revolution in February,
+1848, dashed all hopes to the ground. Several of the prominent
+financiers engaged in the affair, taken by surprise by the suddenness of
+the revolution, had to suspend their payments and of course to withdraw
+from the Panama Canal and railroad scheme. Others withdrew from
+contagious fear and timidity. Finally the term fixed for carrying out
+certain obligations of the contract expired without their fulfillment
+by the company, and the concession was forfeited. Another contract was
+almost immediately applied for and granted with unseemly haste by the
+President of New Granada to Messrs. Aspinwall, Stephens and Chauncey,
+which resulted in the construction of the actual Panama Railroad.
+
+These gentlemen acted fairly in the matter, and in 1849, calling Mr.
+De Sabla to New York, offered him to join them in the new scheme.
+Unfortunately they had decided upon placing the Atlantic terminus of the
+railroad upon the low and swampy mud Island of Manzanillo, while Mr.
+De Sabla insisted on having it on the mainland on the dry and healthy
+northern shore of the Bay of Limon. They could not come to an
+understanding on this point, and Mr. De Sabla, whose experience and
+foresight taught him the dangers that would result to the shipping from
+the unprotected situation of the projected part (now Colon--Aspinwall),
+and who well knew the insalubrity of the malarial swamp constituting
+the Island of Manzanillo, withdrew forever from the undertaking, after
+having devoted to it without any benefit to himself, the best years of
+his life and a large portion of his private means.
+
+One of his sons, Mr. Theodore J. de Sabla, after having actively
+co-operated with Lieutenant Commander Wyse, in the original scheme
+of the present canal company, is now one of Count de Lesseps's
+representatives in the City of New York, and a director of the Panama
+Railroad Company.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED AVERAGING MACHINE.
+
+
+At the recent meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers, in
+this city, a paper on an improved form of the averaging machine was read
+by its inventor, Mr. Wm. S. Auchincloss.
+
+The ingenious method by which the weight of the platform is eliminated
+from the result of the work of the machine was exhibited and explained.
+This is accomplished by counterweights sliding automatically in tubes,
+so that in any position the unloaded platform is always in equilibrium.
+Any combination of representative weights can then be placed on this
+platform at the proper points of the scale. By then drawing the platform
+to its balancing point, the location of the center of gravity will at
+once be indicated on the scale by the pointer over the central trunnion.
+
+The weights may be arranged on a decimal system, with intermediate
+weights for closer working, or they may be made so as to express
+multiples or factors.
+
+Each machine is provided with a number of differing scales, divided
+suitably for various purposes. When the problem is one of time, the
+scale represents months and days; for problems of proportion, the zero
+of the scale is at the center of its length; for problems for the
+location of center of gravity of a system from a fixed point, the zero
+is at the extremity of the scale, etc.
+
+The machine exhibited has sixty-three transverse grooves, which, by
+arrangement of weights, can be made to serve the purposes of two hundred
+and fifty-two grooves.
+
+The machine is 29 inches in length, 9 inches in width, and weighs about
+13 pounds.
+
+With the machine can be found average dates, as, for instance, of
+purchases and of payments extending over irregular periods; also average
+prices, as for "futures," in comman use among cotton brokers. The
+problem of average haul, so often presented to the engineer, can be
+solved with ease and great celerity. Practical examples of the solution
+of these and a number of other problems involving proportions or
+averages were given by the author.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+COMPOUND BEAM ENGINE.
+
+
+The engine represented in Figs. 1 to 4 herewith is intended for a mill,
+and is of 530 to 800 indicated horse-power, the pressure being seven
+atmospheres, and the number of revolutions forty-five per minute. As
+will be seen by the drawing each cylinder is placed in a separate
+foundation plate, the two connecting rods acting upon cranks keyed
+at right angles upon the shaft, W, which carries the drum, T. The
+high-pressure cylinder, C, is 760 mm diameter, the low pressure cylinder
+being 1,220 mm. diameter, and the piston speed 2.28 m. The drum, which
+also fulfills the purpose of a fly wheel, is provided with twenty-eight
+grooves for ropes of 50 mm. diameter. With the exception of the
+cylinders, pistons, valves, and valve chests, the engines are of the
+same size, corresponding to the equal maximum pressures which come into
+action in each cylinder, and in this respect alone the engine differs in
+principle from an ordinary twin machine.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 1]
+
+The steam passes from the stop-valve, A, Fig. 4, through the steam pipe,
+D, to the high pressure cylinder, C, and having done its work, goes into
+the receiver, R, where it is heated. From the receiver it is led into
+the low-pressure cylinder, C1, and thence into the condenser. Provision
+is made for working both engines independently with direct steam when
+desired, suitable gear being provided for supplying steam of the proper
+pressure to the condensing engine, so that each engine shall perform
+exactly the same amount of work. The starting gear consists of a
+hand-wheel, H, which controls the stop valve, A, and of another h, which
+opens the valves for the jackets of the cylinders and receiver. The
+hand-wheel, h1 and h2, govern the valves, which turn the steam direct
+into the two cylinders. There are also lever, g, which opens the
+principal injection cock, H1, and the auxiliary injection cock, H2, the
+function of which is to assist in forming a speedy vacuum, when the
+engine has been standing for some time.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 2]
+
+The drum is 6.08 m. diameter, the breadth being 2.04 m., with a total
+weight of 33,000 kilos. The beams are of cast iron with balance weights
+cast on. The connecting rods and cross beams are of wrought iron, and
+the cranks, crank shaft, piston rods, valve rods, etc., of steel. The
+bed-plate for the main shaft bearings are cast in one piece with the
+standards for the beam, which are connected firmly together by the
+center bearing, M M1, which is cast in one piece, and also by the
+diagonal bracing piece, N N1. The construction of the cylinder and valve
+chests is shown in Fig. 1. The working cylinder is in the form of a
+liner to the cylinder, thus forming the steam jacket, with a view to
+future renewal. This lining has a flange at the lower part for bolting
+it down, being made steam-tight by the intervention of a copper packing
+ring. There is a similar ring at the upper part which is pressed down by
+the cylinder cover. The latter is cast hollow and strengthened by ribs.
+The pistons are provided with cast iron double self-expanding packing
+rings. For preventing accidents by condensed water, spring safety
+valves, ss and s1 s1, are connected to the valve chests. The valve gear,
+which is arranged in the same manner for both cylinders, is actuated
+by shafts, w and w1, rotated by toothed wheels as shown. Motion is
+communicated from the way-shafts, w and w1, by the eccentrics, and the
+eccentric rods, e1 e2 e3 e4, and the levers and rods belonging thereto,
+to the short steam valve rocking shafts levers, f1 f2 f3 f4, and the
+exhaust valve rocking shafts, k1 k2 k3 k4, the bearings of which are
+carried on brackets above the valve chests, which, being furnished with
+tappet levers, raise and lower the valves.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 3]
+
+The valves are conical, double-seated, and of cast iron, and the inlet
+and outlet valves are placed the one above the other, the seats being
+also conically ground and inserted through the cover of the valve chest.
+Both inlet and outlet valves are actuated from above, and are removable
+upward, an arrangement which admits of the valves being more easily
+examined than when the two are actuated from different sides of the
+valve chest. To carry out this idea the inlet valves are furnished with
+two guides, which, passing upward through the stuffing-box, are attached
+to a hard steel cross piece, which receives the action of a bent catch
+turning on a pin attached to the levers, t1, t2, t3, t4. The exhaust
+valves, on the contrary, have only one guide each, which passes upward
+through the seat of the admission valve, through the valve itself by
+means of a collar, and through the stuffing-box. It is furnished with
+hard steel armatures, through which the levers, z1 z2, Fig. 3, act upon
+the exhaust valves.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 4]
+
+The governor effects the acceleration or retardation of the loosening of
+the catch actuating the steam valve by means of hard steel projections
+on the shaft, v1, the position of which, by means of levers, is
+regulated by the governor, which in its highest position does not allow
+the lifting of the inlet valve at all. The regulation of the expansion
+by the governor from 0 to 0.45 takes place generally only in the case of
+the high-pressure cylinder, while the low-pressure cylinder has a fixed
+rate of expansion. Only when the low-pressure cylinder is required
+to work with steam direct from the boiler is the governor applied to
+regulate the expansion in it. An exact action in the valve guides and
+a regular descent is secured by furnishing them with small dash pot
+pistons working in cylinders. Into them the air is readily admitted by
+a small India-rubber valve, but the passage out again is controlled at
+pleasure.--_The Engineer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TO DETECT ALKALIES IN NITRATE OF SILVER--Stolba recommends the salt
+to be dissolved in the smallest quantity of water, and to add to
+the filtered solution hydrofluosilicic acid, drop by drop. Should a
+turbidity appear an alkaline salt is present. But should the liquid
+remain limpid, an equal volume of alcohol is to be added, which will
+cause a precipitate in case the slightest trace of an alkali be present.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POWER HAMMERS WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.
+
+[Footnote: Paper read before the Institution of Mechanical
+Engineers.--_Engineering_.]
+
+By DANIEL LONGWORTH, of London.
+
+
+The movable-fulcrum power hammer was designed by the writer about five
+and a half years ago, to meet a want in the market for a power hammer
+which, while under the complete control of only one workman, could
+produce blows of varying forces without alteration in the rapidity with
+which they were given. It was also necessary that the vibration and
+shock of the hammer head should not be transmitted to the driving
+mechanism, and that the latter should be free from noise and liability
+to derangement. The various uses to which the movable fulcrum hammers
+have been put, and their success in working[1]--as well as the
+importance of the general subject which includes them, namely, the
+substitution of stored power for human effort--form the author's excuse
+for now occupying the time of the meeting.
+
+[Footnote 1: The hammers have been for some years used by A. Bamlett, of
+Thirsk; the American Tool Company, of Antwerp; Messrs. W.&T. Avery, of
+Birmingham; Pullar & Sons, of Perth; Salter & Co., of West Bromwich;
+Vernon Hope & Co., of Wednesbury, etc.; and also for stamps by Messrs.
+Collins & Co., of Birmingham, etc.]
+
+Until these hammers were introduced, no satisfactory method had been
+devised for altering the force of the blow. The plan generally adopted
+was to have either a tightening pulley acting on the driving belt, a
+friction driving clutch, or a simple brake on the driving pulley, put in
+action by the hand or foot of the workman. Heavy blows were produced
+by simply increasing the number of blows per minute (and therefore the
+velocity), and light blows by diminishing it--a plan which was quite
+contrary to the true requirements of the case. To prevent the shock
+of the hammer head being communicated to the driving gear, an elastic
+connection was usually formed between them, consisting of a steel spring
+or a cushion of compressed air. With the steel spring, the variation
+which could be given in the thickness of the work under the hammer was
+very limited, owing to the risk of breaking the spring; but with the
+compressed air or pneumatic connection the work might vary considerably
+in thickness, say from 0 to 8 in. with a hammer weighing 400lb. The
+pneumatic hammers had a crank, with a connecting rod or a slotted
+crossbar on the piston-rod, a piston and a cylinder which formed the
+hammer-head. The piston-rod was packed with a cup leather, or with
+ordinary packing, the latter required to be adjusted with the greatest
+nicety, otherwise the piston struck the hammer before lifting it, or
+else the force of the blow was considerably diminished. As the piston
+moved with the same velocity during its upward and downward strokes,
+and, in the latter, had to overtake and outrun the hammer falling under
+the action of gravity, the air was not compressed sufficiently to give
+a sharp blow at ordinary working speeds, and a much heavier hammer was
+required than if the velocity of the piston had been accelerated to a
+greater degree.
+
+As it is impossible in the limits of this paper to describe all the
+forms in which the movable fulcrum hammers have been arranged, two types
+only will be selected taken from actual work; namely, a small planishing
+hammer, and a medium-sized forging hammer.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: To the makers, Messrs. J. Scott Rawlings & Co, of
+Birmingham, the author is indebted for the working drawings of these
+hammers.]
+
+The small planishing hammer, Figs. 1 to 3, next page, is used for
+copper, tin, electro, and iron plate, for scythes, and other thin work,
+for which it is sufficient to adjust the force of the blow once for all
+by hand, according to the thickness and quality of the material before
+commencing to hammer it. The hammer weighs 15 lb., and has a stroke
+variable from 2½ in. to 9½ in., and makes 250 blows per minute. The
+driving shaft, A, is fitted with fast and loose belt pulleys, the belt
+fork being connected to the pedal, P, which when pressed down by the
+foot of the workman, slides the driving belt on to the fast pulley and
+starts the hammer; when the foot is taken off the pedal, the weight on
+the latter moves the belt quickly on to the loose pulley, and the hammer
+is stopped. The flywheel on the shaft, A, is weighted on one side,
+so that it causes the hammer to stop at the top of its stroke after
+working; thus enabling the material to be placed on the anvil before
+starting the hammer. The movable fulcrum, B, consists of a stud, free to
+slide in a slot, C, in the framing, and held in position by a nut and
+toothed washer. On the fulcrum is mounted the socket, D, through which
+passes freely a round bar or rocking lever, E, attached at one end to
+the main piston, F, of the hammer, G, and having at the other extremity
+a long slide, H, mounted upon it. This slide is carried on the
+crank-pin, I, fastened to the disk, J, attached to the driving shaft, A.
+The crank-pin, in revolving, reciprocates the rocking lever, E, and
+main piston, F, and through the medium of the pneumatic connection, the
+hammer, G. The slide, H, in revolving with the crank-pin, also moves
+backward and forward along the rocking lever, approaching the fulcrum,
+B, during the down-stroke of the hammer, and receding from it during
+the up-stroke. By this means the velocity of the hammer is considerably
+accelerated in its downward stroke, causing a sharp blow to be given
+while it is gently raised during its upward stroke.
+
+To alter the force of the blow, the hammer, G, is made to rise and fall
+through a greater or less distance, as may be required, from the fixed
+anvil block, K, after the manner of the smith giving heavy or light
+blows on his anvil. It is evident that this special alteration of the
+stroke could not be obtained by altering the throw of a simple crank and
+connecting rod; but by placing the slot, C, parallel with the direction
+of the rocking lever, E, when the latter is in its lowest position, with
+the hammer resting on the anvil, and with the crank at the top of its
+stroke, this lowest position of the rocking lever and hammer is made
+constant, no matter what position the fulcrum, B, may have in the slot,
+C. To obtain a short stroke, and consequently a light blow, the fulcrum
+is moved in the slot toward the hammer, G; and to produce a long stroke
+and heavy blow the fulcrum is moved in the opposite direction.
+
+Fig. 3 gives the details of the pneumatic connection between the main
+piston and the hammer, in which packing and packing glands are dispensed
+with. The hammer, G, is of cast steel, bored out to fit the main piston,
+F, the latter being also bored out to receive an internal piston, L. A
+pin, M, passing freely through slots in the main piston, F, connects
+rigidly the internal piston, L, with the hammer, G. When the main piston
+is raised by the rocking lever, the air in the space, X, between the
+main and internal pistons, is compressed, and forms an elastic medium
+for lifting the hammer; when the main piston is moved down, the air in
+the space, Y, is compressed in its turn, and the hammer forced down to
+give the blow. Two holes drilled in the side of the hammer renew the air
+automatically in the spaces, X and Y, at each blow of the hammer.
+
+Figs. 4 to 6, on the next page, represent the medium size forging
+hammer, for making forgings in dies, swaging and tilting bars, and
+plating edged tools, etc.
+
+The hammer weighs 1 cwt., has a stroke variable from 4 in. to 14½ in.,
+and gives 200 blows per minute; the compressed air space between the
+main piston and the hammer is sufficiently long to admit forgings up to
+3 in. thick under the hammer.
+
+To make forgings economically, it is necessary to bring them into the
+desired form by a few heavy blows, while the material is still in a
+highly plastic condition, and then to finish them by a succession of
+lighter blows. The heavy blows should be given at a slower rate than the
+lighter ones, to allow time for turning the work in the dies or on the
+anvil, and so to avoid the risk of spoiling it. In forging with the
+steam hammer the workman requires an assistant, who, with the lever
+of the valve motion in hand, obeys his directions as to starting and
+stopping, heavy or light blows, slow or quick blows, etc; the quickest
+speed attainable depending on the speed of the arm of the assistant.
+In the movable-fulcrum forging hammer the operations of starting and
+stopping, and the giving of heavy or light blows, are under the complete
+control of one foot of the workman, who requires therefore no assistant;
+and by properly proportioning the diameter of the driving pulley and
+size of belt to the hammer, the heavy blows are given at a slower rate
+than the light ones, owing to the greater resistance which they offer to
+the driving belt.
+
+In this hammer the pneumatic connection, the arrangements for the
+starting, stopping, and holding up of the hammer, as well as those for
+communicating the motion of the crank-pin to the hammer by means of
+a rocking lever and movable fulcrum, are similar to those in the
+planishing hammer, differing only in the details, which provide double
+guides and bearings for the principal working parts.
+
+[Illustration: LONGWORTH'S POWER HAMMER WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.]
+
+The movable fulcrum, B, Figs. 4 and 5, consists of two adjustable steel
+pins, attached to the fulcrum lever, Q, and turned conical where they
+fit in the socket, D. The fulcrum lever is pivoted on a pin, R, fixed in
+the framing of the machine, and is connected at its lower extremity
+to the nut, S, in gear with the regulating screw, T. The to-and-fro
+movement of the fulcrum lever, Q, by which heavy or light blows are
+given by the hammer, is placed under the control of the foot of the
+workman, in the following manner: U is a double-ended forked lever,
+pivoted in the center, and having one end embracing the starting pedal,
+P, and the other end the small belt which connects the fast pulley
+on the driving shaft, A, with the loose pulley, V, or the reversing
+pulleys, W and X. These are respectivly connected with the bevel wheels,
+W_{1}, and X_{1}, gearing into and placed at opposite sides of the bevel
+wheel, Z, on the regulating screw in connection with the fulcrum lever.
+When the workman places his foot on the pedal, P, to start the hammer,
+he finds his foot within the fork of the lever, U; and by slightly
+turning his foot round on his heel he can readily move the forked
+lever to right or left, so shifting the small belt on to either of the
+reversing pulleys, W or X, and causing the regulating screw, T, to
+revolve in either direction. The fulcrum lever is thus caused to move
+forward or backward, to give light or heavy blows. By moving the forked
+lever into mid position, the small belt is shifted into its usual place
+on the loose pulley, V, and the fulcrum remains at rest. To fix the
+lightest and heaviest blow required for each kind of work, adjustable
+stops are provided, and are mounted on a rod, Y, connected to an arm of
+the forked lever. When the nut of the regulating screw comes in contact
+with either of the stops, the forked lever is forced into mid position,
+in spite of the pressure of the foot of the workman, and thus further
+movement of the fulcrum lever, in the direction which it was taking,
+is prevented. The movable fulcrum can also be adjusted by hand to any
+required blow, when the hammer is stopped, by means of a handle in
+connection with the regulating screw.
+
+In conclusion the author wishes to direct attention to the fact, that in
+many of our largest manufactories, particularly in the midland counties,
+foot and hand labor for forging and stamping is still employed to an
+enormous extent. Hundreds of "Olivers," with hammers up to 60 lb. in
+weight, are laboriously put in motion by the foot of the workman, at a
+speed averaging fifty blows per minute; while large numbers of stamps,
+worked by hand and foot, and weighing up to 120 lb., are also employed.
+The low first cost of the foot hammers and stamps, combined with the
+system of piece work, and the desire of manufacturers to keep their
+methods of working secret, have no doubt much to do with the small
+amount of progress that has been made; although in a few cases
+competition, particularly with the United States of America, has forced
+the manufacturer to throw the Oliver and hand-stamp aside, and to employ
+steam power hammers and stamps. The writer believes that in connection
+with forging and stamping processes there is still a wide and profitable
+field for the ingenuity and capital of engineers, who choose to
+occupy themselves with this minor, but not the less useful, branch of
+mechanics.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACES APPLIED TO THE PUDDLING OF IRON.
+
+
+Since the year 1872, the large iron works at Ougrée, near Liege, have
+applied the Bicheroux system of furnaces to heating, and, since the
+year 1877, to puddling. The results that have been obtained in this
+last-named application are so satisfactory that it appears to us to be
+of interest to speak of the matter in some detail.
+
+The apparatus, which is shown in the opposite page, consists of three
+distinct parts: (1) a gas generator; (2) a mixing chamber into which
+the gases and air are drawn by the natural draught, and wherein the
+combustion of the gases begins; and (3) a furnace, or laboratory (not
+represented in the figure), wherein the combustion is nearly finished,
+and wherein take place the different reactions of puddling. These three
+parts are given dimensions that vary according to the composition of the
+different coals, and they may be made to use any sort of coal, even
+the fine and schistose kinds which would not be suitable for ordinary
+puddling. The gases and the air necessary for the combustion of these
+being brought together at different temperatures, and being drawn into
+the mixing chamber through the same chimney, it will be seen that the
+dimensions of the flues that conduct them should vary with the kind of
+coal used; and the manner in which the gases are brought together is not
+a matter of indifference.
+
+[Illustration: THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACE.
+
+Vertical Section, and Horizontal Section through MNOPQR]
+
+The gas generator consists of a hopper, A, into which drops, through
+small apertures a, the coal piled up on the platform, D. These apertures
+are closed with coal or bricks. The bottom of the generator is formed of
+a small standing grate. The coal, on falling upon a mass in a state of
+ignition, distills and becomes transformed into coke, which gradually
+slides down over a grate to produce afterward, through its own
+combustion, a distillation of the coal following it. But as these are
+features found in all generators we will not dwell upon them.
+
+The gases that are produced flow through a long horizontal flue, B, into
+a vertical conduit, E, into which there debouches at the upper part a
+series of small orifices, F, that conduct the air that has been heated.
+The gases are inflamed, and traverse the furnace c (not shown in the
+cut), from whence they go to the chimney. Before the air is allowed to
+reach the intervening chamber it is made to pass into the sole of the
+furnace and into the walls of the chamber, so that to the advantage of
+having the air heated there is joined the additional one of having those
+portions of the furnace cooled that cannot be heated with impunity.
+
+The incompletely burned gases that escape from the furnace are utilized
+in heating the boilers of the establishment. The dimensions given these
+furnaces vary greatly according to the charge to be used. All the
+results at Ougrée have been obtained with 400 kilogramme charges,
+and the dimensions of the gas generators have been calculated for
+Six-Bonniers coal, which does not yield over 20 per cent. of gas.
+
+The advantages of this system, which permits of expediting all the
+operations of puddling, are as follows:
+
+1. A notable economy in fuel, both as regards quantity and quality.
+
+2. Economy resulting from diminution in the waste of metal, with a
+consequent improvement in the quality of the products obtained.
+
+3. Diminution in cost of repairs.
+
+4. Less rapid wear in the grates.
+
+5. Improvement in the conditions of the work of puddling.
+
+As regards the first of these advantages, it may be stated that the
+puddling of ordinary Ougrée forge iron, which required with other
+furnaces 900 to 1,000 kilogrammes of coal, is now performed with less
+than 600 kilogrammes per ton of the iron produced. The puddling of fine
+grained iron which required 1,300 to 1,500 kilogrammes of coal is now
+done with 800. So much for quantity; as for quality the system presents
+also a very marked advantage in that it requires no rolling coal--the
+operation of the furnace being just as regular with fine coal, even that
+sifted through screens of 0.02 meter.
+
+The second class of advantages naturally results from the almost
+complete prevention of access of cold air. The saving in wastage amounts
+to 3 or 4 per cent., that is to say, 100 kilogrammes of iron produced is
+accompanied by a loss of only 9 to 10 kilogrammes, instead of 13 to 15
+as ordinarily reckoned.
+
+The diminution in the cost of repairs is due to the fact that the
+furnace doors, of which there are two, permit of easy access to all
+parts of the sole; moreover, the coal never coming in contact with the
+fire-bridges, the latter last much longer than those in other styles of
+furnaces, and can be used for several weeks without the necessity of
+the least repair. The reduced wear of the grates results from the low
+temperature that can be used in the furnace, and the quantity of clinker
+that can be left therein without interfering with its operation, thus
+permitting of having the grates always black. These latter in no wise
+change, and after five months of work the square bars still preserve
+their sharpness of edges.
+
+As for the improvements in the conditions of the work of puddling, it
+may be stated that with a uniform price per 100 kilogrammes for all the
+furnaces, the laborers working at the gas furnaces can earn 25 to 30 per
+cent. more than those working at ordinary furnaces.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GESSNER'S CONTINUOUS CLOTH-PRESSING MACHINE.
+
+
+It is well known that there are several serious drawbacks in the usual
+plan of pressing woolen or worsted cloths and felts with press plates,
+press papers, and presses. Three objections of great weight may be
+mentioned, and events in Leeds give emphasis to a fourth. The three
+objections are--the labor required in setting or folding the cloth,
+the expense of the press papers, and the time required. The fourth
+objection, about which a dispute has occurred between the press-setters
+and the master finishers in Leeds, refers to the inapplicability of the
+common system to long lengths. The men object to these on account of
+the great labor involved in shifting the heavy mass of cloth and press
+plates to and from the presses. A minor drawback of this system is
+that it involves the presence of a fold up the middle of the piece. On
+account of these drawbacks it has long been understood to be desirable
+to expedite the process, and also to dispense with the press papers.
+This is the main purpose of the machine we now illustrate in section, in
+which the pressing is done continuously by what may be termed a species
+of ironing. The machine consists of a central hollow cylinder, C,
+three-quarters of the circumference of which is covered by the hollow
+boxes, M, heated by steam through the pipes shown, and which are
+mounted upon the levers, BB', whose fulcra are at bb. By means of the
+hand-wheel, T, and worm-wheel, n, which closes or opens the levers, BB',
+the pressure of the boxes upon the central roller may be adjusted at
+will, the spring-bolt, F, allowing a certain amount of yield. The faces
+of the press-boxes, MM, are covered by a curved sheet of German silver
+attached to the point, Y. This sheet takes the place of the press papers
+in the ordinary process. The course of the cloth through the machine is
+as follows, and is shown by the arrows: It is placed on the bottom board
+in front, and in its travel it passes over the rails, O, after which it
+is operated on by the brush, Z, leaving which it is conveyed over the
+rails, V and I, the rollers, K and P, and thence between the pressing
+roller, C, and the German silver press plate covering the heated boxes,
+M. Leaving these the piece passes over the roller, P, and is cuttled
+down in the bottom board by the cuttling motion, F, or a rolling-up
+motion may be applied. The maker states that arrangements for brushing
+and steaming may also be attached, so that in one passage through the
+machine a piece may be pressed, brushed, and steamed. The speed of the
+cylinder may be adjusted according to the quality or requirements of
+the goods that are under treatment. At the time of our visit, says the
+_Textile Manufacturer_, printed woolen pieces were being pressed at the
+rate of about four yards a minute, but higher speeds are often obtained.
+Messrs. Taylor, Wordsworth & Co., who have erected many of these
+machines in Leeds, Bradford, and Batley, inform us that they find they
+are adapted for the pressing of a wide variety of cloths, from Bradford
+goods and thin serges to the heavy pieces of Dewsbury and Batley. The
+inventor, Ernst Gessner, of Aue, Saxony, adopts an ingenious expedient
+for pressing goods with thick lists. He provides an arrangement for
+moving the cylinder endwise, according to the different widths of
+the pieces to be treated. One list is left outside at the end of the
+cylinder, and the other at the opposite end of the pressing boxes. The
+machine we saw was 80 in. wide on the roller, and it was one the design
+and construction of which undoubtedly do credit to Mr. Gessner.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVEMENTS IN WOOLEN CARDING ENGINES.
+
+
+Mr. Bolette, who has made a name for himself in connection with strap
+dividers, has experimented in another direction on the carding engine,
+and as his ideas contain some points of novelty we herewith give the
+necessary illustrations, so that our readers can judge for themselves as
+to the merit of these inventions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Fig. 1 represents the feeding arrangement. Here the wool is delivered by
+the feed rollers, A A, in the usual manner. The longer fibers are then
+taken off by a comb, B, and brought forward to the stripper, E, which
+transfers them to the roller, H, and thence to the cylinder. The shorter
+fibers which are not seized by the comb fall down, but as they drop
+they meet a blast of air created by a fan, which throws the lighter and
+cleaner parts in a kind of spray upon the roller, L, whence they pass on
+to the cylinder, while the dirt and other heavier parts fall downwards
+into a box, and are by this means kept off the cylinder. It is evident
+that in this arrangement it is not intended to keep the long and the
+short fibers separate, but to utilize them all in the formation of
+the yarn. The arrangement shown in Fig. 2 refers to the delivery end.
+Instead of the sliver being wound upon the roller in the usual way, it
+runs upon a sheet of linen, P¹, as in the case of carding for felt, with
+a to-and-fro motion in the direction of the axis of the rollers. In this
+way one or more layers of the fleece can be placed on the sheet, which
+in that case passes backwards and forwards from roller S to R, and _vice
+versa_. It is, in fact, the bat arrangement used for felt, only with
+this difference, that the bat is at once rolled up instead of going
+through the bat frame. In the manufacture of felt it is of course of
+importance to have many very thin layers of fleece superposed over
+each other in order to equalize it, and if the same is applied to the
+manufacture of cloth it will no doubt give satisfactory results, but may
+be rather costly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NOVELTIES IN RING SPINDLES.
+
+
+One of the drawbacks of ring spinning is the uneven pull of the
+traveler, which is the more difficult to counteract as it is exerted
+in jerks at irregular intervals. It is argued that with spindles and
+bearings as usually made the spindle is supported firmly in its bearing,
+and cannot give in case of such a lateral pull when exerted through the
+yarn by the traveler, and the consequence is either a breakage of the
+yarn or an uneven thread. Impressed with this idea, and in order to
+remedy this defect, an eminent Swiss firm has hit upon the notion of
+driving the spindle by friction, and to make it more or less loose in
+the bearings, so that in case of an extra pull by the traveler the
+spindle can give way a little, and thus prevent the breakage of the
+yarn. This idea has been carried out in four different ways, and as this
+seems to be an entirely new departure in ring spinning, we give the
+illustrations of their construction in detail.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.]
+
+Fig. 1 represents Bourcart's recent arrangement of attaching the thread
+guide to the spindle rail and the adjustable spindle. The spindle is
+held by the sleeve, g, which latter is screwed into the spindle rail, S,
+this being moved by the pinion, a; the collar is elongated upwards in a
+cuplike form, c, the better to hold the oil, and keep it from flying;
+d is the wharf, which has attached to it the sleeve, m, and which is
+situated loosely in the space between the spindle and the footstep, e.
+Above the wharf the spindle is hexagonal in shape, and to this part is
+attached the friction plate, a. Between the latter and the upper surface
+of the wharf a cloth or felt washer is inserted, to act as a brake. The
+footstep, e, is filled with oil, in which run the foot of the spindle
+and the sleeve m, the latter turning upon a steel ring situated on the
+bottom of the footstep. As, thus, the foot of the spindle is quite free,
+the upper part of the spindle can give sideways in the direction of any
+sudden pull, and the foot of the spindle can follow this motion in the
+opposite direction, the collar forming the fulcrum for the spindle. By
+this alteration of the vertical position of the spindle into an inclined
+one (though ever so trifling), the contact of the friction plate, a, and
+the wharf is interrupted, and thus the speed of the spindle reduced.
+This will cause less yarn to be wound on, and the pull thus to be
+neutralized; but as the wharf keeps turning at the same speed, its
+centrifugal force will act again upon the friction plate, and thus bring
+the spindle back to its vertical position as soon as the extra drag has
+been removed.
+
+In Fig. 2 the footstep, e, has the foot of the spindle more closely
+fitting at the bottom, but the upper part of the step opens out
+gradually, and forms a conical cavity of a little larger diameter than
+the spindle, so that the latter has a considerable play sideways. The
+wharf carries in its lower part the sleeve, g, which runs upon a steel
+ring as above. The upper surface of the wharf is arched, and upon this
+is fitted the correspondingly arched friction plate, a, which latter
+is attached to the spindle by a screw. The position of the spindle is
+maintained by the collar, m. This collar is loose in the spindle rail,
+and only held by the spring, m'. If now, a lateral drag is exerted upon
+the upper part of the spindle, the collar car follows the direction of
+this drag, and the spindle thus be brought out of the vertical position,
+the friction plate slipping at the same time. The force of the spring
+conjointly with the centrifugal force will then bring back the spindle
+into its normal position as soon as the drag is again even.
+
+Fig. 3 shows a spindle with a very long conical oil vessel, B, resting
+upon a disk, e", in cup, e', with a cover, e"'. The wharf, d, is here
+situated high up the spindle, has the same sleeve as in the preceding
+case, and runs round the bush, g, upon the ring, z. The friction plate
+resting upon the wharf is joined to the collar, a, running out into a
+cup shape, which is fixed to the spindle, which here has a hexagonal
+form. In this case the collar gives with the spindle, which latter
+has the necessary play in the long footstep; and as the collar and
+friction-plate are one, it is brought back to its normal place by
+centrifugal force.
+
+A peculiar arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. Here the ring and traveler,
+f, are placed as usual, but the spindle carries at the same time an
+inverted flier, t. The spindle turns loosely in the footstep, e, the
+oil chamber being carried up to the middle of its height. The wharf
+is placed in the same position as in the previous case, having also
+a sleeve running in the oil chamber, c, upon a steel ring, z. The
+friction-plate a, on the top of the wharf carries the flier, and on its
+upper surface is in contact with the inverted cup, a, which is attached
+to the spindle by a pin or screw. In order to limit at will the lateral
+motion of the spindle there is attached to the latter, between the
+footstep and the collar, a split ring, i, which can be closed more
+or less by a small set screw. The spindle is thus only held in the
+perpendicular position by its own velocity, which will facilitate a
+high degree of speed, through the entire absence of all friction in the
+bearings, this vertical position being assisted by the friction motion
+whenever the spindle has been drawn on one side. Although the notion of
+mounting spindles so that they can yield in order to center themselves
+is not new, it is evident that considerable ingenuity has been brought
+to bear upon the arrangement of the spindles we have described, but we
+are not in a position to say to what extent practice has in this case
+coincided with theory.--_Textile Manufacturer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTO-ENGRAVING ON ZINC OR COPPER.
+
+By LEON VIDAL.
+
+
+This process is similar in many respects to the one which was some
+time ago communicated to the Photographic Society of France by M.
+Stronbinsky, of St. Petersburg, but in a much improved and complete
+form. An account of it was given by M. Gobert, at the meeting of the
+same society, on the 2d December, 1882. The following are the details,
+as demonstrated by me at the meeting of the 9th of May last:
+
+Sheets of zinc or of copper of a convenient size are carefully planished
+and polished with powdered pumice stone. The sensitive mixture is
+composed of:
+
+  The whites of four fresh eggs beaten
+  to a froth......................... 100    parts
+  Pure bichromate of ammonia.........   2.50   "
+  Water..............................  50      "
+
+After this mixture has been carefully filtered through a paper filter, a
+few drops of ammonia are added. It will keep good for some time if well
+corked and preserved from exposure to the light. Even two months after
+being prepared I have found it to be still good; but too large a
+quantity should not be prepared at a time, as it does not improve with
+keeping.
+
+I find that the dry albumen of commerce will answer as well as the
+fresh. In that case I employ the following formula:
+
+  Dry albumen from eggs.............. 15 to 20    parts
+  Water..............................      100      "
+  Ammonia bichromate.................        2.50   "
+
+Always add some drops of ammonia, and keep this mixture in a well corked
+bottle and in a dark place.
+
+To coat the metal plate, place it on a turning table, to which it is
+made fast at the center by a pneumatic holder; to assure the perfect
+adhesion of this holder, it is as well to wet the circular elastic ring
+of the holder before applying it to the metallic surface. When this is
+done, the table may be made to rotate quickly without fear of detaching
+the plate by the rapidity of the movement. The plate is placed in a
+perfectly horizontal position, where no dust can settle on it; the
+mixture is then poured on it, and distributed by means of a triangular
+piece of soft paper, so as to cover equally all the parts of the plate.
+Care should be taken not to flow too much liquid over the plate, and
+when the latter is everywhere coated, the excess is poured off into a
+different vessel from that which contains the filtered mixture, or else
+into a filter resting on that vessel. The turning table should now be
+inverted so that the sensitive surface may be downwards, and it is made
+to rotate at first slowly, afterwards more rapidly, so as to make the
+film, which should be very thin, quite smooth and even. The whole
+operation should be carried out in a subdued light, as too strong a
+light would render insoluble the film of bichromated albumen.
+
+When the film is equalized the plate must be detached from the turning
+table and placed on a cast iron or tin plate heated to not more than 40°
+or 50° C. A gentle heat is quite sufficient to dry the albumen quickly;
+a greater heat would spoil it, as it would produce coagulation. So soon
+as the film is dry, which will be seen by the iridescent aspect it
+assumes, the plate is allowed to cool to the ordinary temperature,
+and is then at once exposed either beneath a positive, or beneath an
+original drawing the lines of which have been drawn in opaque ink, so as
+to completely prevent the luminous rays from passing through them; the
+light should only penetrate through the white or transparent ground of
+the drawing.
+
+I say a _positive_ because I wish to obtain an engraved plate; if I
+wanted to have a plate for typographic printing, I should have to take a
+_negative_. After exposure the plate must be at once developed, which is
+effected by dissolving in water those parts of the bichromated gelatine
+which have been protected from the action of light by the dark spaces
+of the cliché; these parts remain soluble, while the others have been
+rendered completely insoluble. If the plate were dipped in clear water
+it would be difficult to observe the picture coming out, especially on
+copper. To overcome this difficulty the water must be tinged with some
+aniline color; aniline red or violet, which are soluble in water,
+answers the purpose very well. Enough of the dye must be dissolved in
+the water to give it a tolerably deep color. So soon as the plate is
+plunged into this liquid the albumen not acted on by light is dissolved,
+while the insoluble parts are colored by absorbing the dye, so that the
+metal is exposed in the lines against a red or violet ground, according
+to the color of the dye used.
+
+When the drawing comes out quite perfect, and a complete copy of the
+original, the plate with the image on it is allowed to dry either of its
+own accord, or by submitting it to a gentle heat. So soon as it is dry
+it is etched, and this is done by means of a solution of perchloride
+of iron in alcohol. Both alcohol and iron perchloride will coagulate
+albumen; their action, therefore, on the image will not be injurious,
+since they will harden the remaining albumen still further. But to get
+the full benefit of this, the alcohol and the iron perchloride must
+both be free from water; it is therefore advisable to use the salt in
+crystals which have been thoroughly dried, and the alcohol of a strength
+of 95°.
+
+The following is the formula:
+
+  Perchloride of iron, well dried     50 gr.
+  Alcohol at 95°                     100 "
+
+This solution must be carefully filtered so as to get rid of any deposit
+which may form, and must be preserved in a well-corked bottle, when it
+will keep for a long time. The plate is first coated with a varnish of
+bitumen of Judea on the edges (if those parts are not already covered
+with albumen) and on the back, so that the etching liquid can only act
+on the lines to be engraved. It is then placed, with the side to be
+engraved downwards, in a porcelain basin, into which a sufficient
+quantity of the solution of perchloride of iron is poured, and the
+liquid is kept stirred so as to renew the portion which touches the
+plate; but care must be taken not to touch with the brush the parts
+where there is albumen remaining. The length of time that the etching
+must be continued depends on the depth required to be given to
+the engraving; generally a quarter of an hour will be found to be
+sufficient. Should it be thought desirable to extend the action over
+half an hour, the lines will be found to have been very deeply engraved.
+When the etching is considered to have been pushed far enough, the plate
+must be withdrawn from the solution, and washed in plenty of water;
+it must then be forcibly rubbed with a cloth so as to remove all the
+albumen, and after it has been polished with a little pumice, the
+engraving is complete.
+
+It will be seen that this process may be used with advantage instead of
+that of photo-engraving with bitumen, in cases where it is not advisable
+to use acids. One of my friends, Mr. Fisch, suggests the plan--which
+seems to deserve a careful investigation--of combining this process
+with that where bitumen is employed; it would be done somewhat in the
+following way. The plate of metal would be first coated evenly with
+bitumen of Judea on the turning table, and when the bitumen is quite
+dry, it should be again coated with albumen in the manner as described
+above. In full sunlight the exposure need not exceed a minute in length;
+then the plate would be laid in colored water, dried, and immersed in
+spirits of turpentine. The latter will dissolve the bitumen in all
+the parts where it has been exposed by the removal of the albumen not
+rendered insoluble by the action of light. But it remains to be seen
+whether the albumen will not be undermined in this method; therefore,
+before recommending the process, it ought to be thoroughly studied. The
+metal is now exposed in all the parts that have to be etched, while
+all the other parts are protected by a layer of bitumen coated with
+coagulated albumen. Hence we may employ as mordant water acidulated with
+3, 4, or 5 per cent. of nitric acid, according as it is required to have
+the plate etched with greater or less vigor.
+
+By following the directions above given, any one wishing to adopt the
+process cannot fail of obtaining good results, One of its greatest
+advantages is that it is within the reach of every one engaged in
+printing operations.--_Photo News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MERIDIAN LINE.
+
+[Footnote: From Proceedings of the Association of County Surveyors of
+Ohio, Columbus, January, 1882.]
+
+
+The following process has been used by the undersigned for many years.
+The true meridian can thus be found within one minute of arc:
+
+_Directions_.--Nail a slat to the north side of an upper window--the
+higher the better. Let it be 25 feet from the ground or more. Let it
+project 3 feet. Kear the end suspend a plumb-bob, and have it swing in a
+bucket of water. A lamp set in the window will render the upper part of
+the string visible. Place a small table or stand about 20 feet south of
+the plumb-bob, and on its south edge stick the small blade of a pocket
+knife; place the eye close to the blade, and move the stand so as to
+bring the blade, string, and polar star into line. Place the table so
+that the star shall be seen very near the slat in the window. Let this
+be done half an hour before the greatest elongation of the star. Within
+four or five minutes after the first alignment the star will have moved
+to the east or west of the string. Slip the table or the knife a little
+to one side, and align carefully as before. After a few alignments the
+star will move along the string--down, if the elongation is west; up, if
+east. On the first of June the eastern elongation occurs about half-past
+two in the morning, and as daylight comes on shortly after the
+observation is completed, I prefer that time of year. The time of
+meridian passage or of the elongation can be found in almost any work on
+surveying. Of course the observer should choose a calm night.
+
+In the morning the transit can be ranged with the knife blade and
+string, and the proper angle turned off to the left, if the elongation
+is east; to the right, if west.
+
+Instead of turning off the angle, as above described, I measure 200 or
+300 feet northtward, in the direction of the string, and compute the
+offset in feet and inches, set a stake in the ground, and drive a tack
+in the usual way.
+
+Suppose the distance is 250 feet and the angle 1° 40', then the offset
+will be 7,271 feet, or 7 feet 3¼ inches. A minute of arc at the distance
+of 250 feet is seven-eighths of an inch; and this is the most accurate
+way, for the vernier will not mark so small a space accurately.
+
+
+ANGLE OF ELONGATION.
+
+This should be computed by the surveyor for each observation. The
+distance between the star and the pole is continually diminishing, and
+on January 1, 1882, was 1° 18' 48".
+
+There is a slight annual variation in the distance. July 1, 1882, it
+will be 1° 19' 20". If from this latter quantity the observer will
+subtract 16" for 1883, and the same quantity for each succeeding year
+for the next four or five years, no error so great as one-quarter of a
+minute will be made in the position of the meridian as determined in the
+summer months. If winter observations are made, the distance in January
+should be used. The formula for computing the angle of elongation is
+easily made by any one understanding spherical trigonometry, and is
+this:
+
+   R x sin. Polar dist.
+  --------------------- = sin. of angle of elongation.
+        cos. lat.
+
+As an example, suppose the time is July, 1882, and the latitude 40°.
+Then the computation being made, the angle will be found to be 1° 43'
+34". A difference of six minutes in the latitude will make less than
+10" difference in the angle, as one can see by trial. Any good State
+or county map will give the latitude to within one or two miles--or
+minutes.
+
+The facts being as here stated, the absurdity of the Ohio law,
+concerning the establishment of county meridians, becomes apparent. The
+longitude has nothing at all to do With the meridian; and a difference
+of _six miles_ in latitude makes no appreciable error in the meridian
+established as here suggested, whereas the statute requires the latitude
+within _one half a second_, which is _fifty feet_. There are some other
+things, besides the ways of Providence, which may be said to be "past
+finding out." It is not probable that a surveyor would err so much as
+_three_ miles in his latitude, but should he do so, then the error in
+his meridian line, resulting from the mistake, will be _five seconds_,
+and a line _one mile_ long, run on a course 5" out of the way, will vary
+but _an inch and a half_ from the true position. Surveyors well know
+that no such accuracy is attainable. R. W. McFARLAND,
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRO-MANIA.
+
+By W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS.
+
+
+A history of electricity, in order to be complete, must include two
+distinct and very different subjects: the history of electrical science,
+and a history of electrical exaggerations and delusions. The progress of
+the first has been followed by a crop of the second from the time when
+Kleist, Muschenbroek, and Cuneus endeavored to bottle the supposed
+fluid, and in the course of these attempts stumbled upon the "Leyden
+jar."
+
+Dr. Lieberkuhn, of Berlin, describes the startling results which he
+obtained, or imagined, "when a nail or a piece of brass wire is put into
+a small apothecary's phial and electrified." He says that "if, while it
+is electrifying, I put my finger or a piece of gold which I hold in my
+hand to the nail, I receive a shock which stuns my arms and shoulders."
+At about the same date (the middle of the last century), Muschenbroek
+stated, in a letter to Réaumur, that, on taking a shock from a thin
+glass bowl, "he felt himself struck in his arms, shoulders, and breast,
+so that he lost his breath, and was two days before he recovered from
+the effects of the blow and the terror" and that he "would not take a
+second shock for the kingdom of France." From the description Of the
+apparatus, it is evident that this dreadful shock was no stronger than
+many of us have taken scores of times for fun, and have given to
+our school-follows when we became the proud possessors of our first
+electrical machine.
+
+Conjurers, mountebanks, itinerant quacks, and other adventurers operated
+throughout Europe, and were found at every country fair and _fete_
+displaying the wonders of the invisible agent by giving shocks and
+professing to cure all imaginable ailments.
+
+Then came the discoveries of Galvani and Volta, followed by the
+demonstrations of Galvani's nephew Aldini, whereby dead animals were
+made to display the movements of life, not only by the electricity of
+the Voltaic pile, but, as Aldini especially showed, by a transfer of
+this mysterious agency from one animal to another.
+
+According to his experiments (that seem to be forgotten by modern
+electricians) the galvanometer of the period, a prepared frog, could be
+made to kick by connecting its nerve and muscle with muscle and nerve of
+a recently killed ox, with, or without metallic intervention.
+
+Thus arose the dogma which still survives in the advertisements of
+electrical quacks, that "electricity is life," and the possibility of
+reviving the dead was believed by many. Executed criminals were in
+active demand; their bodies were expeditiously transferred from the
+gallows or scaffold to the operating table, and their dead limbs were
+made to struggle and plunge, their eyeballs to roll, and their features
+to perpetrate the most horrible contortions by connecting nerves with
+one pole, and muscles with the opposite pole of a battery.
+
+The heart was made to beat, and many men of eminence supposed that if
+this could be combined with artificial respiration, and kept up for
+awhile, the victim of the hangman might be restored, provided the neck
+was not broken. Curious tales were loudly whispered concerning gentle
+hangings and strange doings at Dr. Brookes's, in Leicester Square, and
+at the Hunterian Museum, in Windmill Street, now flourishing as "The
+Café de l'Etoile." When a child, I lived about midway between these
+celebrated schools of practical anatomy, and well remember the tales of
+horror that were recounted concerning them. When Bishop and Williams (no
+relation to the writer) were hanged for burking, i.e., murdering people
+in order to provide "subjects" for dissection, their bodies were sent to
+Windmill Street, and the popular notion was that, being old and faithful
+servants of the doctors, they were galvanized to life, and again set up
+in their old business.
+
+It is amusing to read some of the treatises on medical galvanism that
+were published at about this period, and contrast their positive
+statements of cures effected and results anticipated with the position
+now attained by electricity as a curative agent.
+
+Then came the brilliant discoveries of Faraday, Ampère, etc.,
+demonstrating the relations between electricity and magnetism, and
+immediately following them a multitude of patents for electro-motors,
+and wild dreams of superseding steam-engines by magneto-electric
+machinery.
+
+The following, which I copy from the _Penny Mechanic_, of June 10, 1837,
+is curious, and very instructive to those who think of investing in any
+of the electric power companies of to-day: "Mr. Thomas Davenport, a
+Vermont blacksmith, has discovered a mode of applying magnetic and
+electro-magnetic power, which we have good ground for believing will be
+of immense importance to the world." This announcement is followed by
+reference to Professor Silliman's _American Journal of Science and the
+Arts_, for April, 1837, and extracts from American papers, of which the
+following is a specimen: "1. We saw a small cylindrical battery, about
+nine inches in length, three or four in diameter, produce a magnetic
+power of about 300 lb., and which, therefore, we could not move with
+our utmost strength. 2. We saw a small wheel, five-and-a-half inches in
+diameter, performing more than 600 revolutions in a minute, and lift a
+weight of 24 lb. one foot per minute, from the power of a battery of
+still smaller dimensions. 3. We saw a model of a locomotive engine
+traveling on a circular railroad with immense velocity, and rapidly
+ascending an inclined plane of far greater elevation than any hitherto
+ascended by steam-power. And these and various other experiments which
+we saw, convinced us of the truth of the opinion expressed by Professors
+Silliman, Renwick, and others, that the power of machinery may be
+increased from this source beyond any assignable limit. It is computed
+by these learned men that a circular galvanic battery about three feet
+in diameter, with magnets of a proportionable surface, would produce at
+least a hundred horse-power; and therefore that two such batteries would
+be sufficient to propel ships of the largest class across the Atlantic.
+The only materials required to generate and continue this power for
+such a voyage would be a few thin sheets of copper and zinc, and a few
+gallons of mineral water."
+
+The Faure accumulator is but a very weak affair compared with this, Sir
+William Thomson notwithstanding. To render the date of the above fully
+appreciable, I may note that three months later the magazine from which
+it is quoted was illustrated with a picture of the London and Birmingham
+Railway Station displaying a first-class passenger with a box seat on
+the roof of the carriage, and followed by an account of the trip to
+Boxmoor, the first installment of the London and North-Western Railway.
+It tells us that, "the time of starting having arrived, the doors of
+the carriages are closed, and, by the assistance of the conductors, the
+train is moved on a short distance toward the first bridge, where it
+is met by an engine, which conducts it up the inclined plane as far as
+Chalk Farm. Between the canal and this spot stands the station-house for
+the engines; here, also, are fixed the engines which are to be employed
+in drawing the carriages up the inclined plane from Euston Square, by
+a rope upwards of a mile in length, the cost of which was upwards of
+£400." After describing the next change of engines, in the same matter
+of course way as the changing of stage-coach horses, the narrative
+proceeds to say that "entering the tunnel from broad daylight to perfect
+darkness has an exceedingly novel effect."
+
+I make these parallel quotations for the benefit of those who imagine
+that electricity is making such vastly greater strides than other
+sources of power. I well remember making this journey to Boxmoor, and
+four or five years later traveling on a circular electro-magnetic
+railway. Comparing that electric railway with those now exhibiting,
+and comparing the Boxmoor trip with the present work of the London and
+North-Western Railway, I have no hesitation in affirming that the rate
+of progress in electro-locomotion during the last forty years has been
+far smaller than that of steam.
+
+The leading fallacy which is urging the electro-maniacs of the present
+time to their ruinous investments is the idea that electro-motors
+are novelties, and that electric-lighting is in its infancy; while
+gas-lighting is regarded as an old, or mature middle-aged business,
+and therefore we are to expect a marvelous growth of the infant and no
+further progress of the adult.
+
+These excited speculators do not appear to be aware of the fact that
+electric-lighting is older than gas-lighting; that Sir Humphry Davy
+exhibited the electric light in Albemarle Street, while London was still
+dimly lighted by oil-lamps, and long before gas-lighting was attempted
+anywhere. The lamp used by Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, at
+the beginning of the present century, was an arrangement of two
+carbon pencils, between which was formed the "electric arc" by the
+intensely-vivid incandescence and combustion of the particles of carbon
+passing between the solid carbon electrodes. The light exhibited by Davy
+was incomparably more brilliant than anything that has been lately shown
+either in London, or Paris, or at Sydenham. His arc was _four inches
+in length_, the carbon pencils were four inches apart, and a broad,
+dazzling arch of light bridged the whole space between. The modern arc
+lights are but pygmies, mere specks, compared with this; a leap of 1/3
+or 1/4 inch constituting their maximum achievement.
+
+Comparing the actual progress of gas and electric lighting, the gas has
+achieved by far the greater strides; and this is the case even when we
+compare very recent progress.
+
+The improvements connected with gas-making have been steadily
+progressive; scarcely a year has passed from the date of Murdoch's
+efforts to the present time, without some or many decided steps having
+been made. The progress of electric-lighting has been a series of
+spasmodic leaps, backward as well as forward.
+
+As an example of stepping backward, I may refer to what the newspapers
+have described as the "discoveries" of Mr. Edison, or the use of an
+incandescent wire, or stick, or sheet of platinum, or platino-iridium;
+or a thread of carbon, of which the "Swan" and other modern lights are
+rival modifications.
+
+As far back as 1846 I was engaged in making apparatus and experiments
+for the purpose of turning to practical account "King's patent electric
+light," the actual inventor of which was a young American, named Starr,
+who died in 1847, when about 25 years of age, a victim of overwork
+and disappointment in his efforts to perfect this invention and a
+magneto-electric machine, intended to supply the power in accordance
+with some of the "latest improvements" of 1881 and 1882.
+
+I had a share in this venture, and was very enthusiastic until after I
+had become practically acquainted with the subject. We had no difficulty
+in obtaining a splendid and perfectly steady light, better than any that
+are shown at the Crystal Palace.
+
+We used platinum, and alloys of platinum and iridium, abandoned them as
+Edison did more than thirty years later, and then tried a multitude of
+forms of carbon, including that which constitutes the last "discovery"
+of Mr. Edison, viz., burnt cane. Starr tried this on theoretical
+grounds, because cane being coated with silica, he predicted that by
+charring it we should obtain a more compact stick or thread, as the
+fusion of the silica would hold the carbon particles together. He
+finally abandoned this and all the rest in favor of the hard deposit of
+carbon which lines the inside of gas-retorts, some specimens of which we
+found to be so hard that we required a lapidary's wheel to cut them into
+the thin sticks.
+
+Our final wick was a piece of this of square section, and about 1/8 of
+an inch across each way. It was mounted between two forceps--one holding
+each end, and thus leaving a clear half-inch between. The forceps were
+soldered to platinum wires, one of which passed upward through the top
+of the barometer tube, expanded into a lamp glass at its upper part.
+This wire was sealed to the glass as it passed through. The lower wire
+passed down the middle of the tube.
+
+The tube was filled with mercury and inverted over a cup of mercury.
+Being 30 inches long up to the bottom of the expanded portion, or lamp
+globe, the mercury fell below this and left a Torricellian vacuum there.
+One pole of the battery, or dynamo-machine, was connected with the
+mercury in the cup, and the other with the upper wire. The stick of
+carbon glowed brilliantly, and with perfect steadiness.
+
+I subsequently exhibited this apparatus in the Town-hall of Birmingham,
+and many times at the Midland Institute. The only scientific difficulty
+connected with this arrangement was that due to a slight volatilization
+of the carbon, and its deposition as a brown film upon the lamp glass;
+but this difficulty is not insuperable.--_Knowledge_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ACTION OF MAGNETS UPON THE VOLTAIC ARC.
+
+
+The action of magnets upon the voltaic arc has been known for a long
+time past. Davy even succeeded in influencing the latter powerfully
+enough in this way to divide it, and since his time Messrs. Grove and
+Quet have studied the effect under different conditions. In 1859, I
+myself undertook numerous researches on this subject, and experimented
+on the induction spark of the Ruhmkorff coil, the results of these
+researches having been published in the last two editions of my notes on
+the Ruhmkorff apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+These researches were summed up in the journal _La Lumière Electrique_
+for June 15, 1879. Recently, Mr. Pilleux has addressed to us some new
+experiments on the same subject, made on the voltaic arc produced by a
+De Meritens alternating current machine. Naturally, he has found the
+same phenomena that I had made known; but he thinks that these new
+researches are worthy of interest by reason of the nature of the arc in
+which he experimented, and which, according to him, is of a different
+nature from all those on which, up to the present time, experiments have
+been made. Such a distinction as this, however, merits a discussion.
+
+With the induction spark, magnets have an action only on the aureola
+which accompanies the line of fire of the static discharge; and this
+aureola, being only a sort of sheath of heated air containing many
+particles of metal derived from the rheophores, represents exactly the
+voltaic arc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+Moreover, although the induced currents developed in the bobbin are
+alternately of opposite direction, the galvanometer shows that the
+currents that traverse the break are of the same direction, and that
+these are direct ones. The reversed currents are, then, arrested during
+their passage; and, in order to collect them, it becomes necessary to
+considerably diminish the gaseous pressure of the aeriform conductor
+interposed in the discharge; to increase its conductivity; or to open to
+the current a very resistant metallic derivation. By this latter means,
+I have succeeded in isolating, one from the other, in two different
+circuits, the direct induced currents and the reversed induced ones.
+As only direct currents can, in air at a normal pressure, traverse
+the break through which the induction spark passes, the aureola that
+surrounds it may be considered as being exactly in the same conditions
+as a voltaic arc, and, consequently, as representing an extensible
+conductor traversed by a current flowing in a definite direction. Such
+a conductor is consequently susceptible of being influenced by all the
+external reactions that can be exerted upon a current; only, by reason
+of its mobility, the conductor may possibly give way to the action
+exerted upon the current traversing it, and undergo deformations that
+are in relation with the laws of Ampère. It is in this manner that I
+have explained the different forms that the aureola of the induction
+spark assumes when it is submitted to the action of a magnet in the
+direction of its axial line, or in that of its equatorial line, or
+perpendicular to these latter, or upon the magnetic poles themselves.
+
+Experiments of a very definite kind have not yet been made as to the
+nature of the arc produced by induced currents developed in alternating
+current machines; but, from the experiments made with electric candles,
+we are forced to admit that the current reacts as if it were alternately
+reversed through the arc, since the carbons are used up to an equal
+degree; and, moreover, Mr. Pilleux's experiments show that effects
+analogous to those of induction coils are produced by the reaction of
+magnets upon the arc. There is, then, here a doubtful point that it
+would be interesting to clear up; and we believe that it is consequently
+proper to introduce in this place Mr. Pilleux's note:
+
+"Having at my disposal," says he, "a powerful vertical voltaic arc of 12
+centimeters in length, kept up by alternately reversed currents, and one
+of the most powerful permanent magnets that Mr. De Meritens employs for
+magneto-electric machines, I have been enabled to make the following
+experiments:
+
+"1. When I caused one of the poles of my magnet to slowly approach the
+voltaic arc, I ascertained that, at a distance of 10 centimeters, the
+arc became flattened so as to assume the appearance of those gas jets
+called 'butterfly.' The plane of the 'butterfly' was parallel with the
+pole that I presented, or, in other words, with the section of the
+magnet. At the same time, the arc began to emit a strident noise, which
+became deafening when the pole of the magnet was brought to within a
+distance of about 2 millimeters. At this moment, the butterfly form
+produced by the arc was _greatly spread out, and reduced to the
+thickness of a sheet of paper_; and then it burst with violence, and
+projected to a distance a great number of particles of incandescent
+carbon.
+
+"2. The magnet employed being a horseshoe one, when I directed it
+laterally so as to present successively, now the north and then the
+south pole to the arc, the 'butterfly' pivoted upon itself so as not to
+present the same surface to each pole of the magnet."
+
+By referring to the accompanying figure, which we extract from our note
+on the Ruhmkorff apparatus, it will be seen that the aureola which
+developed as a circular film from right to left at D, on the north pole
+of the magnet, N.S. (Fig. 1), projected itself in an opposite direction
+at C, upon the south pole, S, of the same magnet; but, between the two
+poles, these two contrary actions being obliged to unite, they gave rise
+in doing so to a very characteristic helicoid spiral whose direction
+depended upon that of the current of discharge through the aureola,
+or upon the polarity of the magnetic poles. On the contrary, when the
+discharge took place in the direction of the equatorial line, as in Fig.
+2, the circular film developed itself in the plane of the neutral line
+above or below the line of discharge, according to the direction of the
+current and the magnetic polarity of the magnet.
+
+There is, then, between Mr. Pilleux's experiments and my own so great an
+analogy that we might draw the deduction therefrom that induced currents
+in alternating machines have, like those of the Ruhmkorff coil, a
+definite direction, which would be that of currents having the greatest
+tension, that is to say, that of direct currents. This hypothesis seems
+to us the more plausible in that Mr. J. Van Malderem has demonstrated
+that the attraction of solenoids with the currents, not straight,
+of magneto-electric machines is almost as great as that of the same
+solenoids with straight currents; and it is very likely that the
+difference which may then exist should be so much the less in proportion
+as the induced currents have more tension. We might, then, perhaps
+explain the different effects of the wear of the carbons serving as
+rheophores, according as the currents are continuous or alternating, by
+the different calorific effects produced on these carbons, and by the
+effects of electric conveyance which are a consequence of the passage of
+the current through the arc.
+
+We know that with continuous currents the positive carbon possesses a
+much higher temperature than the negative, and that its wear is about
+twice greater than that of the latter. But such greater wear of the
+positive carbon is especially due to the fact that combustion is greater
+on it than on the negative, and also to the fact that the carbonaceous
+particles carried along by the current to the positive pole are
+deposited in part upon the other pole. Supposing that these polarities
+of the carbons were being constantly alternately reversed, the effects
+might be symmetrical from all quarters, although the only current
+traversing the break were of the same direction; for, admitting that the
+reverse currents could not traverse the break, they would exist none the
+less for all that, and they might give rise (as has been demonstrated
+by Mr. Gaugain with regard to the discharges of the induction spark
+intercepted by the insulating plate of a condenser) to return discharges
+through the generator, which would then have, in the metallic part of
+the circuit, the same direction as the direct currents succeeding,
+although they had momentarily brought about opposite polarities in the
+electrodes. What might make us suppose such an interpretation of the
+phenomenon to have its _raison d'etre_, is that with the induced
+currents of the Ruhmkorff coil, it is not the positive pole that is
+the hottest, but rather the negative; from whence we might draw the
+deduction that it is not so much the direction of the current that
+determines the calorific effect in the electrodes, as the conditions of
+such current with respect to the generator. I should not be
+surprised, then, if, in the arc formed by the alternating currents of
+magneto-electric machines, there should pass only one current of the
+same direction, and which would be the one formed by the superposition
+of direct currents, and if the reverse currents should cause return
+discharges in the midst of the generating bobbins at the moment the
+direct currents were generated.--_Th. Du Moncel_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VOLCKMAR'S SECONDARY BATTERIES.
+
+
+The inventive genius of the country is now directed to these important
+accessories of electric enterprise, and no wonder, for as far as can at
+present be seen, the secret of electric motion lies in these secondary
+batteries. Among other contributions of this kind is the following, by
+Ernest Volckmar, electrician, Paris:
+
+The object of this invention is to render unnecessary the use in
+secondary batteries of a porous pot which creates useless resistance
+to the electric current, and to store in an apparatus of comparatively
+small weight and bulk considerable electric force. To this end two
+reticulated or perforated plates of lead of similar proportions are
+prepared, and their interstices are filled with granules or filaments of
+lead, by preference chemically pure. These plates are then submitted to
+pressure, and placed together, with strips of nonconducting material
+interposed between them, in a suitable vessel containing a bath of
+acidulated water. The plates being connected with wires from an electric
+generator are brought for a while under the action of the current, to
+peroxidize and reduce the whole of the finely divided lead exposed to
+the acidulated water. The secondary battery is then complete. It will be
+understood that any number of these pairs of plates may be combined to
+form a secondary battery, their number being determined by the amount
+of storage required. The perforated plates of lead may be prepared by
+drilling, casting, or in other convenient manner, but the apertures, of
+whatever form, should be placed as closely together as possible, and
+the finely divided lead to be peroxidized is pressed into the cells or
+cavities so as to fill their interiors only.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY, AND THE
+MINERALS OCCURRING THEREIN.
+
+By NELSON H. DARTON.
+
+
+There will be many persons in the city of New York and its suburbs who
+will not have the time or facilities for leaving town during the summer,
+to spend a part of their time enjoying the country, but would have
+sufficient time to take occasional recreation for short periods. I have
+sought by this paper to show a pleasurable, and at the same time very
+instructive use for the time of this latter class, and that is in
+mineralogy. In the surrounding parts of New York are many mineralogical
+localities, known to no others than a few professional mineralogists,
+etc., and from which an excellent assortment of minerals may be
+obtained, which would well grace a cabinet and afford considerable
+instruction and entertainment to their owner and friends, besides acting
+as an incentive to a further study of this and the other sciences. These
+localities which I will discuss are all within an hour's ride from New
+York, and the expenses inside of a half dollar, and generally very much
+less. I could detail many other places further off, but will reserve
+that for another paper.
+
+The course which I will pursue in my explanations I have purposely made
+very simple, avoiding--or when using, explaining--all technical terms.
+The apparatus and tests noticed are of the most rudimentary style
+consistent with that which is necessary to attain the simple purpose of
+distinguishment, and altogether I have prepared this paper for those
+having at the present time little or no knowledge or practice in
+mineralogy, while those having it can be led perhaps by the details of
+the localities noticed. Another reason why I have written so in detail
+of this last subject is, because the experiences of most amateur
+mineralogists are generally so very discouraging in their endeavors to
+find the minerals, and there is everything in giving a good start
+to properly fix the interest on the subject. The reason of these
+discouragements is simple, and generally because they do not know the
+portion of the locality, say, for instance, a certain township, in which
+the minerals occur. And if they do succeed in finding this, it is seldom
+that the portion in which the mineral occurs, which is generally some
+small inconspicuous vein or fissure, is found; and even in this it
+is generally difficult to recognize and isolate the mineral from the
+extraneous matter holding it. As an instance of this I might cite thus:
+Dana, in his text book on mineralogy, will mention the locality for
+a certain species, as Bergen Hill--say for this instance, dogtooth
+calespar. When we consider that Bergen Hill, in the limited sense of the
+expression, is ten miles long and fully one mile wide, and as the rock
+outcrops nearly all over it, and it is also covered with quarries,
+cuttings, etc., it may be seen that this direction is rather indefinite.
+To the professional mineralogist it is but an index, however, and he
+may consult the authority it is quoted from--the _American Journal of
+Science_, etc.--and thus find the part referred to, or by consulting
+other mineralogists who happen to know. Again, the person having found
+by inquiry that the part referred to is the Pennsylvania Railroad, and
+as this is fully a mile long and interspersed with various prominent
+looking, but veins of a mineral of little value, at any rate not the one
+in question, they are few who could suppose that it occurred in that.
+Apparently a vein of it would not be noticed at all from the surrounding
+rock of gravelly earth, but there it is, and in a vein of chlorite. This
+is so throughout the long and more or less complete stated lists of
+mineralogical localities. Thus I will, in describing the mineral, after
+explaining the conditions under which it occurs, give almost the
+exact spot where I have found the same mineral myself, and have left
+sufficiently fine specimens to carry away, and thus no time will be lost
+in going over fruitless ground, and further, this paper is written up to
+the date given at its end, insuring a necessary presence of them.
+
+In order that one not familiar with mineral specimens should not carry
+off from the various localities a variety of worthless stones, etc.,
+which are frequently more or less attractive to an inexperienced eye,
+the following hints may be salutary.
+
+There are the varieties of three minerals, which are very commonly met
+with in greater or less abundance in mineralogical trips: they are of
+calcite, steatite, and quartz. They occur in so many modifications of
+form, color, and condition that one might speedily form a cabinet of
+these, if they were taken when met with, and imagine it to be of great
+value. The first of these is calcite. It occurs as marble, limestone;
+calcspar, dogtooth spar, nail head spar, stalactites, and a number of
+other forms, which are only valuable when occurring in perfect crystals
+or uniquely set upon the rock holding it. The calcspar is extremely
+abundant at Bergen Hill, where it might be mistaken for many of the
+other minerals which I describe as occurring there, and even in
+preference to them, to one's great chagrin upon arriving home and
+testing it, to find that it is nothing but calcite. In order to avoid
+this and distinguish this mineral on the field, it should be tested with
+a single drop of acid, which on coming in contact with it bubbles up or
+effervesces like soda water, seidlitz powder, etc., while it does not do
+so with any of the minerals occurring in the same locality. This acid
+is prepared for use as follows: about twenty drops of muriatic acid are
+procured from a druggist in a half-ounce bottle, which is then filled up
+with water and kept tightly corked. It is applied by taking a drop out
+on a wisp of broom or a small minim dropper, which may be obtained at
+the druggist's also. I do not say that in every case this mineral should
+be rejected, because it is frequently very beautiful and worthy of place
+in a cabinet, but should be kept only under the conditions mentioned
+further on in this paper, under the head of "Calcite in Weehawken
+Tunnel."
+
+The next mineral abundant in so many forms is quartz, and is not so
+readily distinguished as calcite. It is found of every color, shape,
+etc., possible, and that which is found in any of the localities I am
+about to describe, with the exception of fine crystals on Staten Island,
+are of no value and may be rejected, unless answering in detail to the
+description given under Staten Island. The method of distinguishing the
+quartz is by its hardness, which is generally so great that it cannot be
+scratched by the point of a knife, or at least with great difficulty,
+and a fragment of it will scratch glass readily; thus it is
+distinguished from the other minerals occurring in the localities
+discussed in this paper.
+
+The other minerals so common are the varieties of steatite. This is
+especially so at Bergen Hill and Staten Island. They occur in amorphous
+masses generally, and may be distinguished by being so soft as to be
+readily cut by the finger nail. I will detail further upon the soapstone
+forms in discussing the localities on Staten Island, and the chloritic
+form under the head of "Weehawken Tunnel." The surest method of avoiding
+these and recognizing the others by their appearance, which is generally
+the only guide used by a professional mineralogist, is to copy off the
+lists of the various minerals I describe, and, by visiting the American
+Museum of Natural History on any week day except Mondays and Tuesdays,
+one may see and become familiar with the minerals they are going
+in quest of, besides others in the cases. This method is much more
+satisfactory than printed descriptions, and saves the labor of many of
+the distinguishing manipulations I am about to describe, besides saving
+the trouble of bringing inferior specimens of the minerals home.
+
+In going forth on a trip one should be provided with a mineralogical
+hammer, or one answering its purpose, and a cold chisel with which to
+detach or trim the minerals from adhering rocks, the bottle of acid
+before referred to, and a three cornered file for testing hardness,
+as explained further on. As I noticed before, the better plan of
+distinguishing a mineral is by being familiar with its appearance, but
+as this is generally impracticable, I will detail the modes used in
+lieu of this to be applied on bringing the minerals home. These
+distinguishments depend on difference in specific gravity, hardness,
+solubility in hot acids, and the action of high heat. I will explain the
+application of each one separately, commencing with--
+
+_The Specific Gravity_.--In ascertaining the specific gravity the
+following apparatus is necessary: a small pair of hand scales with a set
+of weights, from one grain to one ounce. These can be procured from the
+apparatus maker, the scales for about fifty cents, and the weights for
+not much over the same amount. The scales are prepared for this work by
+cutting two small holes in one of the scale pans, near together, with
+a pointed piece of metal, and tying a piece of silk thread about eight
+inches long into these. In a loop at the end of this thread the mineral
+to be examined is suspended. It should be a pure representative of the
+mineral it is taken from, should weigh about from one hundred grains to
+an ounce, and be quite dry and free from dirt. If the piece of mineral
+obtained is very large, this sized portion may be often taken from it
+without injury; but it will not do to mar the beauty of a mineral to
+ascertain its specific gravity, and it is generally only applicable
+when a small piece is at hand. With more weights, however, a piece of a
+quarter pound weight may be taken if necessary. The mineral is tied into
+the loop and weighed, the weight being set down in the note book, either
+in grains or decimal parts of an ounce. Call this result A. It is then
+weighed in some water held in a vessel containing about a quart, taking
+care while weighing it that it is entirely immersed, but at the same
+time does not touch either the sides or bottom. Both weighings should
+be accurate to a grain. This result we call B. The specific gravity is
+found by subtracting B from A, and dividing A by the remainder. For
+instance, if the mineral weighed eight hundred grains when weighed in
+the air, and in the water six hundred, giving us the equation: 800
+/ (800 - 600) = sp. gr., or 4, which is the specific gravity of
+the mineral. If the mineral whose specific gravity is sought is an
+incrustation on a rock, or a mixture of a number of minerals, or would
+break to pieces in the water, the specific gravity is by this method of
+course unattainable, and other data must be used.
+
+_The Comparative Hardness_.--The next characteristic of the mineral to
+be ascertained is the comparative hardness. In mineralogy there is a
+scale fixed for comparison, from 1 to 10, 10 being the hardest, the
+diamond, and Number 1 the soft soapstone. These and the intermediate
+minerals fixed upon the scale are generally inaccessible to those who
+may use the contents of this paper, and I will give some more familiar
+materials for comparison. 8, 9, and 10 are the topaz, sapphire, and
+diamond respectively, and as these and minerals of similar hardness will
+probably not be found in any of the localities of which I make mention,
+we need not become accustomed to them for the present. 7 is of
+sufficient hardness to scratch glass, and is also not to be cut with the
+file before mentioned, which is used for these determinations. 6 is
+of the hardness of ordinary French glass. 5 is about the hardness of
+horse-shoe or similar iron; 4 of the brown stone (sandstone) of which
+the fronts of many city buildings, etc., are built; 3 of marble; 2 of
+alabaster; and 1 as French chalk, or so soft as to be readily cut with
+the finger nail. The method of using and applying these comparisons is
+by having the above matters at hand, and compare them by the relative
+ease with which they can be cut by running the edge of the file over
+their surface. One will soon become familiar with the scale, and it
+may of course then be discarded. As it is one of the most important
+characteristics of some of the minerals, it should be carefully
+executed, and the result carefully considered. It is of course
+inapplicable under those conditions with minerals that are in very small
+crystals or in a fibrous condition.
+
+_Action of Hot Acids_.--This very important test is never, like the
+above, applicable upon the field, but applied when home is reached.
+From the body of the mineral as pure and clean as possible a portion is
+chipped, about the size of a small pea; this is wrapped in a piece of
+stiff wrapping paper, and after placing it in contact with a solid body,
+crushed finally by a blow from the hammer. A pinch of the powder so
+obtained is taken up on the point of a penknife, and transferred into
+a test tube. Two or more of these should be provided, about six inches
+long. They may be obtained in the apparatus shop for a trifle. Some
+hydrochloric, or, as it is generally called, muriatic acid, is poured
+upon it to the depth of about three quarters of an inch; the tube is
+then placed in some boiling water heated over a lamp in a tinned or
+other vessel, and allowed to boil for from ten to fifteen minutes;
+the tube is then removed and its contents allowed to cool, and then
+examined. If the powder has all disappeared, we term the mineral
+"soluble;" if more or less is dissolved, "partly soluble;" if none,
+"insoluble;" and if the contents of the tube are of a solid transparent
+mass like jelly, "gelatinous;" while if transparent gelatinous flakes
+are left, it is so termed. As this method of distinguishment is always
+applicable, it is very important, and its detail and result should be
+carefully noticed. Care should be taken that only a small portion of
+the mineral is used, and also but little acid; the action should be
+observed, and is frequently a characteristic, in the case with calcspar,
+which effervesces while dissolving. The acid used is hydrochloric at
+first, and then, if the mineral cannot he recognized, the same treatment
+may be repeated using nitric acid. Both of these acids should be at hand
+and two ounces are generally sufficient.
+
+_Action of Heat_.--This is, perhaps, the most important characteristic,
+and, when taken with the preceding data, will identify any of the
+minerals found in any one locality, which I will describe, from each
+other. The heat is applied to the mineral by means of a candle and
+blowpipe. A thick wax candle answers well, and an ordinary japanned tin
+blowpipe, costing twenty cents, will serve the purpose. The substance
+to be examined is held on a loop of platinum wire about one inch to the
+left and just below the top of the wick, which is bent toward it. Here
+it is steadily held, as is shown in Fig. 1, and the flame of the candle
+bent over upon it, and the heat intensified by blowing a steady and
+strong current of air across it by means of the blowpipe held in the
+mouth and supported by the right hand, whose elbow is resting upon the
+table. The current of air is difficult to keep up by one unaccustomed to
+the blowpipe, the skill of using which is readily obtained; it consists
+in breathing through the nostrils, while the air is forced out by
+pressure on the air held by the inflated cheeks, and not from the lungs.
+This can be practiced while not using the blow-pipe, and may readily
+be accomplished by one's keeping his cheeks distended with air and
+breathing at the same time.
+
+This heat is steadily applied until the splinter of mineral has been
+kept at a high red heat for a sufficient length of time to convince one
+of what it may do, as fuse or not, or on the edges. The first two
+are evident, as when it fuses it runs into a globule; the last, by
+inspecting it before and after the heating with a magnifying glass;
+sometimes it froths up when heated, and is then said to "intumesce;" or,
+if it flies to fragments, "decrepitates." Upon the first it is further
+heated; but in the latter case, a new splinter of mineral must be broken
+off from the mass and heated upon the wire very cautiously until quite
+hot, when it may then be readily heated further without fear of loss.
+For holding the splinter of mineral, which should well represent the
+mass and be quite small, is a three-inch length of platinum wire of the
+thickness of a cambric-needle; this may be bought for about ten cents at
+the apparatus shop. The ends should be looped, as is shown in Fig. 2,
+and the mineral placed in the loop.
+
+Sometimes a mineral has to be fused with borax, as I mention further
+on in my tables. This is done by heating the wire-loop to redness, and
+plunging it into some borax; what adheres is fused upon it by heating.
+Some more is accumulated in the same manner, until the loop is filled
+with a fair-sized globule. A small quantity of the mineral, which had
+been crushed as for the acid test, is caused to adhere to it while it is
+molten, and then the heat of the blast directed upon it for some time
+until either the small fragments of mineral dissolve, or positively
+refuse to do so. After cooling, the aspect of the globule is noticed as
+to color, transparency, etc. Care must be taken that too large an amount
+of the mineral is not taken, a very minute amount being sufficient.
+
+I trust by the use of these distinguishing reactions one will be able
+to recognize by the tables to be given the name of the mineral in hand,
+especially as they are from certain parts, where all the minerals
+occurring therein are known to us; and I have worded the characteristics
+so that they will serve to isolate from all that possibly could be found
+in that locality.
+
+The first general locality is Bergen Hill, New Jersey. This comprises
+the range of bluffs of trap rock commencing at Bergen Point and running
+up behind Jersey City and Hoboken, etc., to the part opposite about
+Thirtieth Street, New York, where it comes close to the river, and from
+there along the river to the north for a long distance, known as the
+Palisades. It is about a mile wide on an average, and from a few feet to
+about two hundred feet in height. The mineralogical localities in and
+upon it are at the following parts, commencing at the south: First
+Pennsylvania Railroad cuts where the mining operations are just about
+completed; then the Erie Tunnel, in which the specimens that first made
+Bergen Hill noted as a mineralogical locality, and whose equals have not
+since been procured, were found, but which is now inaccessible to the
+general public. Further north is the Morris and Essex Tunnel, in which
+many fine specimens were secured, and is also inaccessible; and last,
+but far from being least, is the Ontario Tunnel at Weehawken; and, as
+it is the only practicable part besides the Pennsylvania Railroad and a
+number of surface outcrops which I will mention, I will commence with
+that.
+
+_The Weehawken Tunnel_--This tunnel is now being cut through the
+trap-rock for the New York, Ontario, and Western Railroad, and will
+be completed in a few months, but will, probably, be available as a
+mineralogical locality for a year to come. It is located about half a
+mile south of the Weehawken Ferry from Forty-second Street, New York
+city, and the place where to climb upon the hill to get to the shafts
+leading to it is made prominent by the large body of light-colored rock
+on the dump, a few rods north of where the east entrance is to be. The
+western end is in the village of New Durham, on the New Jersey Northern
+Railroad, and recognized by the immense earth excavations. A pass is
+necessary to gain admittance down the shafts, and this can be procured
+from the office of the company, between the third and fourth shafts to
+the tunnel, in the grocery and provision store just to the north of
+the tramway connecting the shafts on the surface. As it will not be
+necessary to go down in any of the shafts besides the first and second
+in order to fulfill the objects of this paper, no difficulty need be
+encountered in procuring the pass if this is stated.
+
+These two shafts are about eight hundred feet apart and one hundred and
+seventy feet deep. A platform elevator is the mode of access to the
+tunneled portion below, and a free shower-bath is included in the
+descent; consequently, a rubber-coat and water tight boots are
+necessary. A pair of overalls should be worn if one is to engage in
+any active exploration below; candles should also be provided, as the
+electric lights, at the face of the headings, give but little light, and
+remind one very forcibly of a dim flash light with a foliaged tree in
+front of it. The electric wires for supplying these arrangements run
+along the north side of the tunnel for those on the east headings, and
+on the south side for the west. They are excellent things to keep clear
+of, as they have sufficient current passing through them to knock one
+down; thus their position can be readily ascertained.
+
+_Modes of Occurrence of the Minerals_.--In general, the greater number
+of the specimens which are to be found in the tunnel occur in veins
+generally perpendicular, and with other minerals of little or no value,
+as calcite, chlorite, and imperfect crystals of the same mineral. A
+few occur in nodules inclosed in the solid body of rock, and in which
+condition they are seldom of value. The greater abundance are in the
+veins of the dark-green soft chlorite, and some few in horizontal beds.
+The minerals are found in the first condition by examining all the veins
+running from floor to ceiling of the tunnel. The ores of calcite first
+mentioned are very conspicuous, they being white in the dense black
+rock. They may be chipped from, as there are about thirty or forty of
+them exposed in each shaft, and the character of the minerals examined
+to see if anything but calcite is in it. This is ascertained by a drop
+of acid, as explained before, and by the descriptions given further on.
+The veins of chlorite are not so conspicuous, being of a dark-green
+color; but by probing along the walls with a stick or hammer, they may
+be recognized by their softness, or by its dull glistening appearance.
+They are comparatively few, but from an inch to three feet wide; and
+minerals are found by digging it out with a stick or a three-foot drill,
+to be had at the headings. Where the most minerals occur in the chlorite
+is when plenty of veins of calcite are in its vicinity, and its edges
+near the trap are dry and crumbly. It is here where the minerals are
+found in this crumbly chlorite, and generally in geodes--that is, the
+faces of the minerals all point inward, formerly a spherical mass--rough
+and uncouth on the outside, and from half an inch to nearly a foot in
+diameter. These are valuable finds, and well worth digging for. The beds
+of minerals generally are of but one species, and will be mentioned
+under the head of the minerals occurring in them. Besides, in the tunnel
+there are generally more or less perfect minerals upon the main dump
+over the edge of the bluff toward the river. Here many specimens that
+have escaped the eyes of the miners may be found among the loose rock,
+being constantly strewn out by the incline of the bed; in fact, this is
+the only place in which quite a number of the incident minerals may be
+found; but I will not linger longer on this, as I shall refer to it
+under the minerals individually.
+
+The minerals occurring at the tunnel are as follows, with their
+descriptions and locations in the order of their greatest abundance:
+
+_Calcite_.--This mineral occurs in great abundance in and about the
+tunnel, and from all the shafts. There are two forms occurring there,
+the most abundant of which is the rhombohedral, after Fig. 3. It can
+generally be obtained, however, in excellent crystals, which, although
+perfect in form, are opaque, but often large and beautiful. It is always
+packed with a thousand or its multiple of other crystals into veins of a
+few inches thick; and crystals are obtained by carefully breaking with
+edge of the cold chisel these masses down to the fundamental form shown.
+As the masses are never secured by the miners, they can always be picked
+from the piles of _débris_ around the shafts and the dumps, and afford
+some little instruction as to the manner in which a mineral is built up
+by crystallization, and may be subdivided by cleavage to a crystal of
+the same shape exactly, but infinitesimally small. A crystal to be worth
+preserving should be about an inch in diameter, and as transparent as is
+attainable.
+
+Another form of calcite which is to be sparingly found is what is called
+dogtooth spar, having the form shown in Fig. 4. They occur in clear
+wine-yellow-colored crystals, from a quarter to half an inch in length;
+they occur in the chlorite in geodes of variable sizes, but generally
+two and a half inches in diameter, and which, when carefully broken in
+half, showed beautiful grottoes of these crystals. The few of these that
+I have found were in the four-foot vein of chlorite down the Shaft No.
+1, to the west of the shaft about one hundred and fifty feet, and on
+the south wall; it may be readily found by probing for it, and then the
+geodes by digging in. There need be no difficulty in finding this vein
+if these conditions are carefully considered, or if one of the miners
+be asked as to the soft vein. Both these forms of calcite may be
+distinguished from the other minerals by first effervescing on coming
+in contact with the acids; second, by glowing with an intense (almost
+unbearably so) light when heated with the blowpipe, but not fusing.
+Their specific gravity is 2.6, or near it, and hardness about 3, or
+equal to ordinary unpolished white marble.
+
+_Natrolite_.--The finest specimens of this mineral that have ever been
+found in Bergen Hill were taken from a bed of it in this tunnel, having
+in its original form, before it was cut out by the tunnel passing
+through, over one hundred square feet, and from one-half to two and a
+half and even three inches in thickness; it was in all possible shapes
+and forms--all extremely rare and beautiful. A large part of one end
+of this bed still remains, and, by careful cutting, fine masses may be
+obtained. This bed may be readily found; it is nearly horizontal, and in
+its center about four feet from the floor of the tunnel, and about half
+an inch thick. It is down Shaft No. 2, on the north wall, and commences
+about eighty feet from the shaft. It is cut into in some places, but
+there is plenty more left, and can be obtained by cutting the rock
+above it and easing it out by means of the blade of a knife or similar
+instrument. This natrolite is a grouping of very small but perfect
+crystals, having the forms shown in Fig. 5; they are from a quarter to
+an inch long, and, if not perfectly transparent, are of a pure white
+color; they may be readily recognized by their form, and occurring in
+this bed. Its hardness, which is seldom to be ascertained owing to the
+delicacy of the crystals, is about 5, and the specific gravity 2.2.
+This is readily found, but is no distinction; its reaction before the
+blowpipe, however, is characteristic, it readily fusing to a transparent
+globule, clear and glassy, and by forming a jelly when heated with
+acids. The bed holding the upright crystals is also natrolite in
+confused matted masses. This mineral has also been found in other parts
+of the shaft, but only in small druses. There is a prospect at present
+that another bed will be uncovered soon, and some more fine specimens to
+be easily obtained.
+
+_Pectolite_, or as it is termed by the miners, "silky spar."--This
+mineral is quite abundant and in fine masses, not of the great beauty
+and size of those taken from the Erie Tunnel, but still of great
+uniqueness. The mineral is recognized by its peculiar appearance, as
+is shown in Fig. 6, where it may be seen that it is in groups of
+fine delicate fibers about an inch long, diverging from a point into
+fan-shaped groups. The fibers are very tightly packed together, as are
+also the groups; they are very tough individually, and have a hardness
+of 4, and a specific gravity of about 2.5. It gelatinizes on boiling
+with acid, and a fragment may be readily fused in the blowpipe flame,
+yielding a transparent globule. The appearance is the most striking
+characteristic, and at once distinguishes this mineral from any of the
+others occurring in this locality. Considerable quantities of pectolite
+may generally be found on the dump, but also in Shaft No. 1, and
+especially No. 2. The veins of it are difficult to distinguish from the
+calcite, as they are almost identical in color, and many of the calcite
+veins are partly of pectolite--in fact, every third or fourth vein will
+contain more or less of it. There is, however, a very fine vein of
+pectolite about twenty-five feet further east from the natrolite bed; it
+runs from the floor to ceiling, and is about two inches in thickness;
+some specimens of which I took from these were unusually unique in both
+size and appearance. It makes a very handsome specimen for the cabinet,
+and should be carefully trimmed to show the characteristics of the
+mineral.
+
+_Datholite_.--This mineral has been found very frequently in the tunnel,
+it occurring in pockets in the softer trap near the chlorite, and also
+in the latter, generally at a depth of one hundred and fifty feet from
+the surface, and consequently near the ceiling of the tunnel. All that
+has been found of any great beauty has been in the western end of the
+Shaft No. 1 and the eastern of Shaft No. 2, where the trap is quite
+soft; here it is found nearly every day in greater or less quantity, and
+from this some may generally be found on the dump, or, in the vein
+of chlorite which I mentioned as a locality for the dogtooth spar,
+considerable may be obtained in it and on its western edge near the
+ceiling. A ladder about thirteen feet long is used for attending the
+lights, and may generally be borrowed, and access to the remainder
+of this pocket thus gained. Datholite is also very characteristic in
+appearance, and can only be confounded with some forms of calcite
+occurring near it. It occurs in small glassy, nearly globular crystals;
+they are generally not over three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and
+generally pure and perfectly transparent, having a hardness of a little
+over 5, and specific gravity of 3; as it generally occurs as a druse
+upon the trap, or an apopholite, calcite, etc., this is seldom
+attainable, however, and we have a very distinctive characteristic in
+another test: this is the blowpipe, under which it at first intumesces
+and then fuses to a transparent globule, and the flame, after playing
+upon it, is of a deep green color. Nitric acid must be used to boil it
+up with, and with it it may be readily gelatinized. This last test will
+seldom be necessary, however, and may be dispensed with if the hardness
+and blowpipe reactions may be ascertained.
+
+_Apopholite_.--This beautiful mineral has been found in fair abundance
+at times in Shafts No. 1 and 2 in pockets, and seldom in place, most of
+it being taken from the loose stone at the mouth of the shaft, and it
+may generally be found on the dump. It is readily mistaken for calcite
+by the miners and those unskilled in mineralogy, but a drop of acid will
+quickly show the difference. The sizes of the crystals are very various,
+from an eighth of an inch long or thick, to, in one case, an inch and
+a half. The colors have been varied from white to nearly all tints,
+including pink, purple, blue, and green; the white variety is, however,
+the most abundant, and makes a handsome cabinet specimen. The crystals
+are generally packed together in a mass, but are frequently set apart as
+heavy druses of crystals having the form shown in Fig. 7. Sometimes,
+as in the former grouping, the crystals are without the pyramidal
+terminations, and are then right square prisms. The fracture being at
+perfect right angles, distinguishes it from calcite. Its hardness is
+generally fully 5, the specific gravity between 2.4 and 2.5; it is
+difficult to fuse before the blowpipe, but is finally fused into an
+opaque globule. Upon heating with nitric acid it partly dissolves, and
+the remainder becomes flaky and gelatinous. Apopholite, although quite
+rare, now may be bought from the men, or at least one of the engineers
+of Shaft No. 2's elevator, and generally at low terms.
+
+_Phrenite_.--This mineral is quite abundant in Shafts No. 1 and 2, in
+very small masses, incrustations, and even in small crystals. It
+occurs embedded in or incrusting the trap, and also with calcite and
+apopholite. The only sure place to find it is at the southwest side of
+an opening through the pile of drift rock under the trestle work of the
+tramway, between shaft No. 1 and the dump, and within a few feet of a
+number of wooden vats sunk into the ground seen just before descending
+the hills and near the edge. Here on a number of blocks of trap it may
+be found, a greenish white incrustation about as thick as a knife blade;
+it also may be found on the main dump, and is sometimes found in plates
+one-eighth of an inch thick, of a darker green color, upon calcite. Its
+easiest distinguishment from the other minerals of this locality, with
+which it might be confounded, is its great hardness of from 6 to 7.
+It is very fragile and brittle, however, and is never perfectly
+transparent, but quite opaque; its specific gravity is 2.9, and it is
+readily fused before the blowpipe after intumescing. It partly dissolves
+in acid without gelatinizing, leaving a flaky residue; it is a beautiful
+mineral when in masses or crystals of a dark green color, but the best
+place in the vicinity to secure specimens of this kind is, as I will
+detail hereafter, at Paterson, N. J.
+
+_Iron and Copper Pyrites_.--Both of these common but frequently
+beautiful minerals occur in the tunnel and adjacent rocks in great
+abundance. The crystals are generally about one-fourth of an inch in
+diameter, and groups of these may be frequently obtained on the dump in
+the shafts, especially No. 1 and 2, and where the rock is being cleared
+away for the eastern entrance to the tunnel. They resemble each other
+very much; the iron pyrites, however, is in cubical forms and having the
+great hardness of from 6 to 7, while the copper pyrites, less abundant
+and in forms having triangles for bases, but having sometimes other
+forms and a hardness of but 3 to 4. Both are similar in aspect to a
+piece of brass, and cannot be mistaken for any other mineral. The form
+of the copper pyrites is shown in Fig. 8; the iron is, as before noted,
+in cubes, more or less modified.
+
+_Stilbite_.--Small quantities of this beautiful mineral have been found
+in Shaft No. 2, in a small bed of but a few square feet in area, but
+quite thick and appearing much like natrolite. This bed was about one
+hundred feet east from Shaft No. 2, and in the center of the heading
+when it was at that point. It has been encountered since in small
+quantities, and it would do well to look out for it in the fresh
+tunneled portion after the date appended to this paper. It generally
+occurs in the form shown in Fig. 9, grouped very similarly to natrolite,
+and being right upon the rock or a thin bed of itself. The crystals are
+generally half an inch long, but often less. The modifications of the
+above form, which are frequent in this species, strike one forcibly of
+the resemblance they bear to a broad stone spear head on a diminutive
+scale, with a blunted edge; their hardness is about 4, specific gravity
+2.2, the color generally a pearly white or grayish. After a long
+boiling with nitric acid it gelatinizes, but it foams up and fuses to a
+transparent glass before the blowpipe. A little stilbite may often be
+found on the dumps.
+
+_Laumonite_ occurs in very small quantities on calcite or apopholite,
+and can hardly be expected to be found on the trip; but as it might be
+found, I will detail some of its characteristics. Hardness 4, specific
+gravity 2.3; it generally occurs in small crystals, but more frequently
+in a crumbly, chalky mass, which it becomes upon exposure to the air.
+The crystals are generally transparent and frequently tinged yellow in
+color. It gelatinizes by boiling with acid, and after intumescing before
+the blowpipe, fuses to a frothy mass. To keep this mineral when in
+crystals from crumbling upon exposure it may be dipped in a thin mastic
+varnish or in a gum-arabic solution.
+
+_Heulandite_.--This rare mineral has been found under the same
+conditions as laumonite in Shaft No. 2, but it is seldom to be met with,
+and then in small crystals. It is of a pure white color, sometimes
+transparent. It intumesces and readily fuses before the blowpipe, and
+dissolves in acid without gelatinizing. Hardness 4, specific gravity
+2.2.
+
+The few other minerals occurring in the tunnel are so extremly rare as
+not to be met with by any other than an expert, and it is impossible
+to detail the localities, as they generally occur as minute druses or
+incrustations upon other minerals with which they may be confounded, and
+have been removed as soon as discovered. The minerals referred to are
+analcime, chabazite, Thompsonite, and finally, the mineral which I first
+found in this formation, Hayesine, which is extremely rare, and of which
+I only obtained sufficient to cover a square inch. The particulars in
+regard to its locality, etc., maybe found in the _American Journal of
+Sciences_ for June, page 458. I will now sum up the characteristics of
+these several minerals of this locality in the table:
+
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+   Name.  |  H. |Sp.|Action of        |Action of        |Color.|Appearance.
+          |     |Gr.|Blowpipe.        |hot acid.        |      |
+----------+-----+---+-----------------+-----------------+------+---------------
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Calcite   |  3  |2.6|Infusible,       |Soluble with     |White |Like Fig.
+          |     |   |but glows        |effervescence    |      |3 and 4.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Natrolite |  5  |2.2|Readily fused    |Forms a jelly    |  do. |Like Fig 5.
+          |     |   |to clear globule |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Pectolite |  4  |2.5|      do.        |  do.  do.       |  do. |Divergent
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |fibers, Fig. 6.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Datholite |  5  |3.0|Intumesces, fused|Forms a jelly    |Color-|Small, nearly
+          |     |   |to clear globule,|                 |less  |spherical, etc.
+          |     |   |gives green flame|                 |white |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Apopholite|  5  |2.5|Difficult, fused |Partly soluble   |Tinted|Like Fig. 7.
+          |     |   |to opaque globule|in nitric acid   |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Phrenite  |  6  |2.9|Intomesces, fused|Partly soluble   |Green-|In tables and
+          |to 7 |   |to clear globule |in nitric acid,  |ish   |incrustations.
+          |     |   |                 |leaving flakes   |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Iron      |  6  |5.0|Burns and yields |                 |Brass |Cubical.
+pyrites   |to 7 |   |a black globule, |                 |      |
+          |     |   |decrepitates     |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Copper    |  3  |4.2|    do.     do.  |                 |  do. |Tetrahedronal.
+pyrites   |to 4 |   |                 |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Stilbite  |  4  |2.2|Intumesces and   |Difficult; jelly |White |Like Fig. 8.
+          |     |   |fuses readily    |on long boiling  |      |
+          |     |   |                 |with nitric acid.|      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Laumonite |  4  |2.3|Intumesces and   |Readily          |  do. |Generally
+          |to 0 |   |fuses to frothy  |gelatinizes      |      |chalky.
+          |     |   |mass             |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Heulandite|  4  |2.2|Intumesces and   |Soluble, no      |  do. |In right
+          |     |   |readily fuses    |jelly            |      |rhomboidal
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |prisms.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+_To Distinguish the Minerals together the one from the other_.--Calcite
+by effervescing on placing a drop of acid upon it. Natrolite resembles
+stilbite, but may be distinguished by gelatinizing readily with
+hydrochloric acid and by not intumescing when heated before the
+blowpipe; from the other minerals by the form of the crystals and their
+setting, also the locality in the tunnel in which it was found.
+
+Pectolite sometimes resembles some of the others, but may be readily
+distinguished by its _tough_ long fibers, not brittle like natrolite.
+Datholite may generally be distinguished by the form of its crystals and
+their glassy appearance, with great hardness, and by tingeing the flame
+from the blowpipe of a true green color. Apopholite is distinguished
+from calcite, as noticed under that species, and from the others by its
+form, difficult fusibility, and part solubility.
+
+Phrenite is characterized by its hardness, greenish color, occurrence,
+and action of acid. Iron pyrites is always known by its brassy metallic
+aspect and great hardness. Copper pyrites, by its aspect from the other
+minerals, and from iron pyrites by its inferior hardness and less
+gravity.
+
+Stilbite is characterized by its form, difficult gelatinizing, and
+intumescence before the blowpipe; from natrolite as mentioned under that
+species.
+
+Laumonite is known by its generally chalky appearance and a probable
+failure in finding it.
+
+Heulandite is distinguished from stilbite by its crystals and perfect
+solubility; from apopholite by form of crystals.
+
+In the next part of this paper I will commence with Staten Island.
+
+July 1, 1882. (_To be continued_.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANTISEPTICS.
+
+
+The author has endeavored to ascertain what agents are able to destroy
+the spores of bacilli, how they behave toward the microphytes most
+easily destroyed, such as the moulds, ferments, and micrococci, and if
+they suffice at least to arrest the development of these organisms in
+liquids favorable to their multiplication. His results with phenol,
+thymol, and salicylic acid have been unfavorable. Sulphurous acid
+and zinc chloride also failed to destroy all the germs of infection.
+Chlorine, bromine, and mercuric chloride gave the best results;
+solutions of mercuric chloride, nitrate, or sulphate diluted to 1 part
+in 1,000 destroy spores in ten minutes.--_R. Koch_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTALLIZATION AND ITS EFFECTS UPON IRON.
+
+By N.B. WOOD, Member of the Civil Engineers' Club, of Cleveland.
+
+[Footnote: Read January 10th. 1882.]
+
+
+The question has been asked, "What is the chemically scientific
+definition of crystallization?" Now as the study of crystallization and
+its effect upon matter, physically as well as chemically, will be of
+interest, considering the subject matter for discussion, I shall not
+only endeavor to answer the question, as I understand it, but try to
+treat it somewhat technologically.
+
+Having this object in view, I have prepared or brought about the
+conditions necessary to the formation of a few crystals of various
+chemical substances, which for various reasons, such as lack of time and
+bad weather, are not as perfect as could be desired, but will perhaps
+subserve the purpose for which they were designed. I think you will
+agree with me that they are beautiful, if they are imperfect, and I can
+assure you that the pleasure of watching their formation fully repays
+one for the trouble, if for no other reason than the mere gratification
+of the senses. From the earliest times and by all races of men, the
+crystal has been admired and imitated, or improved by cutting and
+polishing into faces of various substances. I have also procured
+specimens of steel and iron which show the effect of crystallization,
+which was produced (perhaps) under known conditions, so that the
+conclusions which we arrive at from their study will have a fair chance
+of being logical, at least, and perhaps of some practical value.
+
+When we examine inanimate nature we find two grand divisions of matter,
+_fluid_ and _solid_. These two divisions may be subdivided into, the
+former gaseous and liquid, the latter amorphous and crystalline; but
+whether one or the other of these divisions be considered, their
+ultimate and common division will be the ATOM. By the atom we understand
+that portion of matter which admits of no further division, which,
+though as inconceivable for minuteness as space is for extent, has still
+definite weight, form, and volume; which under favorable circumstances,
+has that power or force called cohesion, the intensity of which
+constitutes strength of material, which every engineer is supposed to
+understand, but which lies far beyond the powers of the human mind for
+comprehension or analysis. When we apply a magnet to a mass of iron
+filings, we observe the particles arrange themselves in regular order,
+having considerable strength in one direction, and very little or none
+in any other. Now, although we understand very little about the force
+which holds these particles in position, we do know that it is actual
+force applied from without and maintained at the expense of some of the
+known sources of force. But the force or power or property of cohesion
+seems to be a quality stored within the atom itself, in many cases
+similar to magnetism, having powerful attraction in some directions
+and very little or none in others. A crystal of mica, for instance, or
+gypsum may be divided to any degree of thinness, but is very difficult
+to even break. This property of crystals is termed cleavage. Cohesion
+and crystallization are affected variously by various circumstances,
+such as heat or its absence, motion or its absence, etc. In fact, almost
+every phenomenon of nature within the range of ordinary temperatures
+has effects which may be favorable to the crystallization of some
+substances, and at the same time unfavorable to others; so it will be
+seen that it is impossible to lay down any rule for it except for named
+substances, like substances requiring like conditions, to bring its
+atoms into that state of equilibrium where crystallization can occur.
+If we examine crystals carefully we find, not only that nature has here
+provided geometric forms of marvelous beauty and exactness, with faces
+of polish and quoins of acuteness equal to the work of the most skillful
+lapidist, "but that in whatever manner or under whatever circumstances a
+crystal may have been formed, whether in the laboratory of the chemist
+or the workshop of nature, in the bodies of animals or the tissues of
+plants, up in the sky or in the depths of the earth, whether so rapidly
+that we may literally see its growth, or by the slow aggregation of its
+molecules during perhaps thousands of years, we always find that the
+arrangement of the faces is subject to fixed and definite laws." We find
+also that a crystal is always finished and has its form as perfectly
+developed when it is the minutest point discernible by the microscope as
+when it has attained its ultimate growth. I might add parenthetically
+that crystals are sometimes of immense size, one at Milan of quartz
+being 3 feet 3 inches long and 5 feet 6 inches in circumference, and is
+estimated to weigh over 800 pounds; and a gigantic beryl at Grafton, N.
+H., is over 4 feet in length and 32 inches in diameter, and weighs not
+less than 5,000 pounds; but the most perfect specimens are of small
+size, as some accident is sure to overtake the larger ones before they
+acquire their growth, to interfere with their symmetry or transparency.
+This you will see abundantly illustrated by the examples which I have
+prepared, as also the constancy of the angles of like faces. Chemically
+speaking, the crystal is always a perfect chemical body, and can never
+be a mechanical mixture. This fact has been of great value to the
+science of chemistry in developing the atomic theory, which has
+demonstrated that a body can only exist chemically combined when a
+definite number of atoms of each element is present, and that there is
+no certainty of such proportions existing except in the crystal. I
+hold before you a crystal of common alum. Its chemical symbol would be
+Al_{2}O_{3},3SO_{3}+KO,SO_{3}+24H_{2}O. If we knew its weight and wished
+to know its ultimate component parts, we could calculate them more
+readily than we could acquire that knowledge by any other means. But the
+elements of this quantity of uncrystallized alum could not be computed.
+Then we may define crystallization to be the operation of nature wherein
+the chemical atoms or molecules of a substance have sufficient polarized
+force to arrange themselves about a central attracting point in definite
+geometrical forms.
+
+Fresenius defines it thus: "_Every operation, or process, whereby bodies
+are made to pass from the fluid to the solid state, and to assume_
+certain fixed, _mathematically definable, regular forms_." It would be
+folly for me to attempt to criticise Fresenius, but I give you both
+definitions, and you can take your choice. The definition of Fresenius,
+however, will not suit our present purpose, because the crystallization
+of wrought iron occurs, or seems to, _after_ the iron has acquired a
+_solid state_.
+
+Iron, as you all know, is known to the arts in three forms: cast or
+crude, steel, and wrought or malleable. Cast iron varies much in
+chemical composition, being a mixture of iron and carbon chiefly, as
+constant factors, with which silicium in small quantities (from 1 to
+5 per cent.), phosphorus, sulphur, and sometimes manganese (e.g.
+spiegeleisen) and various other elements are combined. All of these have
+some effect upon the crystalline structure of the mass, but whatever
+crystallization takes place occurs at the moment of solidification, or
+between that and a red heat, and varies much, according to the time
+occupied in cooling, as to its composition. My own experience leads me
+to think that a cast iron having about 3 per cent. of carbon, a small
+per centage of phosphorus, say about ½ of 1 per cent., and very small
+quantities of silicium, the less the better, and traces of manganese
+(the two latter substances _slagging_ out almost entirely during the
+process of remelting for casting), makes a metal best adapted to the
+general use of the founder. Such proportions will make a soft, even
+grained, dark gray iron, whose crystals are small and bright, and whose
+fracture will be uneven and sharp to the touch. The phosphorus in this
+instance gives the metal liquidity at a low temperature, but does not
+seem to influence the crystallization to any appreciable extent. The two
+elements to be avoided by the founder are silicium and sulphur. These
+give to iron a peculiar crystalline appearance easily recognized by
+an experienced person. Silicium seems to obliterate the sparkling
+brilliancy of the crystalline faces of good iron, and replace them with
+very fine dull ones only discernible with a lens, and the iron breaks
+more like stoneware than metal, while sulphur in appreciable quantities
+gives a striated crystalline texture similar to chilled iron, and very
+brittle. Phosphorus in very large quantities acts similarly. The form of
+the crystal in cast iron is the octahedron, so that right angles with
+sharp corners should be avoided as much as possible in castings, as the
+most likely position for a crystal to take would be with its faces along
+the line of the angle. Steel, to be of any value as such, _must_ be made
+of the purest material. Phosphorus and sulphur _must_ not exist, except
+in the most minute quantities, or the metal is worthless. If either of
+these substances be present in a bar of steel, its structure will
+be coarse, crystalline and weak. The reason of this is unknown, but
+probably their presence reduces the power of cohesion; and, that being
+reduced, gives the molecules of steel greater freedom to arrange
+themselves in conformity with their polarity, and this in its turn again
+weakens the mass by the tendency of the crystals to cleavage in certain
+directions. Carbon is a constant element in steel, as it is in cast
+iron, but is frequently replaced by chromium, titanium, etc., or is said
+to be, though it is not quite clear to me how it can be so if steel is
+a chemical compound. However this may be, we know that a piece of good
+soft steel breaks with a fine crystalline fracture, and the same piece
+hardened when broken shows either an amorphous structure or one very
+finely crystalline, which would indicate that the crystals had been
+broken up by the action of heat, and that they had not had sufficient
+time to return to their original position on account of the sudden
+cooling. The tendency of the molecules of steel after hardening to
+assume their natural position when cold seems to be very great, for we
+have often seen large pieces of steel burst asunder after hardening,
+though lying untouched, and sometimes with such force as to hurl the
+fragments to some distance. If a piece of steel be subjected to a bright
+yellow or white heat its nature is entirely changed, and the workman
+says it is burnt. Though this is not actually a fact, it does well
+enough to express that condition of the metal. Steel cannot be burnt
+unless some portion of it has been oxidized. The carbon would of course
+be attacked first, its affinity for oxygen being greatest; but we find
+nothing wanting in a piece of burnt steel. It can, by careful heating,
+hammering and hardening, be returned to its former excellence. Then what
+change has taken place? I should say that two modifications have been
+made, one physical, the other chemical. The change chemically is that
+of a chemical compound to a mixture of carbon and iron, so that in a
+chemical sense it resembles cast iron. The change physically is that of
+crystallization, being due partly to chemical change and partly to the
+effect of heat. I have procured a specimen of steel showing beautifully
+the effect of overheating. The specimen is labeled No. 1, and is a piece
+of Park Brothers' steel (one of the best brands made in America). It has
+been heated at one end to proper heat for hardening, and at the other is
+what is technically called "burnt." It has been broken at intervals
+of about 1½ inches, showing the transition from amorphous or proper
+hardening to highly crystalline or "burnt." Malleable or wrought iron
+is or should be pure iron. Of course in practice it is seldom such, but
+generally nearly so, being usually 98, 99, or even more per cent. It is
+exceedingly prone to crystallization, the purer varieties being as much
+subject to it as others, except those contaminated with phosphorus,
+which affects it similarly with steel, and makes it very weak to cross
+and tensile strains. I have never estimated the quantity present in any
+except one specimen, a bar of 1½ round, which literally fell to pieces
+when dropped across a block of iron. It had 1.32 per cent. of phosphorus
+and was very crystalline, though the crystals were not very large. Iron
+which has been, when first made, quite fibrous, when subjected to a
+series of shocks for a greater or less period, according to their
+intensity, when subjected to intense currents of electricity, or when
+subjected to high temperatures, or has by mechanical force been pushed
+together, or, as it is called, upset, becomes extremely crystalline.
+Under all of these circumstances it is subjected to one physical
+phenomenon, that of motion. It would seem that if a bar of iron were
+struck, the blow would shake the whole mass, and consequently the
+relative position of the particles remain unchanged, but this is not the
+case. When the blow is struck it takes an appreciable length of time for
+the effect to be communicated to the other end so as to be heard, if the
+distance is great. This shows that a small force is communicated from
+particle to particle independently along the whole mass, and that each
+atom actually moves independently of its neighbor. Then, if there be
+any attraction at the time tending to arrange it differently, it will
+conform to it. So much for theory with regard to this important matter.
+It looks well on paper, but do the facts of the case correspond? If
+practically demonstrated and systematically executed, experiments fail
+to corroborate the theory, and if, furthermore, we find there is no
+necessity for the theory, we naturally conclude that it is all wrong,
+or, at least, imperfectly understood. Now there is one other quality
+imparted to iron by successive shocks, which, I think, is independent
+of crystallization, and this quality is hardness and consequent
+brittleness. One noticeable feature about this also is, that as
+"absolute cohesion" or tensile strength diminishes, "relative cohesion"
+or strength to resist crushing increases. Specimens Nos. 2, 3, and 4 are
+pieces of Swedish iron, probably from the celebrated mines of Dannemora.
+Nos. 2 and 3 are parts of the same bolt, which, after some months' use
+on a "heading machine" in a bolt and nut works, where it was subjected
+to numerous and violent shocks, (perhaps 50,000 or 60,000 per day),
+it broke short off, as you see in No 2, showing a highly crystalline
+fracture. To test whether this structure continued through the bolt, I
+had it nicked by a blacksmith's cold chisel and broken. The specimen
+shows that it is still stronger at that point than at the point where
+it is actually broken, but the resulting fracture shows the same
+crystalline appearance. I next had specimen No. 4 cut from a fresh
+bar of iron which had never been used for anything. It also shows a
+crystalline fracture, indicating that this peculiarity had existed in
+the iron of both from the beginning.
+
+I next took specimen No. 3 and subjected it to a careful annealing,
+taking perhaps two hours in the operation. Although it is a 1-1/8 bolt
+and has V threads cut upon it we were unable to break it, although bent
+cold through an arc of 90°, and probably would have doubled upon itself
+if we had had the means to have forced it. Now what does this show? Have
+the crystals been obliterated by the process of annealing, or has only
+their cleavage been destroyed, so that when they break, instead of
+showing brilliant, sparkling faces, they are drawn into a fibrous
+looking mass? The latter seems to be the most plausible theory, to which
+I admit objections may be raised. For my own part, I am inclined to the
+belief that the crystal exists in all iron which is finished above a
+bright red heat, and that between that and black heat they are formed
+and have whatever characteristics circumstances may confer upon them,
+modified by the action of agencies heretofore mentioned.
+
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American
+Supplement, August 5, 1882</title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 344,
+August 5, 1882, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 344, August 5, 1882
+
+Author: Various
+
+Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8717]
+Release Date: August, 2005
+First Posted: August 3, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 344 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles
+Franks and the Distributed Proofreaders Team
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1a.png"><img src=
+"images/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
+
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 344</h1>
+
+<h2>NEW YORK, August 5, 1882</h2>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 344.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+
+<hr>
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">I.</td>
+<td><a href="#1">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--The Panama Canal. By
+MANUEL EISSLER. I.--Historical notes.--Spanish Discoveries in
+Central America.--Early explorations.--Nicaragua projects.--Panama
+railway, etc.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#2">Improved Averaging Machine.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#3">Compound Beam Engine. 4 figures.--Borsig's
+improved compound beam engine.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#4">Power Hammers with Movable Fulcrum.--By DANIEL
+LONGWORTH. 5 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#5">The Bicheroux System of Furnaces Applied to the
+Puddling of Iron. 2 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#6">Gessner's Continuous Cloth Pressing Machine. 3
+figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#7">Novelties in Ring Spindles. 4 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#8">Improvements in Woolen Carding Engines.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">II.</td>
+<td><a href="#9">NATURAL HISTORY.--Metamorphosis of the Deer's
+Antlers.--Annual changes. 9 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#10">Monkeys. By A.R. WALLACE.--Comparison of
+skeletons of man, orang outang, and chimpanzee.--Other anatomical
+resemblances and diversities.--The different kinds of monkeys and
+the countries they inhabit.--American monkeys.--Lemurs.
+--Distribution, affinities, and zoological rank of
+monkeys.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#11">Silk Producing Bombyces and other Lepidoptera
+reared in 1881. By ALFRED WAILLY, Member Lauriat de la Societe
+d'Acclimatation de France.--An extended and important European,
+Asiatic, and American silk worms, and other silk
+producers.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">III.</td>
+<td><a href="#12">MINERALOGY, METALLURGY, ETC.--The Mineralogical
+Localities In and Around New York City and the Minerals Occurring
+Therein.--By NELSON H. DARTON.--Chances for collecting within one
+hour's ride of New York.--Methods of collecting and
+testing.--Localities on Bergen Hill.--The Weehawken
+Tunnel.--Minerals and modes of
+occurrence.--Calcite.--Natrolite.--Pectolite.--Datholite.
+--Apopholite.--Phrenite.--Iron and copper pyrites.
+--Stilbite.--Laumonite.--Heulandite.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#13">Antiseptics.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#14">Crystallization and its Effects Upon Iron. By
+N.B. WOOD.-- Beauty of Crystals.--Nature of
+cohesion.--Cleavage.--Growth of crystals.--Some large
+crystals.--Cast iron.--Influence of phosphorus and sulphur.--Nature
+of steel.--Burnt steel.--Effect of annealing.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IV.</td>
+<td><a href="#15">ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--The Cathedral of Burgos,
+Spain. --Full page illustration from photograph.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#16">Description of Burgos Cathedral.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#17">Photo-Engraving on Zinc and Copper. By LEON
+VIDAL.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#18">Meridian Line.--A surveyor's method of finding
+the true meridian.--By R.W. MCFARLAND.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">V.</td>
+<td><a href="#19">ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electro Mania. By W. MATTIEU
+WILLIAMS.--Example of electrical exaggeration and delusion.--Early
+scientific attempts at electro-motors, electric lamps,
+etc.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#20">Action of Magnets Upon the Voltaic Arc. By TH. DU
+MONCEL. 2 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#21">Volckmar's Secondary Batteries.</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="9"></a></p>
+
+<h2>METAMORPHOSIS OF THE DEER'S ANTLERS.</h2>
+
+<p>Every year in March the deer loses its antlers, and fresh ones
+immediately begin to grow, which exceed in size those that have
+just been lost. Few persons probably have been able to watch and
+observe the habits of the animal after it has lost its antlers. It
+will, therefore, be of interest to examine the accompanying
+drawings, by Mr. L. Beckmann, one of them showing a deer while
+shedding its antlers, and the other as the animal appears after
+losing them. In the first illustration the animal has just lost one
+of its antlers, and fright and pain cause it to throw its head
+upward and become disturbed and uneasy. The remaining antler draws
+down one side of the head and is very inconvenient for the animal.
+The remaining antler becomes soon detached from its base, and the
+deer turns--as if ashamed of having lost its ornament and
+weapon--lowers its head, and sorrowfully moves to the adjoining
+thicket, where it hides. A friend once observed a deer losing its
+antlers, but the circumstances were somewhat different. The animal
+was jumping over a ditch, and as soon as it touched the further
+bank it jumped high in the air, arched its back, bent its head to
+one side in the manner of an animal that has been wounded, and then
+sadly approached the nearest thicket, in the same manner as the
+artist has represented in the accompanying picture. Both antlers
+dropped off and fell into the ditch.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1b.png"><img src=
+"images/1b_th.jpg" alt=
+"METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--FIRST STAGE."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--FIRST STAGE.</p>
+
+<p>Strong antlers are generally found together, but weak ones are
+lost at intervals of two or three days. A few days after this loss
+the stumps upon which the antlers rested are covered with a skin,
+which grows upward very rapidly, and under which the fresh antlers
+are formed, so that by the end of July the bucks have new and
+strong antlers, from which they remove the fine hairy covering by
+rubbing them against young trees. It is peculiar that the huntsman,
+who knows everything in regard to deer, and has seventy-two signs
+by which he can tell whether a male or female deer passes through
+the woods, does not know at what age the deer gets its first
+antlers and how the antlers indicate the age of the animal. Prof.
+Altum, in Eberswalde, has given some valuable information in regard
+to the relation between the age of the deer and the forms of their
+antlers, but in some respects he has not expressed himself very
+clearly, and I think that my observations given in addition to his
+may be of importance. When the animal is a year old--that is, in
+June--the burrs of the antlers begin to form, and in July the
+animal has two protuberances of the size of walnuts, from which the
+first branches of the antlers rise; these branches having the
+length of a finger only, or being even shorter, as shown at 1, in
+diagram, on p. 5481. After the second year more branches are
+formed, which are considerably longer and much rougher at the lower
+ends than the first. The third pair of antlers is different from
+its predecessors, inasmuch as it has "roses," that is, annular
+ridges around the bases of the horn, which latter are now bent in
+the shape of a crescent. Either the antler has a single branch
+(Fig. 3, <i>a</i>), or besides the point it has another short end,
+which is a most rare shape, and is known as a "fork" (Fig. 3,
+<i>b</i>), or it has two forks (Fig. 3, <i>c</i>). In the following
+year the antlers take the form shown in Fig. 4, and then follows
+the antler shown in Fig. 5, <i>a</i>, which generally has "forks"
+in place of points, and is known as forked antler in
+contradistinction to the point antler shown in Fig. 5, <i>b</i>,
+which retains the shape of the antler, Fig. 4, but has additional
+or intermediate prongs or branches. The huntsmen designate the
+antlers by the number of ends or points on the two antlers. For
+instance, Fig. 4 is a six-ender; Fig. 5 shows an eight-ender, etc.;
+and antlers have been known to have as many as twenty-two ends. If
+the two antlers do not have the same number of ends the number of
+ends on the larger antler is multiplied by two and the word "odd"
+is placed before the word designating the number of ends. For
+instance, if one antler has three ends and the other four, the
+antler would be termed an "odd" eight-ender. The sixth antler shown
+in Fig. 6 is a ten-ender, and appears in two different forms,
+either with a fork at the upper end, as shown in Fig. 6, <i>a</i>,
+or with a crown, as shown in Fig. 6, <i>b</i>. In Fig. 7 an antler
+is shown which the animal carries from its seventh year until the
+month of March of its eighth year. From that time on the crowns
+only increase and change. The increase in the number of points is
+not always as regular as I have described it, for in years when
+food is scarce and poor the antlers are weak and small, and when
+food is plentiful and rich the antlers grow exceedingly large, and
+sometimes skip an entire year's growth.--<i>Karl Brandt, in
+Leipziger lllustrirte Zeitung</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/3a.png"><img src=
+"images/3a_th.jpg" alt=
+"METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--SECOND STAGE."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--SECOND STAGE.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/3b.png" alt=""></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="10"></a></p>
+
+<h2>MONKEYS.</h2>
+
+<h3>By ALFRED R. WALLACE.</h3>
+
+<p>If the skeleton of an orang-outang and a chimpanzee be compared
+with that of a man, there will be found to be the most wonderful
+resemblance, together with a very marked diversity. Bone for bone,
+throughout the whole structure, will be found to agree in general
+form, position, and function, the only absolute differences being
+that the orang has nine wrist bones, whereas man and the chimpanzee
+have but eight; and the chimpanzee has thirteen pairs of ribs,
+whereas the orang, like man, has but twelve. With these two
+exceptions, the differences are those of shape, proportion, and
+direction only, though the resulting differences in the external
+form and motions are very considerable. The greatest of these are,
+that the feet of the anthropoid or man-like apes, as well as those
+of all monkeys, are formed like hands, with large opposable thumbs
+fitted to grasp the branches of trees, but unsuitable for erect
+walking, while the hands have weak, small thumbs, but very long and
+powerful fingers, forming a hook, rather than a hand, adapted for
+climbing up trees and suspending the whole weight from horizontal
+branches. The almost complete identity of the skeleton, however,
+and the close similarity of the muscles and of all the internal
+organs, have produced that striking and ludicrous resemblance to
+man, which every one recognizes in these higher apes, and, in a
+less degree, in the whole monkey tribe; the face and features, the
+motions, attitudes, and gestures being often a strange caricature
+of humanity. Let us, then, examine a little more closely in what
+the resemblance consists, and how far, and to what extent, these
+animals really differ from us.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the face, which is often wonderfully human--although the
+absence of any protuberant nose gives it often a curiously
+infantile aspect, monkeys, and especially apes, resemble us most
+closely in the hand and arm. The hand has well-formed fingers, with
+nails, and the skin of the palm is lined and furrowed like our own.
+The thumb is, however, smaller and weaker than ours, and is not so
+much used in taking hold of anything. The monkey's hand is,
+therefore, not so well adapted as that of man for a variety of
+purposes, and cannot be applied with such precision in holding
+small objects, while it is unsuitable for performing delicate
+operations, such as tying a knot or writing with a pen. A monkey
+does not take hold of a nut with its forefinger and thumb, as we
+do, but grasps it between the fingers and the palm in a clumsy way,
+just as a baby does before it has acquired the proper use of its
+hand. Two groups of monkeys--one in Africa and one in South
+America--have no thumbs on their hands, and yet they do not seem to
+be in any respect inferior to other kinds which possess it. In most
+of the American monkeys the thumb bends in the same direction as
+the fingers, and in none is it so perfectly opposed to the fingers
+as our thumbs are; and all these circumstances show that the hand
+of the monkey is, both structurally and functionally, a very
+different and very inferior organ to that of man, since it is not
+applied to similar purposes, nor is it capable of being so
+applied.</p>
+
+<p>When we look at the feet of monkeys we find a still greater
+difference, for these have much larger and more opposable thumbs,
+and are therefore more like our hands; and this is the case with
+all monkeys, so that even those which have no thumbs on their
+hands, or have them small and weak and parallel to the fingers,
+have always large and well-formed thumbs on their feet. It was on
+account of this peculiarity that the great French naturalist Cuvier
+named the whole group of monkeys Quadrumana, or four-handed
+animals, because, besides the two hands on their fore-limbs, they
+have also two hands in place of feet on their hind-limbs. Modern
+naturalists have given up the use of this term, because they say
+that the hind extremities of all monkeys are really feet, only
+these feet are shaped like hands; but this is a point of anatomy,
+or rather of nomenclature, which we need not here discuss.</p>
+
+<p>Let us, however, before going further, inquire into the purpose
+and use of this peculiarity, and we shall then see that it is
+simply an adaptation to the mode of life of the animals which
+possess it. Monkeys, as a rule, live in trees, and are especially
+abundant in the great tropical forests. They feed chiefly upon
+fruits, and occasionally eat insects and birds'-eggs, as well as
+young birds, all of which they find in the trees; and, as they have
+no occasion to come down to the ground, they travel from tree to
+tree by jumping or swinging, and thus pass the greater part of
+their lives entirely among the leafy branches of lofty trees. For
+such a mode of existence, they require to be able to move with
+perfect ease upon large or small branches, and to climb up rapidly
+from one bough to another. As they use their hands for gathering
+fruit and catching insects or birds, they require some means of
+holding on with their feet, otherwise they would be liable to
+continual falls, and they are able to do this by means of their
+long finger-like toes and large opposable thumbs, which grasp a
+branch almost as securely as a bird grasps its perch. The true
+hands, on the contrary, are used chiefly to climb with, and to
+swing the whole weight of the body from one branch or one tree to
+another, and for this purpose the fingers are very long and strong,
+and in many species they are further strengthened by being
+partially joined together, as if the skin of our fingers grew
+together as far as the knuckles. This shows that the separate
+action of the fingers, which is so important to us, is little
+required by monkeys, whose hand is really an organ for climbing and
+seizing food, while their foot is required to support them firmly
+in any position on the branches of trees, and for this purpose it
+has become modified into a large and powerful grasping hand.</p>
+
+<p>Another striking difference between monkeys and men is that the
+former never walk with ease in an erect posture, but always use
+their arms in climbing or in walking on all-fours like most
+quadrupeds. The monkeys that we see in the streets dressed up and
+walking erect, only do so after much drilling and teaching, just as
+dogs may be taught to walk in the same way; and the posture is
+almost as unnatural to the one animal as it is to the other. The
+largest and most man-like of the apes--the gorilla, chimpanzee, and
+orang-outang--also walk usually on all-fours; but in these the arms
+are so long and the legs so short that the body appears half erect
+when walking; and they have the habit of resting on the knuckles of
+the hands, not on the palms like the smaller monkeys, whose arms
+and legs are more nearly of an equal length, which tends still
+further to give them a semi-erect position. Still they are never
+known to walk of their own accord on their hind legs only, though
+they can do so for short distances, and the story of their using a
+stick and walking erect by its help in the wild state is not true.
+Monkeys, then, are both four-handed and four-footed beasts; they
+possess four hands formed very much like our hands, and capable of
+picking up or holding any small object in the same manner; but they
+are also four-footed, because they use all four limbs for the
+purpose of walking, running, or climbing; and, being adapted to
+this double purpose, the hands want the delicacy of touch and the
+freedom as well as the precision of movement which ours possess.
+Man alone is so constructed that he walks erect with perfect ease,
+and has his hands free for any use to which he wishes to apply
+them; and this is the great and essential bodily distinction
+between monkeys and men.</p>
+
+<p>We will now give some account of the different kinds of monkeys
+and the countries they inhabit.</p>
+
+<h3>THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MONKEYS AND THE COUNTRIES THEY
+INHABIT.</h3>
+
+<p>Monkeys are usually divided into three kinds--apes, monkeys, and
+baboons; but these do not include the American monkeys, which are
+really more different from all those of the Old World than any of
+the latter are from each other. Naturalists, therefore, divide the
+whole monkey-tribe into two great families, inhabiting the Old and
+the New World respectively; and, if we learn to remember the kind
+of differences by which these several groups are distinguished, we
+shall be able to understand something of the classification of
+animals, and the difference between important and unimportant
+characters.</p>
+
+<p>Taking first the Old World groups, they may be thus defined:
+apes have no tails; monkeys have tails, which are usually long;
+while baboons have short tails, and their faces, instead of being
+round and with a man-like expression as in apes and monkeys, are
+long and more dog-like. These differences are, however, by no means
+constant, and it is often difficult to tell whether an animal
+should be classed as an ape, a monkey, or a baboon. The Gibraltar
+ape, for example, though it has no tail, is really a monkey,
+because it has callosities, or hard pads of bare skin on which it
+sits, and cheek pouches in which it can stow away food; the latter
+character being always absent in the true apes, while both are
+present in most monkeys and baboons. All these animals, however,
+from the largest ape to the smallest monkey, have the same number
+of teeth as we have, and they are arranged in a similar manner,
+although the tusks or canine teeth of the males are often large,
+like those of a dog.</p>
+
+<p>The American monkeys, on the other hand, with the exception of
+the marmosets, have four additional grinding teeth (one in each jaw
+on either side), and none of them have callosities, or cheek
+pouches. They never have prominent snouts like the baboons; their
+nostrils are placed wide apart and open sideways on the face; the
+tail, though sometimes short, is never quite absent; and the thumb
+bends the same way as the fingers, is generally very short and
+weak, and is often quite wanting. We thus see that these American
+monkeys differ in a great number of characters from those of the
+Eastern hemisphere; and they have this further peculiarity, that
+many of them have prehensile or grasping tails, which are never
+found in the monkeys of any other country. This curious organ
+serves the purpose of a fifth hand. It has so much muscular power
+that the animal can hang by it easily with the tip curled round a
+branch, while it can also be used to pick up small objects with
+almost as much ease and exactness as an elephant's trunk. In those
+species which have it most perfectly formed it is very long and
+powerful, and the end has the underside covered with bare skin,
+exactly resembling that of the finger or palm of the hand and
+apparently equally sensitive. One of the common kinds of monkeys
+that accompany street organ-players has a prehensile tail, but not
+of the most perfect kind; since in this species the tail is
+entirely clad with hair to the tip, and seems to be used chiefly to
+steady the animal when sitting on a branch by being twisted round
+another branch near it. The statement is often erroneously made
+that all American monkeys have prehensile tails; but the fact is
+that rather less than half the known kinds have them so, the
+remainder having this organ either short and bushy, or long and
+slender, but entirely without any power of grasping. All
+prehensile-tailed monkeys are American, but all American monkeys
+are not prehensile-tailed.</p>
+
+<p>By remembering these characters it is easy, with a little
+observation, to tell whether any strange monkey comes from America
+or from the Old World. If it has bare seat-pads, or if when eating
+it fills its mouth till its cheeks swell out like little bags, we
+may be sure it comes from some part of Africa or Asia; while if it
+can curl up the end of its tail so as to take hold of anything, it
+is certainly American. As all the tailed monkeys of the Old World
+have seat-pads (or ischial callosities as they are called in
+scientific language), and as all the American monkeys have tails,
+but no seat-pads, this is the most constant external character by
+which to distinguish them; and having done so we can look for the
+other peculiarities of the American monkeys, especially the
+distance apart of the nostrils and their lateral position.</p>
+
+<p>The whole monkey-tribe is especially tropical, only a few kinds
+being found in the warmer parts of the temperate zone. One inhabits
+the Rock of Gibraltar, and there is one very like it in Japan, and
+these are the two monkeys which live furthest from the equator. In
+the tropics they become very abundant and increase in numbers and
+variety as we approach the equator, where the climate is hot,
+moist, and equable, and where flowers, fruits, and insects are to
+be found throughout the year. Africa has about 55 different kinds,
+Asia and its islands about 60, while America has 114, or almost
+exactly the same as Asia and Africa together. Australia and its
+islands have no monkeys, nor has the great and luxuriant island of
+New Guinea, whose magnificent forests seem so well adapted for
+them. We will now give a short account of the different kinds of
+monkeys inhabiting each of the tropical continents.</p>
+
+<p>Africa possesses two of the great man-like apes--the gorilla and
+the chimpanzee, the former being the largest ape known, and the one
+which, on the whole, perhaps most resembles man, though its
+countenance is less human than that of the chimpanzee. Both are
+found in West Africa, near the equator, but they also inhabit the
+interior wherever there are great forests; and Dr. Schweinfurth
+states that the chimpanzee inhabits the country about the sources
+of the Shari River in 28&deg; E. long. and 4&deg; N. lat.</p>
+
+<p>The long-tailed monkeys of Africa are very numerous and varied.
+One group has no cheek pouches and no thumb on the hand, and many
+of these have long soft fur of varied colors. The most numerous
+group are the Guenons, rather small long-tailed monkeys, very
+active and lively, and often having their faces curiously marked
+with white or black, or ornamented with whiskers or other tufts of
+hair; and they all have large cheek pouches and good sized thumbs.
+Many of them are called green monkeys, from the greenish yellow
+tint of their fur, and most of them are well formed, pleasing
+animals. They are found only in tropical Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The baboons are larger but less numerous. They resemble dogs in
+the general form and the length of the face or snout, but they have
+hands with well-developed thumbs on both the fore and hind limbs;
+and this, with something in the expression of the face and their
+habit of sitting up and using their hands in a very human fashion,
+at once shows that they belong to the monkey tribe. Many of them
+are very ugly, and in their wild state they are the fiercest and
+most dangerous of monkeys. Some have the tail very long, others of
+medium length, while it is sometimes reduced to a mere stump, and
+all have large cheek pouches and bare seat pads. They are found all
+over Africa, from Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope; while one
+species, called the hamadryas, extends from Abyssinia across the
+Red Sea into Arabia, and is the only baboon found out of Africa.
+This species was known to the ancients, and it is often represented
+in Egyptian sculptures, while mummies of it have been found in the
+catacombs. The largest and most remarkable of all the baboons is
+the mandrill of West Africa, whose swollen and hog-like face is
+ornamented with stripes of vivid blue and scarlet. This animal has
+a tail scarcely two inches long, while in size and strength it is
+not much inferior to the gorilla. The large baboons go in bands,
+and are said to be a match for any other animals in the African
+forests, and even to attack and drive away the elephants from the
+districts they inhabit.</p>
+
+<p>Turning now to Asia, we have first one of the best known of the
+large man-like apes--the orang-outang, found only in the two large
+islands, Borneo and Sumatra. The name is Malay, signifying "man of
+the woods," and it should be pronounced &oacute;rang-&oacute;otan,
+the accent being on the first syllable of both words. It is a very
+curious circumstance that, whereas the gorilla and chimpanzee are
+both black, like the negroes of the same country, the orang-outang
+is red or reddish brown, closely resembling the color of the Malays
+and Dyaks who live in the Bornean forests. Though very large and
+powerful, it is a harmless creature, feeding on fruit, and never
+attacking any other animal except in self-defense. A full-grown
+male orang-outang is rather more than four feet high, but with a
+body as large as that of a stout man, and with enormously long and
+powerful arms.</p>
+
+<p>Another group of true apes inhabit Asia and the larger Asiatic
+islands, and are in some respects the most remarkable of the whole
+family. These are the Gibbons, or long-armed apes, which are
+generally of small size and of a gentle disposition, but possessing
+the most wonderful agility. In these creatures the arms are as long
+as the body and legs together, and are so powerful that a gibbon
+will hang for hours suspended from a branch, or swing to and fro
+and then throw itself a great distance through the air. The arms,
+in fact, completely take the place of the legs for traveling.
+Instead of jumping from bough to bough and running on the branches,
+like other apes and monkeys, the gibbons move along while hanging
+suspended in the air, stretching their arms from bough to bough,
+and thus going hand over hand as a very active sailor will climb
+along a rope. The strength of their arms is, however, so
+prodigious, and their hold so sure, that they often loose one hand
+before they have caught a bough with the other, thus seeming almost
+to fly through the air by a series of swinging leaps; and they
+travel among the network of interlacing boughs a hundred feet above
+the earth with as much ease and certainty as we walk or run upon
+level ground, and with even greater speed. These little animals
+scarcely ever come down to the ground of their own accord; but when
+obliged to do so they run along almost erect, with their long arms
+swinging round and round, as if trying to find some tree or other
+object to climb upon. They are the only apes who naturally walk
+without using their hands as well as their feet; but this does not
+make them more like men, for it is evident that the attitude is not
+an easy one, and is only adopted because the arms are habitually
+used to swing by, and are therefore naturally held upward, instead
+of downward, as they must be when walking on them.</p>
+
+<p>The tailed monkeys of Asia consist of two groups, the first of
+which have no cheek pouches, but always have very long tails, They
+are true forest monkeys, very active and of a shy disposition. The
+most remarkable of these is the long-nosed monkey of Borneo, which
+is very large, of a pale brown color, and distinguished by
+possessing a long, pointed, fleshy nose, totally unlike that of all
+other monkeys. Another interesting species is the black and white
+entellus monkey of India, called the "Hanuman," by the Hindoos, and
+considered sacred by them. These animals are petted and fed, and at
+some of the temples numbers of them come every day for the food
+which the priests, as well as the people, provide for them.</p>
+
+<p>The next group of Eastern monkeys are the Macaques, which are
+more like baboons, and often run upon the ground. They are more
+bold and vicious than the others. All have cheek pouches, and
+though some have long tails, in others the tail is short, or
+reduced to a mere stump. In some few this stump is so very short
+that there appears to be no tail, as in the magot of North Africa
+and Gibraltar, and in an allied species that inhabits Japan.</p>
+
+<h3>AMERICAN MONKEYS.</h3>
+
+<p>The monkeys which inhabit America form three very distinct
+groups: 1st, the Sapajous, which have prehensile or grasping tails;
+2nd, the Sagouins, which have ordinary tails, either long or short;
+and, 3rd, the Marmosets, very small creatures, with sharp claws,
+long tails which are not prehensile, and a smaller number of teeth
+than all other American monkeys. Each of these three groups contain
+several sub-groups, or <i>genera</i>, which often differ remarkably
+from each other, and from all the monkeys of the Old World.</p>
+
+<p>We will begin with the howling monkeys, which are the largest
+found in America, and are celebrated for the loud voice of the
+males. Often in the great forests of the Amazon or Oronooko a
+tremendous noise is heard in the night or early morning, as if a
+great assemblage of wild beasts were all roaring and screaming
+together. The noise may be heard for miles, and it is louder and
+more piercing than that of any other animals, yet it is all
+produced by a single male howler, sitting on the branches of some
+lofty tree. They are enabled to make this extraordinary noise by
+means of an organ that is possessed by no other animal. The lower
+jaw is unusually deep, and this makes room for a hollow bony vessel
+about the size of a large walnut, situated under the root of the
+tongue, and having an opening into the windpipe by which the animal
+can force air into it. This increases the power of its voice,
+acting something like the hollow case of a violin, and producing
+those marvelous rolling and reverberating sounds which caused the
+celebrated traveler Waterton to declare that they were such as
+might have had their origin in the infernal regions. The howlers
+are large and stout bodied monkeys, with bearded faces, and very
+strong and powerfully grasping tails. They inhabit the wildest
+forests; they are very shy, and are seldom taken captive, though
+they are less active than many other American monkeys.</p>
+
+<p>Next come the spider monkeys, so called from their slender
+bodies and enormously long limbs and tail. In these monkeys the
+tail is so long, strong, and perfect, that it completely takes the
+place of a fifth hand. By twisting the end of it round a branch the
+animal can swing freely in the air with complete safety; and this
+gives them a wonderful power of climbing end passing from tree to
+tree, because the distance they can stretch is that of the tail,
+body, and arm added together, and these are all unusually long.
+They can also swing themselves through the air for great distances,
+and are thus able to pass rapidly from tree to tree without ever
+descending to the ground, just like the gibbons in the Malayan
+forests. Although capable of feats of wonderful agility, the spider
+monkeys are usually slow and deliberate in their motions, and have
+a timid, melancholy expression, very different from that of most
+monkeys. Their hands are very long, but have only four fingers,
+being adapted for hanging on to branches rather than for getting
+hold of small objects. It is said that when they have to cross a
+river the trees on the opposite banks of which do not approach near
+enough for a leap, several of them form a chain, one hanging by its
+tail from a lofty overhanging branch and seizing hold of the tail
+of the one below it, then gradually swinging themselves backward
+and forward till the lower one is able to seize hold of a branch on
+the opposite side. He then climbs up the tree, and, when
+sufficiently high, the first one lets go, and the swing either
+carries him across to a bough on the opposite side or he climbs up
+over his companions.</p>
+
+<p>Closely allied to the last are the woolly monkeys, which have an
+equally well developed prehensile tail, but better proportioned
+limbs, and a thick woolly fur of a uniform gray or brownish color.
+They have well formed fingers and thumbs, both on the hands and
+feet, and are rather deliberate in their motions, and exceedingly
+tame and affectionate in captivity. They are great eaters, and are
+usually very fat. They are found only in the far interior of the
+Amazon valley, and, having a delicate constitution, seldom live
+long in Europe. These monkeys are not so fond of swinging
+themselves about by their tails as are the spider monkeys, and
+offer more opportunities of observing how completely this organ
+takes the place of a fifth hand. When walking about a house, or on
+the deck of a ship, the partially curled tail is carried in a
+horizontal position on the ground, and the moment it touches
+anything it twists round it and brings it forward, when, if
+eatable, it is at once appropriated; and when fastened up the
+animal will obtain any food that may be out of reach of its hands
+with the greatest facility, picking up small bits of biscuit, nuts,
+etc., much as an elephant does with the tip of his trunk.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to a group of monkeys whose prehensile tail is of a
+less perfect character, since it is covered with hair to the tip,
+and is of no use to pick up objects. It can, however, curl round a
+branch, and serves to steady the animal while sitting or feeding,
+but is never used to hang and swing by in the manner so common with
+the spider monkeys and their allies. These are rather small-sized
+animals, with round heads and with moderately long tails. They are
+very active and intelligent, their limbs are not so long as in the
+preceding group, and though they have five fingers on each hand and
+foot, the hands have weak and hardly opposable thumbs. Some species
+of these monkeys are often carried about by itinerant organ men,
+and are taught to walk erect and perform many amusing tricks. They
+form the genus <i>Cebus</i> of naturalists.</p>
+
+<p>The remainder of the American monkeys have non-prehensile tails,
+like those of the monkeys of the Eastern hemisphere; but they
+consist of several distinct groups, and differ very much in
+appearance and habits. First we have the Sakis, which have a bushy
+tail and usually very long and thick hair, something like that of a
+bear. Sometimes the tail is very short, appearing like a rounded
+tuft of hair; many of the species have fine bushy whiskers, which
+meet under the chin, and appear as if they had been dressed and
+trimmed by a barber, and the head is often covered with thick curly
+hair, looking like a wig. Others, again, have the face quite red,
+and one has the head nearly bald, a most remarkable peculiarity
+among monkeys. This latter species was met with by Mr. Bates on the
+Upper Amazon, and he describes the face as being of a vivid
+scarlet, the body clothed from neck to tail with very long,
+straight, and shining white hair, while the head was nearly bald,
+owing to the very short crop of thin gray hairs. As a finish to
+their striking physiognomy these monkeys have bushy whiskers of a
+sandy color meeting under the chin, and yellowish gray eyes. The
+color of the face is so vivid that it looks as if covered with a
+thick coat of bright scarlet paint. These creatures are very
+delicate, and have never reached Europe alive, although several of
+the allied forms have lived some time in our Zoological
+Gardens.</p>
+
+<p>An allied group consists of the elegant squirrel monkeys, with
+long, straight, hairy tails, and often adorned with pretty
+variegated colors. They are usually small animals; some have the
+face marked with black and white, others have curious whiskers, and
+their nails are rather sharp and claw like. They have large round
+heads, and their fur is more glossy and smooth than in most other
+American monkeys, so that they more resemble some of the smaller
+monkeys of Africa. These little creatures are very active, running
+about the trees like squirrels, and feeding largely on insects as
+well as on fruit.</p>
+
+<p>Closely allied to these are the small group of night monkeys,
+which have large eyes, and a round face surrounded by a kind of
+ruff of whitish fur, so as to give it an owl like appearance,
+whence they are sometimes called owl-faced monkeys. They are
+covered with soft gray fur, like that of a rabbit, and sleep all
+day long concealed in hollow trees. The face is also marked with
+white patches and stripes, giving it a rather carnivorous or cat
+like aspect, which, perhaps, serves as a protection, by causing the
+defenseless creature to be taken for an arboreal tiger cat or some
+such beast of prey.</p>
+
+<p>This finishes the series of such of the American monkeys as have
+a larger number of teeth than those of the Old World. But there is
+another group, the Marmosets, which have the same number of teeth
+as Eastern monkeys, but differently distributed in the jaws, a
+premolar being substituted for a molar tooth. In other particulars
+they resemble the rest of the American monkeys. They are very small
+and delicate creatures some having the body only seven inches long.
+The thumb of the hands is[1] not opposable, and instead of nails
+they have sharp compressed claws. These diminutive monkeys have
+long, non-prehensile tails, and they have a silky fur often of
+varied and beautiful colors. Some are striped with gray and white,
+or are of rich brown or golden brown tints, varied by having the
+head or shoulders white or black, while in many there are crests,
+frills, manes, or long ear tufts, adding greatly to their variety
+and beauty. These little animals are timid and restless; their
+motions are more like those of a squirrel than a monkey. Their
+sharp claws enable them to run quickly along the branches, but they
+seldom leap from bough to bough like the larger monkeys. They live
+on fruits and insects, but are much afraid of wasps, which they are
+said to recognize even in a picture.</p>
+
+<p>[Transcribers note 1: Changed from '... it not opposable',
+...]</p>
+
+<p>This completes our sketch of the American monkeys, and we see
+that, although they possess no such remarkable forms as the gorilla
+or the baboons, yet they exhibit a wonderful diversity of external
+characters, considering that all seem equally adapted to a purely
+arboreal life. In the howlers we have a specially developed voice
+organ, which is altogether peculiar; in the spider monkeys we find
+the adaptation to active motion among the topmost branches of the
+forest trees carried to an extreme point of development; while the
+singular nocturnal monkeys, the active squirrel monkeys, and the
+exquisite little marmosets, show how distinct are the forms under
+which the same general type, may be exhibited, and in how many
+varied ways existence may be sustained under almost identical
+conditions.</p>
+
+<h3>LEMURS.</h3>
+
+<p>In the general term, monkeys, considered as equivalent to the
+order Primates, or the Quadrumana of naturalists, we have to
+include another sub-type, that of the Lemurs. These animals are of
+a lower grade than the true monkeys, from which they differ in so
+many points of structure that they are considered to form a
+distinct sub-order, or, by some naturalists, even a separate order.
+They have usually a much larger head and more pointed muzzle than
+monkeys; they vary considerably in the number, form, and
+arrangement of the teeth; their thumbs are always well developed,
+but their fingers vary much in size and length; their tails are
+usually long, but several species have no tail whatever, and they
+are clothed with a more or less woolly fur, often prettily
+variegated with white and black. They inhabit the deep forests of
+Africa, Madagascar, and Southern Asia, and are more sluggish in
+their movements than true monkeys, most of them being of nocturnal
+and crepuscular habits. They feed largely on insects, eating also
+fruits and the eggs or young of birds.</p>
+
+<p>The most curious species are--the slow lemurs of South India,
+small tailless nocturnal animals, somewhat resembling sloths in
+appearance, and almost as deliberate in their movements, except
+when in the act of seizing their insect prey; the Tarsier, or
+specter lemur, of the Malay islands, a small, long tailed nocturnal
+lemur, remarkable for the curious development of the hind feet,
+which have two of the toes very short, and with sharp claws, while
+the others have nails, the third toe being exceedingly long and
+slender, though the thumb is very large, giving the feet a very
+irregular and <i>outr&eacute;</i> appearance; and, lastly, the
+Aye-aye, of Madagascar, the most remarkable of all. This animal has
+very large ears and a squirrel like tail, with long spreading hair.
+It has large curved incisor teeth, which add to its squirrel like
+appearance, and caused the early naturalists to class it among the
+rodents. But its most remarkable character is found in its fore
+feet or hands, the fingers of which are all very long and armed
+with sharp curved claws, but one of them, the second, is
+wonderfully slender, being not half the thickness of the others.
+This curious combination of characters shows that the aye-aye is a
+very specialized form--that is, one whose organization has been
+slowly modified to fit it for a peculiar mode of life. From
+information received from its native country, and from a profound
+study of its organization, Professor Owen believes that it is
+adapted for the one purpose of feeding on small wood-boring
+insects. Its large feet and sharp claws enable it to cling firmly
+to the branches of trees in almost any position; by means of its
+large delicate ears it listens for the sound of the insect gnawing
+within the branch, and is thus able to fix its exact position; with
+its powerful curved gnawing teeth it rapidly cuts away the bark and
+wood till it exposes the burrow of the insect, most probably the
+soft larva of some beetle, and then comes into play the
+extraordinary long wire-like finger, which enters the small
+cylindrical burrow, and with the sharp bent claw hooks out the
+grub. Here we have a most complex adaptation of different parts and
+organs, all converging to one special end, that end being the same
+as is reached by a group of birds, the woodpeckers, in a different
+way; and it is a most interesting fact that, although woodpeckers
+abound in all the great continents, and are especially common in
+the tropical forests of Asia, Africa, and America, they are quite
+absent from Madagascar. We may, therefore, consider that the
+aye-aye really occupies the same place in nature in the forests of
+this tropical island, as do the woodpeckers in other parts of the
+world.</p>
+
+<h3>DISTRIBUTION, AFFINITIES, AND ZOOLOGICAL RANK OF MONKEYS.</h3>
+
+<p>Having thus sketched an outline of the monkey tribe as regards
+their more prominent external characters and habits, we must say a
+few words on their general relations as a distinct order of
+mammalia. No other group so extensive and so varied as this, is so
+exclusively tropical in its distribution, a circumstance no doubt
+due to the fact that monkeys depend so largely on fruit and insects
+for their subsistence. A very few species extend into the warmer
+parts of the temperate zones, their extreme limits in the northern
+hemisphere being Gibraltar, the Western Himalayas at 11,000 feet
+elevation, East Thibet, and Japan. In America they are found in
+Mexico, but do not appear to pass beyond the tropic. In the
+Southern hemisphere they are limited by the extent of the forests
+in South Brazil, which reach about 30&deg; south latitude. In the
+East, owing to their entire absence from Australia, they do not
+reach the tropic; but in Africa, some baboons range to the southern
+extremity of the continent.</p>
+
+<p>But this extreme restriction of the order to almost tropical
+lands is only recent. Directly we go back to the Pliocene period of
+geology, we find the remains of monkeys in France, and even in
+England. In the earlier Miocene, several kinds, some of large size,
+lived in France, Germany, and Greece, all more or less closely
+allied to living forms of Asia and Africa. About the same period
+monkeys of the South American type inhabited the United States. In
+the remote Eocene period the same temperate lands were inhabited by
+lemurs in the East, and by curious animals believed to be
+intermediate between lemurs and marmosets in the West. We know from
+a variety of other evidence that throughout these vast periods a
+mild and almost sub-tropical climate extended over all Central
+Europe and parts of North America, while one of a temperate
+character prevailed as far north as the Arctic circle. The monkey
+tribe then enjoyed a far greater range over the earth, and perhaps
+filled a more important place in nature than it does now. Its
+restriction to the comparatively narrow limits of the tropics is no
+doubt mainly due to the great alteration of climate which occurred
+at the close of the Tertiary period, but it may have been aided by
+the continuous development of varied forms of mammalian life better
+fitted for the contrasted seasons and deciduous vegetation of the
+north temperate regions. The more extensive area formerly inhabited
+by the monkey tribe, would have favored their development into a
+number of divergent forms, in distant regions, and adapted to
+distinct modes of life. As these retreated southward and became
+concentrated in a more limited area, such as were able to maintain
+themselves became mingled together as we now find them, the ancient
+and lowly marmosets and lemurs subsisting side by side with the
+more recent and more highly developed howlers and anthropoid
+apes.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the long ages of the Tertiary period monkeys must
+have been very abundant and very varied, yet it is but rarely that
+their fossil remains are found. This, however, is not difficult to
+explain. The deposits in which mammalian remains most abound are
+those formed in lakes or in caverns. In the former the bodies of
+large numbers of terrestrial animals were annually deposited, owing
+to their having been caught by floods in the tributary streams,
+swallowed up in marginal bogs or quicksands, or drowned by the
+giving way of ice. Caverns were the haunts of hyenas, tigers,
+bears, and other beasts of prey, which dragged into them the bodies
+of their victims, and left many of their bones to become embedded
+in stalagmite or in the muddy deposit left by floods, while
+herbivorous animals were often carried into them by these floods,
+or by falling down the swallow-holes which often open into caverns
+from above. But, owing to their arboreal habits, monkeys were to a
+great extent freed from all these dangers. Whether devoured by
+beasts or birds of prey, or dying a natural death, their bones
+would usually be left on dry land, where they would slowly decay
+under atmospheric influences. Only under very exceptional
+circumstances would they become embedded in aqueous deposits; and
+instead of being surprised at their rarity we should rather wonder
+that so many have been discovered in a fossil state.</p>
+
+<p>Monkeys, as a whole, form a very isolated group, having no near
+relations to any other mammalia. This is undoubtedly an indication
+of great antiquity. The peculiar type which has since reached so
+high a development must have branched off the great mammalian stock
+at a very remote epoch, certainly far back in the Secondary period,
+since in the Eocene we find lemurs and lemurine monkeys already
+specialized. At this remoter period they were probably not
+separable from the insectivora, or (perhaps) from the ancestral
+marsupials. Even now we have one living form, the curious
+Galeopithecus or flying lemur, which has only recently been
+separated from the lemurs, with which it was formerly united, to be
+classed as one of the insectivora; and it is only among the
+Opossums and some other marsupials that we again find hand-like
+feet with opposable thumbs, which are such a curious and constant
+feature of the monkey tribe.</p>
+
+<p>This relationship to the lowest of the mammalian tribes seems
+inconsistent with the place usually accorded to these animals at
+the head of the entire mammalian series, and opens up the question
+whether this is a real superiority or whether it depends merely on
+the obvious relationship to ourselves. If we could suppose a being
+gifted with high intelligence, but with a form totally unlike that
+of man, to have visited the earth before man existed in order to
+study the various forms of animal life that were found there, we
+can hardly think he would have placed the monkey tribe so high as
+we do. He would observe that their whole organization was specially
+adapted to an arboreal life, and this specialization would be
+rather against their claiming the first rank among terrestrial
+creatures. Neither in size, nor strength, nor beauty, would they
+compare with many other forms, while in intelligence they would not
+surpass, even if they equaled, the horse or the beaver. The
+carnivora, as a whole, would certainly be held to surpass them in
+the exquisite perfection of their physical structure, while the
+flexible trunk of the elephant, combined with his vast strength and
+admirable sagacity, would probably gain for him the first rank in
+the animal creation.</p>
+
+<p>But if this would have been a true estimate, the mere fact that
+the ape is our nearest relation does not necessarily oblige us to
+come to any other conclusion. Man is undoubtedly the most perfect
+of all animals, but he is so solely in respect of characters in
+which he differs from all the monkey tribe--the easily erect
+posture, the perfect freedom of the hands from all part in
+locomotion, the large size and complete opposability of the thumb,
+and the well developed brain, which enables him fully to utilize
+these combined physical advantages. The monkeys have none of these;
+and without them the amount of resemblance they have to us is no
+advantage, and confers no rank. We are biased by the too exclusive
+consideration of the man-like apes. If these did not exist the
+remaining monkeys could not be thereby deteriorated as to their
+organization or lowered in their zoological position, but it is
+doubtful if we should then class them so high as we now do. We
+might then dwell more on their resemblances to lower types--to
+rodents, to insectivora, and to marsupials, and should hardly rank
+the hideous baboon above the graceful leopard or stately stag. The
+true conclusion appears to be, that the combination of external
+characters and internal structure which exists in the monkeys, is
+that which, when greatly improved, refined, and beautified, was
+best calculated to become the perfect instrument of the human
+intellect and to aid in the development of man's higher nature;
+while, on the other hand, in the rude, inharmonious, and
+undeveloped state which it has reached in the quadrumana, it is by
+no means worthy of the highest place, or can be held to exhibit the
+most perfect development of existing animal life.--<i>Contemporary
+Review</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>[JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS.]</p>
+
+<p><a name="11"></a></p>
+
+<h2>SILK-PRODUCING BOMBYCES AND OTHER LEPIDOPTERA REARED IN
+1881.</h2>
+
+<h3>By ALFRED WAILLY, Membre Laur&eacute;at de la
+Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Acclimatation de France.</h3>
+
+<p>By referring to my reports for the years 1879 and 1880, which
+appeared in the <i>Journal of the Society of Arts</i>, February 13
+and March 5, 1880, February 25 and March 4, 1881, it will be seen
+that the bad weather prevented the successful rearing in the open
+air of most species of silk-producing larv&aelig;. In 1881, the
+weather was extremely favorable up to the end of July, but the
+incessant and heavy rains of the month of August and beginning of
+September, proved fatal to most of the larv&aelig; when they were
+in their last stages. However, in spite of my many difficulties, I
+had the satisfaction of seeing them to their last stage.
+Larv&aelig; of all the silk-producing bombyces were preserved in
+their different stages, and can be seen in the Bethnal-green
+Museum. In July, when the weather was magnificent, the little trees
+in my garden were literally covered with larv&aelig; of more
+species than I ever had before, and two or three more weeks of fair
+weather would have given me a good crop of cocoons, instead of
+which I only obtained a very small number. The sparrows, as usual,
+also destroyed a quantity of worms, in spite of wire or
+fish-netting placed over some of the trees.</p>
+
+<p>On the trees were to be seen--<i>Attacus cynthia</i> (the
+Ailantus silkworm), the rearing of which was, as usual, most
+successful; <i>Samia cecropia</i> and <i>Samia gloveri</i>, from
+America; also hybrids of <i>Gloveri cecropia</i> and <i>Cecropia
+gloveri</i>; <i>Samia promethea</i> and <i>Telea polyphemus</i>;
+<i>Attacus pernyi</i>, and a new hybrid, which I obtained this last
+season by the crossing of Pernyi with Royle. For the first time I
+reared <i>Actias selene</i>, from India, on a nut-tree in the
+garden, and <i>Attacus atlas</i>, on the ailantus. The
+<i>Selene</i> larv&aelig; reached their fifth and last stage. The
+Atlas larv&aelig; only reached the third stage, and were destroyed
+by the heavy rains; only two remained on the tree till about the
+8th or 9th of September, when they had to be removed. I shall now
+reproduce the notes I took on some of the various species I
+reared.</p>
+
+<p><i>Actias Selene</i>.--With sixty cocoons I only obtained one
+pairing. The moths emerged from the beginning of March till the
+13th of August, at intervals of some duration, or in batches of
+males or females. I obtained a pairing of Selene on the 30toh of
+June, 1881, and the worms commenced to hatch on the 13th of July.
+The larv&aelig; in first stage are of a fine brown-red, with a
+broad black band in the middle of the body. The second stage
+commenced on the 20th of July; larv&aelig;, of a lighter reddish
+color, without the black band; tubercles black. Third stage
+commenced on the 28th of July; larv&aelig; green; the first four
+tubercles yellow, with a black ring at the base; other tubercles,
+orange yellow. Fourth stage commenced on the 6th of August;
+larv&aelig; green; first four tubercles golden-yellow, the others
+orange-red. Fifth stage commenced on the 19th of August; first four
+tubercles yellow, with a black ring at the base; other tubercles
+yellow, slightly tinged with orange-red; lateral band brown and
+greenish yellow; head and forelegs dark-brown. As stated before,
+the larv&aelig; were reared on a nut-tree in the garden, till the
+last stage. Selene feeds on various trees--walnut, wild cherry,
+wild pear, etc. In Ceylon (at Kandy), it is found on the wild olive
+tree. As far as I am informed by correspondents in Ceylon, this
+species is not found--or is seldom found--on the coasts, but
+<i>Attacus atlas</i> and Mylitta are commonly found there.</p>
+
+<p><i>Attacus (antheroea) roylei</i> (with sixty cocoons); three
+pairings only were obtained, and this species I found the most
+difficult to pair in captivity. Two moths emerged on the 5th of
+March, a male and a female, and a pairing was obtained; but the
+weather being then too cold, the ova were not fertile, the female
+moth, after laying about two hundred eggs, lived till the 22d of
+March, which is a very long time; this was owing to the low
+temperature. The moths emerged afterward from the 8th of April till
+the 25th of June. A pairing took place on the 2d of June, and
+another on the 6th of June.</p>
+
+<p>Roylei (the Himalaya oak silkworm) is very closely allied to
+Pernyi, the Chinese oak silkworm; the Roylei moths are of a lighter
+color, but the larv&aelig; of both species can hardly be
+distinguished from one another. The principal difference between
+the two species is in the cocoon. The Roylei cocoon is within a
+very large and tough envelope, while that of Pernyi has no outer
+envelope at all. The larv&aelig; of Roylei I reared did not thrive,
+and the small number I had only went to the fourth stage, owing to
+several causes. I bred them under glass, in a green-house. A
+certain number of the larv&aelig; were unable to cut the shell of
+the egg.</p>
+
+<p>Here are a few notes I find in my book: Ova of Roylei commenced
+to hatch on the 29th of June; second stage commenced on the 9th of
+July. The larv&aelig; in the first two stages seemed to me similar
+to those of Pernyi, as far as I could see. In second stage, the
+tubercles were of a brilliant orange-red; on anal segment, blue dot
+on each side. Third stage, four rows of orange-yellow tubercles,
+two blue dots on anal segment, brilliant gold metallic spots at the
+base of the tubercles on the back, and silver metallic spots at the
+base of the tubercles on the sides. No further notes taken.</p>
+
+<p>One of my correspondents in Vienna (Austria) obtained a
+remarkable success in the rearing of Roylei. From the twenty-five
+eggs he had twenty-three larv&aelig; hatched, which produced
+twenty-three fine cocoons. The same correspondent, with thirty-five
+eggs of <i>Samia gloveri</i>, obtained twenty cocoons. My other
+correspondents did not obtain any success in rearing these two
+species, as far as I know.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hybrid Roylei-Pernyi</i>.--I have said that it is extremely
+difficult to obtain the pairing of Roylei moths in captivity. But
+the male Pernyi paired readily with the female Roylei. I obtained
+six such pairings, and a large quantity of fertile ova. The
+pairings of Roylei (female) with Pernyi (male) took place as
+follows: two on the 21st of May, one on the 3d of June, two on the
+4th of June, and one on the 6th.</p>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of this new hybrid, <i>Roylei-Pernyi</i>,
+contrary to what might have been expected, were much easier to rear
+than those of Roylei, and the cocoons obtained are far superior to
+those of Roylei, in size, weight, and richness of silk. The cocoon
+of my new hybrid has, like Roylei, an envelope, but there is no
+space between this envelope and the true cocoon inside. Therefore,
+this time, the crossing of two different species (but, it must be
+added, two very closely allied species) has produced a hybrid very
+superior, at least to one of the types, that of Roylei. The cocoons
+of the hybrid <i>Roylei-Pernyi</i> seem to me larger and heavier
+than any Pernyi cocoons I have as yet seen.</p>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of this new hybrid have been successfully reared
+in France, in Germany, in Austria, and in the United States of
+North America. The cocoons obtained by Herr L. Huessman, one of my
+German correspondents, are remarkable for their size and beauty.
+The silk is silvery white.</p>
+
+<p>I have seventeen cocoons of this hybrid species, which number
+may be sufficient for its reproduction. But the question arises,
+"Will the moths obtained from these cocoons be susceptible of
+reproduction?"</p>
+
+<p>In my report on Lepidoptera for the year 1879, I stated, with
+respect to hybrids and degeneracy, that hybrids had been obtained
+by the crossing of <i>Attacus pernyi</i> and <i>Attacus
+yama-ma&iuml;</i>, but that, although the moths (some of which may
+be seen in the Bethnal-green Museum) are large and apparently
+perfect in every respect, yet these hybrids could not be
+reproduced. It must be stated that these two species differ
+essentially in one particular point. <i>Yama-ma&iuml;</i>
+hibernates in the <i>ovum</i> state, while Pernyi hibernates in the
+<i>pupa</i> state. The hybrids hibernated in the <i>pupa</i> state.
+Roylei, as Pernyi, hibernates in the <i>pupa</i> state.</p>
+
+<p>In the November number, 1881, of "The Entomologist," Mr. W.F.
+Kirby, of the British Museum, wrote an article having for its
+title, "Hermaphrodite-hybrid Sphingid&aelig;," in which, referring
+to hybrids of <i>Smerinthus ocellatus</i> and <i>populi</i>, he
+says that hermaphroditism is the usual character of such
+hybrids.</p>
+
+<p>I extract the following passage from his article: "I was under
+the impression that hermaphroditism was the usual character of
+these hybrids; and it has suggested itself to my mind as a
+possibility, which I have not, at present, sufficient data either
+to prove or to disprove, that the sterility of hybrids in general
+(still a somewhat obscure subject) may perhaps be partly due to
+hybridism having a tendency to produce hermaphroditism."</p>
+
+<p>Now, will the moths of new hybrid Roylei pernyi (which I expect
+will emerge in May or June, 1882) have the same tendency to
+hermaphroditism as has been observed with the hybrids obtained by
+the crossing of <i>Smerinthus populi</i> with <i>Sm. ocellatus</i>?
+I do not think that such will be the case with the moths of the
+hybrid Roylei-pernyi, on account of the close relationship of
+Roylei with Pernyi, but nothing certain can be known till the moths
+have emerged. Here are the few notes taken on the hybrid
+Roylei-pernyi: Ova commenced to hatch on the 12th of June; these
+were from the pairing which had taken place on the 21st of May.
+Larv&aelig;, black, with long white hairs. Second stage commenced
+on the 21st of June. Larva, of a beautiful green; tubercles
+orange-yellow; head dark brown. Third stage commenced on the 1st of
+July; fourth stage on the 7th. Larva of same color in those stages;
+tubercles on the back, violet-blue or mauve; tubercles on the
+sides, blue. Fifth stage commenced on the 18th of July. Larva, with
+tubercles on back and sides, blue, or violet-blue. First cocoon
+commenced on the 10th of August. Want of time prevented me from
+taking fuller and more accurate notes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Attacus Atlas</i>.--For the first time, as stated before, I
+attempted the rearing of a small number of Atlas larv&aelig; in the
+open air on the ailantus tree, but had to remove the last two
+remaining larv&aelig; in September; the others had all disappeared
+in consequence of the heavy and incessant rains. These larv&aelig;
+were from eggs sent to me by one of my German correspondents. The
+pairing of the moths had taken place on the 17th of July, and the
+eggs had commenced to hatch on the 4th of August.</p>
+
+<p>I had about eighty cocoons of another and larger race of Atlas
+imported from the Province of Kumaon, but only eight moths emerged
+at intervals from the 31st of July to the 30th of September. Not
+only did the moths emerge too late in the season, but there never
+was a chance of obtaining a pairing. In my report on Indian
+silkworms, published in the November number of the "Bulletin de la
+Societe d'Acclimatation," for the year 1881, compiled from the work
+of Mr. J. Geoghegan, I reproduce the first appendix of Captain
+Thomas Hutton to Mr. Geoghegan's work, in which are given the names
+of all the Indian silkworms known by him up to the year 1871.</p>
+
+<p>Of <i>Attacus atlas</i>, Captain Hutton says: "It is common at
+5,500 feet at Mussoorie, and in the Dehra Doon; it is also found in
+some of the deep warm glens of the outer hills. It is also common
+at Almorah, where the larva feeds almost exclusively upon the
+'Kilmorah' bush or <i>Berberis asiatica</i>; while at Mussoorie it
+will not touch that plant, but feeds exclusively upon the large
+milky leaves of <i>Falconeria insignis</i>. The worm is, perhaps,
+more easily reared than any other of the wild bombycid&aelig;."</p>
+
+<p>I will now quote from letters received from one of my
+correspondents in Ceylon, a gentleman of great experience and
+knowledge in sericulture.</p>
+
+<p>In a letter dated 24th August, 1881, my correspondent says: "The
+Atlas moth seems to be a near relation of the Cynthia, and would
+probably feed on the Ailantus. Here it feeds on the cinnamon and a
+great number of other trees of widely different species; but the
+tree on which I have kept it most successfully in a domestic state
+is the <i>Milnea roxburghiana</i>, a handsome tree, with dark-green
+ternate leaves, which keep fresh long after being detached from the
+tree. I do not think the cocoon can ever be reeled, as the thread
+usually breaks when it comes to the open end. I have tried to reel
+a great many Atlas cocoons, but always found the process too
+tedious and troublesome for practical use.</p>
+
+<p>"The Mylitta (Tusser) is a more hardy species than the Atlas,
+and I have had no difficulty in domesticating it. Here it feeds on
+the cashew-nut tree, on the so-called almond of this country
+(<i>Terminalia catappa</i>), which is a large tree entirely
+different from the European almond, and on many other trees. Most
+of the trees whose leaves turn red when about to fall seem to suit
+it, but it is not confined to these. In the case of the Atlas moth,
+I discovered one thing which may be well worth knowing, and that
+was, that with cocoons brought to the seaside after the larv&aelig;
+had been reared in the Central Provinces, in a temperature ten or
+twelve degrees colder, the moths emerged in from ten to twenty days
+after the formation of the cocoon. The duration of the <i>pupa</i>
+stage in this, and probably in other species, therefore, depends
+upon the temperature in which the larv&aelig; have lived, as well
+as the degree of heat in which the cocoons are kept; and in
+transporting cocoons from India to Europe, I think it will be found
+that the moths are less liable to be prematurely forced out by the
+heat of the Red Sea when the larv&aelig; have been reared in a warm
+climate than when they have been reared in a cold one.</p>
+
+<p>"I do not agree with the opinion expressed in one of your
+reports, that the short duration of the larva stage, caused by a
+high temperature, has the effect of diminishing the size of the
+cocoons, because the Atlas and Tusser cocoons produced at the
+sea-level here are quite as large as those found in the Central
+Provinces at elevations of three thousand feet or more. According
+to the treatise on the "Silk Manufacture," in "Lardner's
+Cyclopedia," the Chinese are of opinion that one drachm of mulberry
+silkworms' eggs will produce 25 ounces of silk if the caterpillars
+attain maturity within twenty-five days; 20 ounces if the
+commencement of the cocoons be delayed until the twenty-eighth day;
+and only 10 ounces if it be delayed until between the thirtieth and
+fortieth day. If this is correct, a short-lived larva stage must,
+instead of causing small cocoons, produce just the contrary
+effect."</p>
+
+<p>In another letter, dated November 25, 1881, my correspondent
+says: "I am sorry that you have not had better success in the
+rearing of your larv&aelig;, but you should not despair. It is
+possible that the choice of an improper food-plant may have as much
+to do with failures as the coldness and dampness of the English
+climate. I lost many thousands of Atlas caterpillars before I found
+out the proper tree to keep them on in a domesticated state; and
+when I did attain partial success, I could not keep them for more
+than one generation, till I found the <i>Milnea roxburghiana</i> to
+be their proper food plant. I do not know the proper food-plant of
+the Mylitta (Tusser), but I have succeeded very well with it, as it
+is a more hardy species than the Atlas. Though a Bombyx be
+polyphagous in a state of nature, yet I think most species have a
+tree proper to themselves, on which they are more at home than on
+any other plant. I should like, if you could find out from some
+your correspondents in India, on what species of tree Mylitta
+cocoons are found in the largest numbers, and what is about the
+greatest number found on a single tree. The Mylitta is common
+enough here, but there does not seem to be any kind of tree here on
+which the cocoons are to be found in greater numbers than twos and
+threes; and there must be some tree in India on which the cocoons
+are to be found in much greater plenty, because they could not
+otherwise be collected in sufficient quantity for manufacturing
+purposes. The Atlas is here found on twenty or more different kinds
+of trees, but a hundred or a hundred and fifty cocoons or
+larv&aelig; may be found on a single tree of <i>Milnea
+roxburghiana</i>, while they are to be found only singly, or in
+twos and threes, on any other tree that I know of. The Atlas and
+Mylitta seem to be respectively the Indian relations of the Cynthia
+and Pernyi. It is, therefore, probable that the Ailantus would be
+the most suitable European tree for the Atlas, and the oak for the
+Mylitta."</p>
+
+<p><i>Attacus mylitta</i> (<i>Anther&aelig;a paphia</i>).--I did
+not receive a single cocoon of this species for the season 1881. My
+stock consisted of seven cocoons, from the lot received from
+Calcutta at the end of February, 1880. Five were female, and two
+male cocoons; one of the latter died, thus reducing the number to
+six. The moths emerged as follows: One female on the 21st of June,
+one female on the 26th, one female on the 28th, one female on the
+1st of July, and one male on the 3d of August; the latter emerging
+thirty-four days too late to be of any use for rearing purposes.
+The last female moth emerged, I think, about the end of September.
+These cocoons had hibernated twice, as has been the case with other
+Indian species. I had Indian cocoons which hibernated even three
+times.</p>
+
+<p><i>Attacus cynthia</i>, from the province of Kumaon.--With the
+Atlas cocoons, a large quantity of Cynthia cocoons were collected
+in the province of Kumaon. Both species had, no doubt, fed on the
+same trees; as the Cynthia, like the Atlas cocoons, were all
+inclosed in leaves of the <i>Berberis vulgaris</i>, which shows
+that Cynthia is also a polyphagous species. It is already known
+that it feeds on several species of trees, besides the ailantus,
+such as the laburnum, lilac, cherry, and, I think, also on the
+castor-oil plant; the common barberry has, therefore, to be added
+to the above food plants.</p>
+
+<p>These Kumaon Cynthia cocoons were somewhat smaller and much
+darker in color than those of the acclimatized Cynthia reared on
+the ailantus. The moths of this wild Indian Cynthia were also of a
+richer color than those of the cultivated species in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>During the summer 1881, I saw cocoons of my own Cynthia race
+obtained from worms which had been reared on the laburnum tree.
+These cocoons were, as far as I can remember, of a yellowish or
+saffron color; which I had never seen before. This difference in
+the color of the cocoon was very likely produced by the change of
+food, although it has been stated, and I think it may be quite
+correct, that with many species of native lepidoptera the change of
+food-plants does not produce any difference of color in the insects
+obtained. With respect to the Cynthia worms reared on the laburnum
+instead of the ailantus, it may be that the moths, which will
+emerge from the yellow cocoons, will be similar to those obtained
+from cocoons spun by worms bred on the ailantus, and that the only
+difference will be in the color of the cocoons.</p>
+
+<p>The Kumaon Cynthia cocoons, as I found it to be the case with
+Indian species introduced for the first time into Europe, did not
+produce moths at the same time, nor as regularly as the
+acclimatized species. The moths emerged as follows: One female on
+the 22d of July; one female on the 25th; one male on the 3d August;
+one female on the 19th; one male on the 28th of August; one male on
+the 2d September; one female on the 3d. A pairing was obtained with
+the latter two. Two males emerged on the 4th of September; one male
+on the 6th; one male and one female on the 22d; one female on the
+23d; and one female on the 25th of September. Five cocoons, which
+did not produce any moths, contain pup&aelig;, which are still in
+perfect condition; and the moths will no doubt emerge next summer
+(1882). As seen in my note, a pairing of this wild Indian Cynthia
+took place; this was from the evening of the 4th to the 5th of
+September. The eggs laid by the female moth were deposited in a
+most curious way, in smaller or larger quantities, but all forming
+perfect triangles. These eggs I gave to a florist who has been very
+successful in the rearing of silk-producing and other larv&aelig;;
+telling him to rear the Cynthia on lilacs grown in pots and placed
+in a hot-house, which was done. The worms, which hatched in a few
+days, as they were placed in a hot-house, thrived wonderfully well,
+and I might say they thrived too well, as they grew so fast and
+became so voracious that the growth of the lilac trees could not
+keep pace with the growth of the worms. These, at the fourth stage,
+became so large that the foliage was entirely devoured, and, of
+course, the consequence was that all the worms were starved. I only
+heard of the result of that experiment long after the death of the
+larv&aelig;; otherwise I should have suggested the use of another
+plant after the destruction of the foliage of the lilacs; the
+privet (<i>Ligustrum vulgare</i>) might have been tried, and
+success obtained with it.</p>
+
+<p>Of such species as <i>Attacus pyri</i>, of Central Europe, and
+<i>Attacus pernyi</i>, the North Chinese oak silkworm, which I have
+mentioned in my previous reports, and bred every season for several
+years, I shall only say that I never could rear Pyri in the open
+air in London, up to the formation of the cocoon. As to Pernyi, I
+had, in 1881, an immense quantity of splendid moths, from which I
+obtained the largest quantity of ova I ever had of this species. I
+had many thousands of fertile ova of Pernyi, which I was unable to
+distribute. Many schoolboys reared Pernyi worms, but with what
+success I do not yet know. The number of fertile ova obtained from
+Pyri moths was also more considerable than in former years, which
+was due partly to the good quality of the pup&aelig;, and partly to
+the very favorable weather in June, at the time the pairings of the
+moths took place.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving these, I now come to the North American species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Telea polyphemus</i>.--As I have stated in former years, this
+is the best North American silkworm, producing a closed cocoon,
+somewhat smaller than that of Pernyi, but the silk seems as good as
+that of Pernyi.</p>
+
+<p>The cocoons of Polyphemus I had in 1881 were smaller and
+inferior in quality to those I had before. Those received in 1878
+and 1879 were considerably finer and larger than those which were
+sent in 1880 and 1881; besides, they were sent in much larger
+quantities. The cocoons received this year (1882) are finer than
+those of 1881, but yet they cannot be compared with those of 1878
+and 1879.</p>
+
+<p>With about sixty cocoons of <i>Telea polyphemus</i> I only
+obtained three pairings, which I attribute solely to the weakness
+of the moths, as the weather was all that could be desired for the
+pairings. The moths emerged from the 1st of June to the 20th of
+July. One male moth emerged on the 7th September. This latter was
+one from a small number of cocoons received from Alabama; the other
+cocoons of the same race had emerged at the same time as the
+cocoons from the Northern States. In the Northern States the
+species is single-brooded; in the Southern States it is
+double-brooded.</p>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of Polyphemus can be bred in the open air in
+England, almost as easily as those of Pernyi, and even Cynthia;
+they will pass through their five stages and spin their cocoons on
+the trees, unless the weather should be unexceptionally cold and
+wet, as was the case during the month of August, 1881, when the
+larv&aelig; had reached their full size; they were reared this year
+on the nut-tree, and some on the oak. The species is extremely
+polyphagous, and will feed well on oak, birch, chestnut, beech,
+willow, nut, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The moth of Polyphemus is very beautiful, and, as in some other
+species, varies in its shades of color. The larva is of a
+transparent green, of extreme beauty; the head is light brown;
+without any black dots, as in Pernyi; the spines are pink, and at
+the base of each of them there is a brilliant metallic spot. When
+the sun shines on them the larv&aelig; seem to be covered with
+diamonds. These metallic spots at the base of the spines are also
+seen on Pernyi, Yama mai, Mylitta, and other species of the genus
+Anther&aelig;a, all having a closed cocoon, but none of these have
+so many as Polyphemus.</p>
+
+<p>The cocoons of the species of the genus Actias are closed, but
+the larv&aelig; have not the metallic spots of the species of the
+genus Anther&aelig;a.</p>
+
+<p><i>Samia Gloveri</i>.--Three North American silk-producing
+bombyces, very closely allied, have been mentioned in my previous
+reports; they are; <i>Samia ceanothi</i>, from California; <i>Samia
+gloveri</i>, from Utah and Arizona; and <i>Samia cecropia</i>,
+commonly found in most of the Northern States--the latter is the
+best and largest silk producer. Crossings of these species took
+places in 1880, and, as I stated before, the ova obtained from a
+long pairing between a Ceanothi female with a Gloveri male, were
+the only ones which were fertile. The Gloveri cocoons received in
+1880 were of a very inferior quality, and produced moths from which
+no pairings could be obtained, although some crossings took place.
+In 1881, the Gloveri cocoons, on the contrary, produced fine,
+healthy moths; yet only five pairings could be obtained, with about
+one hundred cocoons. Besides these five pairings, a quantity of
+fertile ova were obtained by the crossings of <i>S. gloveri</i>
+(female) with <i>S. cecropia</i> (male), and Cecropia (female) with
+Gloveri (male). No success, so far as I know, was obtained with the
+rearing of the hybrid larv&aelig;; the rearings of the larv&aelig;
+of pure Gloveri were also, I think, a failure, only one
+correspondent having been successful; but some correspondents have
+not yet made the result of their experiments known to me. The
+larv&aelig; of <i>Samia cecropia, S. gloveri</i>, and <i>S.
+ceanothi</i>, are very much alike; and hardly any difference can be
+observed in the first two stages. In the third and fourth stages,
+the larv&aelig; of <i>S. cecropia</i> and <i>S. gloveri</i> are
+also nearly alike; the principal difference between these two
+species and <i>S. cecropia</i> being that the tubercles on the back
+are of a uniform color--orange-red, or yellow--while on Cecropia
+the first four dorsal tubercles are red, and the rest yellow. The
+tubercles on the sides are blue on the three species.</p>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of the hybrids <i>Gloveri-cecropia</i> were, as
+far as I could observe, like those of Cecropia, but I noticed some
+with six red tubercles on the back instead of four, as on Cecropia.
+They were reared on plum, apple, and <i>Salix caprea</i>; in the
+open air.</p>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of <i>Samia gloveri</i> were reared, during the
+first four stages on a wild plum-tree, then on <i>Salix,
+caprea</i>, and I reproduce the notes taken on this species, which
+I bred this year (1881) for the first time.</p>
+
+<p>Gloveri moths emerged from the 15th of May to the end of June;
+five pairings took place as follows: 1st, 4th, 9th, 24th, and 26th
+of June. First stage--larv&aelig; quite black. Second
+stage--larv&aelig; orange, with black spines. Third stage--dorsal
+spines, orange-red; spines on sides blue. Fourth stage--dorsal
+spines, orange or yellow, spines on the sides blue; body light blue
+on the back, and greenish yellow on the sides; head, green; legs,
+yellow. Fifth and sixth stage--larv&aelig; nearly the same;
+tubercles on the back yellow, the first four having a black ring at
+the base; side tubercles ivory-white, with a dark-blue base.</p>
+
+<p>The above-mentioned American species, like most other
+silk-producing bombyces, were bred in the open air; but besides
+these, I reared three other species of American bombyces in the
+house, under glass, and with the greatest success. These are:
+<i>Hyperchiria io</i>, a beautiful species mentioned in my report
+for the year 1879; <i>Orgyia leucostigma</i>, from ova received on
+December 29, 1880, from Madison, Wis., which hatched on the 27th of
+May, 1881.</p>
+
+<p>The third American species reared under glass is the following
+very interesting bombyx: <i>Ceratocampa (Eacles) imperialis</i>.
+The pup&aelig; of this species are rough, and armed with small,
+sharp points at all the segments; the last segment having a thick,
+straight, and bifid tail. The moths, which measure from four to
+about six inches in expanse of wings, are bright yellow, with large
+patches and round spots of reddish-brown, with a purple gloss;
+besides these patches and round spots, the wings are covered with
+small dark dots. The male moth is much more blotched than the
+female, and although of a smaller size, is much more showy than the
+female.</p>
+
+<p>With twenty-four pup&aelig; of Imperialis I obtained nineteen
+moths from the 21st of June to the 19th of July; five pup&aelig;
+died. Two pairings took place; the first from the evening of the
+13th to the morning of the 14th; the second from the evening of the
+15th to the morning of the 16th of July.</p>
+
+<p>The ova, which are about the size of those of Yama-mai, Pernyi,
+or Mylitta, are rather flat and concave on one side, of an
+amber-yellow color and transparent, like those of sphingid&aelig;.
+When the larv&aelig; have absorbed the yellow liquid in the egg,
+and are fully developed; they can be seen through the shell of the
+egg, which is white or colorless when the larva has come out.</p>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of Imperialis, which have six stages, commenced
+to hatch on the 31st of July; the second stage commenced on the 7th
+of August; the third, on the 17th; the fourth, on the 29th of
+August; the fifth, on the 18th of September; and the sixth, on the
+1st of October. The larv&aelig; commenced to pupate on 13th of
+October.</p>
+
+<p>The larv&aelig; of this curious species vary considerably in
+color. Some are of a yellowish color, others are brown and tawny,
+others are black or nearly black. My correspondent in Georgia, who
+bred this species the same season as I did, in 1881, had some of
+the larv&aelig; that were green. In all the stages the larv&aelig;
+have five conspicuous spines or horns; two on the third segment,
+two on the fourth, and one on the last segment but one; this is
+taking the head as the first segment with regard to the first four
+spines These spines are rough and covered with sharp points all
+round, and their extremities are fork-like. In the first three
+stages they are horny; in the last three stages these spines are
+fleshy, and much shorter in proportion than they are in the first
+three stages. The color of the spines in the last three stages is
+coral-red, yellowish, or black. In the fifth and sixth stages the
+spine on the last segment but one is very short.</p>
+
+<p>Here are a few and short notes from my book:</p>
+
+<p>1st stage. Larv&aelig;, about one-third of an inch; head, brown,
+shiny, and globulous.</p>
+
+<p>2d stage. Larv&aelig;, dark-brown, almost black; spines, white
+at the base, and black at the extremities; head shiny and light
+brown.</p>
+
+<p>3d stage. Larve, fine black; head black; white hairs on the
+back; spines, whitish, buff, or yellowish at the base, and black at
+the extremities; other larv&aelig; of a brown color.</p>
+
+<p>4th stage. Larv&aelig;, black granulated with white; long white
+hairs; horns, brown-orange with white tips; on each segment two
+brown spots. Spiracles well marked with outer circle, brown, then
+black; white and black dot in the center. Anal segment with brown
+ribs, the intervals black with white dots; head shining, black with
+two brown bands on the face, forming a triangle. Other larv&aelig;
+in fourth stage, velvety black, with coral-red spines; others with
+black spines.</p>
+
+<p>5th stage. Larv&aelig;, entirely black, with showy eye-like
+spiracles, polished black head; other larv&aelig; having the head
+brown and black. Larv&aelig; covered with long white hair; spines
+black or red. No difference noticed between the fifth and sixth
+stages.</p>
+
+<p>One larva on fourth stage was different from all others, and was
+described at the British Museum by Mr. W. F. Kirby as follows:
+"Larva reddish-brown, sparingly clothed with long slender white
+hairs, with four reddish stripes on the face, two rows of red spots
+on the back, spiracles surrounded with yellow, black and red rings;
+legs red, prolegs black, spotted with red. On segments three and
+four are four long coral-red fleshy-branched spines, two on each
+segment, below which, on each side, are two rudimentary ones just
+behind the head; in front of segment two are four similar
+rudimentary orange spines or tubercles; last segment black,
+strongly granulated and edges triangularly above and at the sides,
+with coral-red; several short rudimentary fleshy spines rising from
+the red portion; the last segment but one is reddish above, with a
+short red spine in the middle, and the one before it has a long
+coral-red spine in the middle similar to those of segments three
+and four, but shorter"</p>
+
+<p>As soon as my Imperialis larv&aelig; had hatched, I gave them
+various kinds of foliage, plane-tree, oak, pine, sallow, etc. At
+first they did not touch any kind of foliage, or they did not seem
+to touch any; and I was afraid I should be unable to rear them; but
+on the second or third day of their existence, they made up their
+minds and decided upon eating the foliage of some of the European
+trees I had offered them. They attacked oak, sallow, and pine, but
+did not touch the plane-tree leaves. In America, the larv&aelig; of
+Imperialis feed on button-wood, which is the American plane-tree
+(<i>Platanus occidentalis</i>), yet they did not take to
+<i>Platanus orientalis</i>. After a little time I reduced the
+foliage to oak and sallow branches, and ultimately gave them the
+sallow (<i>Salix caprea</i>) only, on which they thrived very well.
+I was pleased with this success; as I had previously read in a
+volume of the "Naturalist's Library" a description of
+<i>Ceratocampa imperialis</i>, which ends as follows: "The
+caterpillars are not common, and are the most difficult to bring to
+perfection in confinement, as they will not eat in that situation;
+and, even if they change into a chrysalis, they die afterward."</p>
+
+<p>Before I finish with <i>C. imperialis</i>, I must mention a
+peculiar fact. During the first stage, and, I think, also during
+the second, several larv&aelig; disappeared without leaving any
+traces. I also saw two smaller larv&aelig; held tight by the hind
+claspers of two larger ones. The larv&aelig; thus held and pressed
+were perfectly dead when I observed them, and I removed them. My
+impression then was that these larvae were carnivorous, not from
+this last fact alone, as I had previously observed it with
+larv&aelig; of Catocal&aelig; when they are too crowded, but from
+the fact that some had disappeared entirely from the glass under
+which they were confined. I began to reduce their numbers, and put
+six only under each glass, so as to be able to watch them better.
+Whether I had made a mistake or not previously to this I do not
+exactly know; but from this moment the larvae behaved in a most
+exemplary manner, especially when they became larger. They crawled
+over each other's backs without the least sign of spite or
+animosity, even when they were in sleep, in which case larv&aelig;
+are generally very sensitive and irritable, all were of a most
+pacific nature. It is, therefore, with the greatest pleasure that,
+for want of sufficient evidence, I withdraw this serious charge of
+cannibalism which I first intended to bring against them.</p>
+
+<p>From what has been said respecting the rearing of exotic
+silk-producing bombyces, especially tropical species, it must have
+been observed that several difficulties, standing in the way of
+success, have to be overcome. The moths of North American species
+emerge regularly enough during the months of May, June, or July,
+but Indian and other tropical species may emerge at any time of the
+year, if the weather is mild, as has been the case during this
+unusually mild winter of 1881-1882. From the end of December to the
+present time (March 14, 1882) moths of four species of Indian
+silk-producers, especially <i>Anther&aelig;a roylei</i> and
+<i>Actias selene</i>, have constantly emerged, but only one or two
+at a time. These moths emerged from cocoons received in December
+and January last.</p>
+
+<p>It is only when these tropical species shall have been already
+reared in Europe that the emergence of the moths will be regular;
+then they will be single-brooded in Northern or Central Europe, and
+some will very likely become double-brooded in Southern Europe. But
+when just imported the moths of these tropical species will always
+be uncertain and irregular in their emergence; hence the importance
+of having a sufficient number of cocoons so as to meet this
+difficulty, i.e., the loss of the moths that emerge prematurely or
+irregularly.</p>
+
+<p>Before I conclude, I shall repeat what I already stated in a
+previous report, that the sending of live cocoons and pup&aelig;
+from India and other distant countries to Europe, can easily be
+done, so that they will arrive alive and in good condition, if care
+be taken that the boxes containing these live cocoons and
+pup&aelig; should not be left in the sun or near a fire (which has
+been the case before), and that they should at once be put in a
+cool place or in the ice-room of the steamer. The cocoons and
+pup&aelig; should be sent from October to March or April, according
+to distance, and it is most important to write on the cases,
+"Living silkworm cocoons or pup&aelig;, the case to be placed in
+the ice room."</p>
+
+<p>By taking this simple precaution, live cocoons and pup&aelig;,
+when newly formed, can be safely sent from very distant countries
+of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>To continue these interesting and useful studies, I shall always
+be glad to buy any number of live cocoons, or exchange them for
+other species, if preferable.</p>
+
+<p>ALFRED WAILLY.</p>
+
+<p>110 Clapham Road, London, S.W.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>MOSQUITO OIL.</h2>
+
+<p>A correspondent from Sheepshead Bay, a place celebrated for the
+size of its mosquitoes and the number of its amateur fishermen,
+recommends the following as a very good mixture for anointing the
+face and hands while fishing:</p>
+
+<pre>
+  Oil of tar.           1 ounce.
+  Olive oil.            1 ounce.
+  Oil of pennyroyal.    &frac12; ounce.
+  Spirit of camphor.    &frac12; ounce.
+  Glycerine.            &frac12; ounce.
+  Carbolic acid.        2 drachms.
+</pre>
+
+<p>Mix. Shake well before using.--<i>Drug. Circular</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="16"></a><a name="15"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS.</h2>
+
+<p>This most remarkable structure, in the province of the same
+name, adorns the city of Burgos, 130 miles north of Madrid. The
+corner stone was laid July 20, A.D. 1221, by Fernando III., and his
+Queen Beatrice, assisted by Archbishop Mauricio. The world is
+indebted to Mauricio for the selection of the site, and for the
+general idea and planning of what he intended should be, and in
+fact now is, the finest temple of worship in the world. This
+immense stone structure, embellished with airy columns, pointed
+arches, statues, inscriptions, delicate crestings, and flanked by
+two needles or aerial arrows, rises toward the heavens, a sublime
+invocation of Christian genius.</p>
+
+<p>Illuminated by the morning sun it appears, at a certain
+distance, as if the pyramids were floating in space; further on is
+seen the marvelous dome of the transept, crowned with eight towers
+of chiseled lace-work, over the center of the church.</p>
+
+<p>Pubic worship was held in a portion of the edifice nine years
+after the work was begun; from that time onward for three hundred
+years, various additional portions were completed. On March 4,
+1539, the great transept, built fifty years previous, fell down;
+but was soon restored. August 16, 1642, at 6&frac12; o'clock, P.M.,
+a furious hurricane overthrew the eight little towers that form the
+exterior corner of the dome; but in two years they were replaced,
+namely July 19, 1644: the same night the great bells sounded an
+alarm of fire, the transept having in some way become ignited. The
+activity of the populace, however, prevented the loss of the
+edifice, which for a time was in great danger.</p>
+
+<p>The first architect publicly mentioned in the archives of the
+edifice was the Master Enrique. He also directed the work of the
+Cathedral of Leon. He died July 10, 1277. The second architect was
+Juan Perez, who died in 1296, and was buried in the cloister, under
+the cathedral. He is believed to have been either the son or
+brother of the celebrated Master Pedro Perez, who designed the
+Cathedral of Toledo, and who died in 1299. The third architect of
+the Cathedral of Burgos was Pedro Sanchez, who directed the work in
+1384; after him followed Juan Sanchez de Molina, Martin Fernandez,
+the three Colonias, Juan de Vallejo, Diego de Siloe, the elder
+Nicolas de Vergara, Matienzo, Pieredonda, Gil, Regines, and others.
+It is worthy of note that a number of Moorish architects were
+employed on the work during the 14th and 15th centuries, such as
+Mohomad, Yunce, the Master Hali, the Master Mahomet de Aranda, the
+Master Yunza de Carrion, the Master Carpenter Brahen. Among the
+figure sculptors employed were Juan Sanchez de Fromesta, the
+Masters Gil and Copin, the famous Felipe de Vigardi, Juan de
+Lancre, Anton de Soto, Juan de Villareal, Pedro de Colindres, and
+many others. Our engraving is from a recent number of <i>La
+Ilustracion Espanola y Americana</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/6a.png"><img src=
+"images/6a_th.jpg" alt=
+"THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS, SPAIN.--PHOTOGRAPH BY DE LAURENT.--DRWAWING BY M. HEBERT.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS, SPAIN.--PHOTOGRAPH BY DE
+LAURENT.--DRWAWING BY M. HEBERT.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="1"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE PANAMA CANAL.</h2>
+
+<h3>By MANUEL EISSLER, M.E., of San Francisco, Cal.</h3>
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<h3>HISTORICAL NOTES.</h3>
+
+<p>When Cortez, in the year 1530, made the observation that the two
+great oceans could be seen from the peaks of mountains, he, in
+those remote days, preoccupied himself with the question to cut
+through the Cordilleras.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, the idea of an interoceanic canal is by no means a
+modern one, as travelers and navigators observed that there was a
+great depression among the hills of the Isthmus of Panama. As
+Professor T.E. Nurse, of the U.S.N., says in his memoirs:</p>
+
+<p>"This problem of interoceanic communication has been justly said
+to possess not only practical value, but historical grandeur. It
+clearly links itself back to the era of the conquest of Cortez,
+three and a half centuries." [1] It is a problem which has been
+left for our modern era to solve, but nevertheless its history is
+thereby rendered still more interesting, having needed so many
+centuries to bring it to an issue.</p>
+
+<p>[Footnote 1: From Prof. Nurse's historical essay. See Survey of
+Nicaragua Canal, by Com. Lull.]</p>
+
+<p>Spain, which acquired through her Columbus a new empire, lying
+near, as it was supposed, to the riches of Asia, could not be
+indifferent, from the moment of her discoveries, to the means of
+crossing these lands to yet richer ones beyond.</p>
+
+<p>India, from the days of Alexander and of the geographers, Mela,
+Strabo, and Ptolemy, was the land of promise, the home of the
+spices, the inexhaustible fountain of wealth. The old routes of
+commerce thither had been closed one by one to the Christians; the
+overland trade had fallen into the hands of the Arabs; and at the
+fall of Constantinople, 1453, the commerce of the Black Sea and of
+the Bosphorus, the last of the old routes to the East, finally
+failed the Christian world. Yet even beyond the fame of the East,
+which tradition had brought down from Greek and Roman, much more
+had the crusaders kindled for Asia (Cathay) and its riches an ardor
+not easily suppressed in men's minds.</p>
+
+<p>The error of the Spanish Admiral in supposing that the eastern
+shores of Asia extended 240 degrees east of Spain, or to the
+meridian of the modern San Diego, in California--this error,
+insisted on in his dispatches and adopted and continued by his
+followers, still further animated the earlier Spanish sovereigns
+and the men whom they sent into the New World to reach Asia by a
+short and easy route.</p>
+
+<p>Nobody in Europe dreamt that Columbus had discovered a new
+continent, and when Balbao, in 1513, discovered the South Sea, then
+it was known that Asia lay beyond, and navigators directed their
+course there. On his deathbed, in 1506, Columbus still held to his
+delusion that he had reached Zipanga, Japan. In 1501 he was
+exploring the coast of Veragua, in Central America, still looking
+for the Ganges, and announcing his being informed on this coast of
+a sea which would bear ships to the mouth of that river, while
+about the same time the Cabots, under Henry VII., were taking
+possession of Newfoundland, believing it to be part of the island
+coast of China.</p>
+
+<p>Although these were grave blunders in geography and in
+navigation, the discoveries really made in the rich tropical zones,
+the acquirement of a new world, and the rich products continually
+reaching Europe from it, for a time aroused Spain from her
+lethargy. The world opened east and west. The new routes poured
+their spices, silks, and drugs through new channels into all the
+Teutonic countries. The strong purposes of having near access to
+the East were deepened and perpetuated doubly strong, by the
+certainties before men's eyes of what had been attained.</p>
+
+<p>Balbao, in 1513, gained from a height on the Isthmus of Panama
+the first proof of its separation from Asia; and Magellan enters
+the South Sea at the southern extremity of the country, now first
+proven to be thus separate and a continent. Men in those days began
+to think that creation was doubled, and that such discovered lands
+must be separate from India, China, and Japan. And the very
+successes of the Portuguese under Vasco da Gama, bringing from
+their eastern course the expectancy of Asia's wealth, intensely
+excited the Spaniards to renew their western search.</p>
+
+<p>The Portuguese, led around the Cape of Good Hope, had brought
+home vast treasures from the East, while the Spanish discoverers,
+as yet, had not reached the countries either of Montezuma or of the
+Inca. Their success "troubled the sleep of the Spaniards."</p>
+
+<p>Everything, then, of personal ambition and national pride, the
+thirst for gold, the zeal of religious proselytism, and the cold
+calculations of state policy, now concurred in the disposition to
+sacrifice what Spain already had of most value on the American
+shores in order to seize upon a greater good, the Indies, still
+supposed to be near at hand. And since it was now certain that the
+new lands were not themselves Asia, the next aim was to find the
+secret of the narrow passage across them which must lead thither.
+The very configuration of the isthmus strengthened the belief in
+the existence of such a passage by the number of its openings,
+which seemed to invite entrance in the expectancy that some one of
+them must extend across the narrow breadth of land.</p>
+
+<p>For this the Spanish government, in 1514, gave secret orders to
+D'Avilla, Governor of Castila del Oro, and to Juan de Solis, the
+navigator, to determine whether Castila del Oro were an island, and
+to send to Cuba a chart of the coast, if any strait were possible.
+For this, De Solis visited Nicaragua and Honduras; and later, led
+far to the south, perished in the La Plata. For this, Magellan
+entered the straits, which, strangely enough, he affirmed before
+setting out, that he "would enter," since he "had seen them marked
+out on the geographer Martin Behaim's globe." For this, Cortez sent
+out his expeditions on both coasts, exposing his own life and
+treasure, and sending home to the emperor, in his second relation,
+a map of the entire Gulf of Mexico (Dispatch from Cortez to Charles
+V., October 15, 1524). For this great purpose, and in full
+expectancy of success in it, the whole coast of the New World on
+each side, from Newfoundland on the northeast, curving westward on
+the south, around the whole sweep of the Gulf of Mexico, thence to
+Magellan's Straits, and thence through them up the Pacific to the
+Straits of Behring, was searched and researched with diligence.
+"Men could not get accustomed," says Humboldt, "to the idea that
+the continent extended uninterruptedly both so far north and
+south." Hence all these large, numerous, and persevering
+expeditions by the European powers.</p>
+
+<p>Among them, by priority of right and by her energy, was Spain.
+The great emperor was urgent on the conqueror of Mexico, and on all
+in subordinate positions in New Spain, to solve the secret of the
+strait. All Spain was awakened to it. "How majestic and fair was
+she," says Chevalier, "in the sixteenth century; what daring, what
+heroism and perseverance! Never had the world seen such energy,
+activity, or good fortune. Hers was a will that regarded no
+obstacles. Neither rivers, deserts, nor mountains far higher than
+those in Europe, arrested her people. They built grand cities, they
+drew their fleets, as in a twinkling of the eye, from the very
+forests. A handful of men conquered empires. They seemed a race of
+giants or demi-gods. One would have supposed that all the work
+necessary to bind together climates and oceans would have been done
+at the word of the Spaniards as by enchantment, and since nature
+had not left a passage through the center of America, no matter, so
+much the better for the glory of the human race; they would make it
+up by artificial communication. What, indeed, was that for men like
+them? It were done at a word. Nothing else was left for them to
+conquer, and the world was becoming too small for them."</p>
+
+<p>Certainly, had Spain remained what she then was, what had been
+in vain sought from nature would have been supplied by man. A canal
+or several canals would have been built to take the place of the
+long-desired strait. Her men of science urged it. In 1551, Gomara,
+the author of the "History of the Indies," proposed the union of
+the oceans by three of the very same lines toward which, to this
+hour, the eye turns with hope.</p>
+
+<p>"It is true," said Gomara, "that mountains obstruct these
+passes, but if there are mountains there are also hands; let but
+the resolve be made, there will be no want of means; the Indies, to
+which the passage will be made, will supply them. To a king of
+Spain, with the wealth of the Indies at his command, when the
+object to be obtained is the spice trade, what is possible is
+easy.</p>
+
+<p>But the sacred fire suddenly burned itself out in Spain. The
+peninsula had for its ruler a prince who sought his glory in
+smothering free thought among his own people, and in wasting his
+immense resources in vain efforts to repress it also outside of his
+own dominions through all Europe. From that hour, Spain became
+benumbed and estranged from all the advances of science and art, by
+means of which other nations, and especially England, developed
+their true greatness.</p>
+
+<p>Even after France had shown, by her canal of the south, that
+boats could ascend and pass the mountain crests, it does not appear
+that the Spanish government seriously wished to avail itself of a
+like means of establishing any communication between her sea of the
+Antilles and the South Sea. The mystery enveloping the
+deliberations of the council of the Indies has not always remained
+so profound that we could not know what was going on in that body.
+The Spanish government afterward opened up to Humboldt free access
+to its archives, and in these he found several memoirs on the
+possibility of a union between the two oceans; but he says that in
+no one of them did he find the main point, the height of the
+elevations on the isthmus, sufficiently cleared up, and he could
+not fail to remark that the memoirs were exclusively French or
+English. Spain herself gave it no thought. Since the glorious age
+of Balbao among the people, indeed, the project of a canal was in
+every one's thoughts. In the very wayside talks, in the inns of
+Spain, when a traveler from the New World chanced to pass, after
+making him tell of the wonders of Lima and Mexico, of the death of
+the Inca, Atahualpa, and the bloody defeat of the Aztecs, and after
+asking his opinion of El Dorado, the question was always about the
+two oceans, and what great things would happen if they could
+succeed in joining them.</p>
+
+<p>During the whole of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
+Spain had need of the best mode of conveyance for her treasures
+across the isthmus. Yet those from Peru came by the miserable route
+from Panama to the deadliest of climates. Porto Bello and her
+European wares for her colonies toiled up the Chagres river, while
+the roughest of communication farther north connected the Chimalapa
+and the Guasacoalcos in Mexico, and the trade there was limited
+sternly to but one port on each side. As late as Humboldt's visit,
+in 1802, when remarking upon the "unnatural modes of communication"
+by which, through painful delays, the immense treasures of the New
+World passed from Acapulco, Guayaquil, and Lima, to Spain, he says:
+"These will soon cease whenever an active government, willing to
+protect commerce, shall construct a good road from Panama to Porto
+Bello. The aristocratic nonchalance of Spain, and her fear to open
+to strangers the way to the countries explored for her own profit,
+only kept those countries closed." The court forbade, on pain of
+death, the use of plans at different times proposed. They wronged
+their own colonies by representing the coasts as dangerous and the
+rivers impassable. On the presentation of a memoir for improving
+the route through Tehuantepec, by citizens of Oaxaca, as late as
+1775, an order was issued forbidding the subject to be mentioned.
+The memorialists were censured as intermeddlers, and the viceroy
+fell under the sovereign's displeasure for having seemed to favor
+the plans.</p>
+
+<p>The great isthmus was, however, further explored by the Spanish
+government for its own purposes; the recesses were traversed, and
+the lines of communication which we know to-day were then
+noted.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the fact that comparatively little was explored
+north or south of that which early became the main highway, the
+Panama route, there is confirmation here of the truth that Spain
+concealed and even falsified much of her generally accurately made
+surveys. No stronger proof of this need be asked than that which
+Alcedo gives in connection with the proposal by Gogueneche, the
+Biscayan pilot, to open communication by the Atrato and the Napipi.
+"The Atrato," says the historian, "is navigable for many leagues,
+but the navigation of it is prohibited under pain of death, without
+the exception of any person whatever."</p>
+
+<p>The Isthmus of Nicaragua has always invited serious
+consideration for a ship canal route by its very marked physical
+characteristics, among which is chiefly its great depression
+between two nearly parallel ranges of hills, which depression is
+the basin of its large lake, a natural and all-sufficient feeder
+for such a canal.</p>
+
+<p>In 1524 a squadron of discovery sent out by Cortez on the coast
+of the South Sea, announced the existence of a fresh water sea at
+only three leagues from the coast; a sea which, they said, rose and
+fell alternately, communicating, it was believed, with the Sea of
+the North. Various reconnoissances were therefore made, under the
+idea that here the easy transit would be established between Spain
+and the spice lands beyond.</p>
+
+<p>It was even laid down on some of the old maps, that this open
+communication by water existed from sea to sea; while later maps
+represented a river, under the name of Rio Partido, as giving one
+of its branches to the Pacific Ocean and the other to Lake
+Nicaragua. An exploration by the engineer, Bautista Antonelli,
+under the orders of Philip II., corrected the false idea of an open
+strait.</p>
+
+<p>In the eighteenth century a new cause arose for jealousy of her
+neighbors and for keeping her northern part of the isthmus from
+their view. In the years 1779 and 1780 the serious purposes of the
+English government for the occupancy of Nicaragua, awakened the
+solicitudes of the Spanish government for this section. The English
+colonels, Hodgson and Lee, had secretly surveyed the lake and
+portions of the country, forwarding their plans to London, as the
+basis of an armed incursion, to renew such as had already been made
+by the superintendent of the Mosquito coast, forty years before,
+when, crossing the isthmus, he took possession of Realejo, on the
+Pacific, seeking to change its name to Port Edward. In 1780,
+Captain, afterward Lord Nelson, under orders from Admiral Sir Peter
+Parker, convoyed a force of two thousand men to San Juan de
+Nicaragua, for the conquest of the country.</p>
+
+<p>In his dispatches, Nelson said: "In order to give facility to
+the great object of government, I intend to possess the lake of
+Nicaragua, which, for the present, may be looked upon as the inland
+Gibraltar of Spanish America. As it commands the only water pass
+between the oceans, its situation must ever render it a principal
+post to insure passage to the Southern Ocean, and by our possession
+of it Spanish America is severed into two."</p>
+
+<p>The passage of San Juan was found to be exceedingly difficult;
+for the seamen, although assisted by the Indians from Bluetown,
+scarcely forced their boats up the shoals. Nelson bitterly
+regretted that the expedition had not arrived in January, in place
+of the close of the dry season. It was a disastrous failure,
+costing the English the lives of one thousand five hundred men, and
+nearly losing to them their Nelson.</p>
+
+<p>At this period, Charles III., of Spain, sent a commission to
+explore the country. These commissioners reported unfavorably as
+regarded the route; but fearing further intrusion from England,
+forbade all access to the coast; even falsifying and suppressing
+its charts and permanently injuring the navigation of the San Juan
+and the Colorado by obstructions in their beds.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, a relief here to learn that when Humboldt
+visited the New World, he could say: "The time is passed when
+Spain, through a jealous policy, refused to other nations a
+thoroughfare across the possessions of which they kept the whole
+world so long in ignorance. Accurate maps of the coasts, and even
+minute plans of military positions, are published." It is also true
+that the Spanish Cortes, in 1814, decreed the opening of a canal, a
+decree deferred and never executed.</p>
+
+<p>It was reserved for our century to see this great project
+carried into execution, and it is but just that as a chronicler of
+events I should connect with the Canal of Panama the name of a
+family who have done much to bring the scheme, so to say, into
+practical execution.</p>
+
+<p>As early as the year 1836, Mr. Joly de Sabla turned his views
+toward the cutting of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. He
+resided at the time on the Island of Guadeloupe, one of the French
+West India Islands, where he possessed large estates. Of a high
+social position, the representative of one of France's ancient and
+noble families, with large means at his disposal and of an
+enterprising spirit much in advance of his time, he was well
+calculated to carry out such a grand scheme.</p>
+
+<p>He soon set about procuring from the Government of New Granada
+(now Colombia) the necessary grants and concessions, but much time
+and many efforts were spent before these could be brought to a
+satisfactory condition, and it was not until the year 1841 that he
+could again visit the Isthmus, bringing with him this time, on a
+vessel chartered by him for the purpose, a corps of engineers and
+employes, medical staff, etc., etc. After two years spent in
+exploring and surveying a country at that time very imperfectly
+known, he returned to Guadeloupe to find his residence and most of
+his estates destroyed by the terrible earthquake that visited the
+island in February, 1843.</p>
+
+<p>Undaunted by this unexpected and severe blow, Mr. De Sabla
+persisted in his efforts, and in the same year obtained from the
+French government the establishment of a Consulate at Panama to
+insure protection to the future canal company, and also the sending
+of two government engineers of high repute (Messrs. Garella and
+Courtines), to verify the surveys already made and complete
+them.</p>
+
+<p>After receiving the respective reports of Garella and Courtines,
+Mr. De Sabla decided upon first constructing a railway across the
+Isthmus, postponing the cutting of the canal until this
+indispensable auxiliary should have rendered it practicable and
+profitable. He then presented the scheme in that shape to his
+friends in Paris and London, and formed a syndicate of thirteen
+members, among whom we may recall the names of the well known
+Bankers Caillard of Paris, and Baimbridge of London, of Sir John
+Campbell, then Vice President of the Oriental Steamship Company, of
+Viscount Chabrol de Chameane, and of Courtines, the exploring
+engineer.</p>
+
+<p>A new contract was then entered upon with New Granada in June,
+1847, and early in 1848, the Syndicate was about to forward to the
+Isthmus the expedition which was to execute the preliminary works,
+while the company was being finally organized in Paris, and its
+stock placed.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the undertaking seemed to be assured beyond
+peradventure, when the unexpected breaking out of the French
+revolution in February, 1848, dashed all hopes to the ground.
+Several of the prominent financiers engaged in the affair, taken by
+surprise by the suddenness of the revolution, had to suspend their
+payments and of course to withdraw from the Panama Canal and
+railroad scheme. Others withdrew from contagious fear and timidity.
+Finally the term fixed for carrying out certain obligations of the
+contract expired without their fulfillment by the company, and the
+concession was forfeited. Another contract was almost immediately
+applied for and granted with unseemly haste by the President of New
+Granada to Messrs. Aspinwall, Stephens and Chauncey, which resulted
+in the construction of the actual Panama Railroad.</p>
+
+<p>These gentlemen acted fairly in the matter, and in 1849, calling
+Mr. De Sabla to New York, offered him to join them in the new
+scheme. Unfortunately they had decided upon placing the Atlantic
+terminus of the railroad upon the low and swampy mud Island of
+Manzanillo, while Mr. De Sabla insisted on having it on the
+mainland on the dry and healthy northern shore of the Bay of Limon.
+They could not come to an understanding on this point, and Mr. De
+Sabla, whose experience and foresight taught him the dangers that
+would result to the shipping from the unprotected situation of the
+projected part (now Colon--Aspinwall), and who well knew the
+insalubrity of the malarial swamp constituting the Island of
+Manzanillo, withdrew forever from the undertaking, after having
+devoted to it without any benefit to himself, the best years of his
+life and a large portion of his private means.</p>
+
+<p>One of his sons, Mr. Theodore J. de Sabla, after having actively
+co-operated with Lieutenant Commander Wyse, in the original scheme
+of the present canal company, is now one of Count de Lesseps's
+representatives in the City of New York, and a director of the
+Panama Railroad Company.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="2"></a></p>
+
+<h2>IMPROVED AVERAGING MACHINE.</h2>
+
+<p>At the recent meeting of the American Society of Civil
+Engineers, in this city, a paper on an improved form of the
+averaging machine was read by its inventor, Mr. Wm. S.
+Auchincloss.</p>
+
+<p>The ingenious method by which the weight of the platform is
+eliminated from the result of the work of the machine was exhibited
+and explained. This is accomplished by counterweights sliding
+automatically in tubes, so that in any position the unloaded
+platform is always in equilibrium. Any combination of
+representative weights can then be placed on this platform at the
+proper points of the scale. By then drawing the platform to its
+balancing point, the location of the center of gravity will at once
+be indicated on the scale by the pointer over the central
+trunnion.</p>
+
+<p>The weights may be arranged on a decimal system, with
+intermediate weights for closer working, or they may be made so as
+to express multiples or factors.</p>
+
+<p>Each machine is provided with a number of differing scales,
+divided suitably for various purposes. When the problem is one of
+time, the scale represents months and days; for problems of
+proportion, the zero of the scale is at the center of its length;
+for problems for the location of center of gravity of a system from
+a fixed point, the zero is at the extremity of the scale, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The machine exhibited has sixty-three transverse grooves, which,
+by arrangement of weights, can be made to serve the purposes of two
+hundred and fifty-two grooves.</p>
+
+<p>The machine is 29 inches in length, 9 inches in width, and
+weighs about 13 pounds.</p>
+
+<p>With the machine can be found average dates, as, for instance,
+of purchases and of payments extending over irregular periods; also
+average prices, as for "futures," in comman use among cotton
+brokers. The problem of average haul, so often presented to the
+engineer, can be solved with ease and great celerity. Practical
+examples of the solution of these and a number of other problems
+involving proportions or averages were given by the author.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="3"></a></p>
+
+<h2>COMPOUND BEAM ENGINE.</h2>
+
+<p>The engine represented in Figs. 1 to 4 herewith is intended for
+a mill, and is of 530 to 800 indicated horse-power, the pressure
+being seven atmospheres, and the number of revolutions forty-five
+per minute. As will be seen by the drawing each cylinder is placed
+in a separate foundation plate, the two connecting rods acting upon
+cranks keyed at right angles upon the shaft, W, which carries the
+drum, T. The high-pressure cylinder, C, is 760 mm diameter, the low
+pressure cylinder being 1,220 mm. diameter, and the piston speed
+2.28 m. The drum, which also fulfills the purpose of a fly wheel,
+is provided with twenty-eight grooves for ropes of 50 mm. diameter.
+With the exception of the cylinders, pistons, valves, and valve
+chests, the engines are of the same size, corresponding to the
+equal maximum pressures which come into action in each cylinder,
+and in this respect alone the engine differs in principle from an
+ordinary twin machine.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8a.png"><img src=
+"images/8a_th.jpg" alt=
+"BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 1"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 1</p>
+
+<p>The steam passes from the stop-valve, A, Fig. 4, through the
+steam pipe, D, to the high pressure cylinder, C, and having done
+its work, goes into the receiver, R, where it is heated. From the
+receiver it is led into the low-pressure cylinder, C<sup>1</sup>,
+and thence into the condenser. Provision is made for working both
+engines independently with direct steam when desired, suitable gear
+being provided for supplying steam of the proper pressure to the
+condensing engine, so that each engine shall perform exactly the
+same amount of work. The starting gear consists of a hand-wheel, H,
+which controls the stop valve, A, and of another h, which opens the
+valves for the jackets of the cylinders and receiver. The
+hand-wheel, h<sup>1</sup> and h<sup>2</sup>, govern the valves,
+which turn the steam direct into the two cylinders. There are also
+lever, g, which opens the principal injection cock, H<sup>1</sup>,
+and the auxiliary injection cock, H<sup>2</sup>, the function of
+which is to assist in forming a speedy vacuum, when the engine has
+been standing for some time.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/9a.png"><img src=
+"images/9a_th.jpg" alt=
+"BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 2"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 2</p>
+
+<p>The drum is 6.08 m. diameter, the breadth being 2.04 m., with a
+total weight of 33,000 kilos. The beams are of cast iron with
+balance weights cast on. The connecting rods and cross beams are of
+wrought iron, and the cranks, crank shaft, piston rods, valve rods,
+etc., of steel. The bed-plate for the main shaft bearings are cast
+in one piece with the standards for the beam, which are connected
+firmly together by the center bearing, M M<sup>1</sup>, which is
+cast in one piece, and also by the diagonal bracing piece, N
+N<sup>1</sup>. The construction of the cylinder and valve chests is
+shown in Fig. 1. The working cylinder is in the form of a liner to
+the cylinder, thus forming the steam jacket, with a view to future
+renewal. This lining has a flange at the lower part for bolting it
+down, being made steam-tight by the intervention of a copper
+packing ring. There is a similar ring at the upper part which is
+pressed down by the cylinder cover. The latter is cast hollow and
+strengthened by ribs. The pistons are provided with cast iron
+double self-expanding packing rings. For preventing accidents by
+condensed water, spring safety valves, ss and s<sup>1</sup>
+s<sup>1</sup>, are connected to the valve chests. The valve gear,
+which is arranged in the same manner for both cylinders, is
+actuated by shafts, w and w<sup>1</sup>, rotated by toothed wheels
+as shown. Motion is communicated from the way-shafts, w and
+w<sup>1</sup>, by the eccentrics, and the eccentric rods,
+e<sup>1</sup> e<sup>2</sup> e<sup>3</sup> e<sup>4</sup>, and the
+levers and rods belonging thereto, to the short steam valve rocking
+shafts levers, f<sup>1</sup> f<sup>2</sup> f<sup>3</sup>
+f<sup>4</sup>, and the exhaust valve rocking shafts, k<sup>1</sup>
+k<sup>2</sup> k<sup>3</sup> k<sup>4</sup>, the bearings of which
+are carried on brackets above the valve chests, which, being
+furnished with tappet levers, raise and lower the valves.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/9b.png"><img src=
+"images/9b_th.jpg" alt=
+"BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 3"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 3</p>
+
+<p>The valves are conical, double-seated, and of cast iron, and the
+inlet and outlet valves are placed the one above the other, the
+seats being also conically ground and inserted through the cover of
+the valve chest. Both inlet and outlet valves are actuated from
+above, and are removable upward, an arrangement which admits of the
+valves being more easily examined than when the two are actuated
+from different sides of the valve chest. To carry out this idea the
+inlet valves are furnished with two guides, which, passing upward
+through the stuffing-box, are attached to a hard steel cross piece,
+which receives the action of a bent catch turning on a pin attached
+to the levers, t<sub>1</sub>, t<sub>2</sub>, t<sub>3</sub>,
+t<sub>4</sub>. The exhaust valves, on the contrary, have only one
+guide each, which passes upward through the seat of the admission
+valve, through the valve itself by means of a collar, and through
+the stuffing-box. It is furnished with hard steel armatures,
+through which the levers, z<sub>1</sub> z<sub>2</sub>, Fig. 3, act
+upon the exhaust valves.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8b.png"><img src=
+"images/8b_th.jpg" alt=
+"BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 4"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 4</p>
+
+<p>The governor effects the acceleration or retardation of the
+loosening of the catch actuating the steam valve by means of hard
+steel projections on the shaft, v<sub>1</sub>, the position of
+which, by means of levers, is regulated by the governor, which in
+its highest position does not allow the lifting of the inlet valve
+at all. The regulation of the expansion by the governor from 0 to
+0.45 takes place generally only in the case of the high-pressure
+cylinder, while the low-pressure cylinder has a fixed rate of
+expansion. Only when the low-pressure cylinder is required to work
+with steam direct from the boiler is the governor applied to
+regulate the expansion in it. An exact action in the valve guides
+and a regular descent is secured by furnishing them with small dash
+pot pistons working in cylinders. Into them the air is readily
+admitted by a small India-rubber valve, but the passage out again
+is controlled at pleasure.--<i>The Engineer</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>TO DETECT ALKALIES IN NITRATE OF SILVER--Stolba recommends the
+salt to be dissolved in the smallest quantity of water, and to add
+to the filtered solution hydrofluosilicic acid, drop by drop.
+Should a turbidity appear an alkaline salt is present. But should
+the liquid remain limpid, an equal volume of alcohol is to be
+added, which will cause a precipitate in case the slightest trace
+of an alkali be present.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="4"></a></p>
+
+<h2>POWER HAMMERS WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.</h2>
+
+<p>[Footnote: Paper read before the Institution of Mechanical
+Engineers.--<i>Engineering</i>.]</p>
+
+<h3>By DANIEL LONGWORTH, of London.</h3>
+
+<p>The movable-fulcrum power hammer was designed by the writer
+about five and a half years ago, to meet a want in the market for a
+power hammer which, while under the complete control of only one
+workman, could produce blows of varying forces without alteration
+in the rapidity with which they were given. It was also necessary
+that the vibration and shock of the hammer head should not be
+transmitted to the driving mechanism, and that the latter should be
+free from noise and liability to derangement. The various uses to
+which the movable fulcrum hammers have been put, and their success
+in working[1]--as well as the importance of the general subject
+which includes them, namely, the substitution of stored power for
+human effort--form the author's excuse for now occupying the time
+of the meeting.</p>
+
+<p>[Footnote 1: The hammers have been for some years used by A.
+Bamlett, of Thirsk; the American Tool Company, of Antwerp; Messrs.
+W.&amp;T. Avery, of Birmingham; Pullar &amp; Sons, of Perth; Salter
+&amp; Co., of West Bromwich; Vernon Hope &amp; Co., of Wednesbury,
+etc.; and also for stamps by Messrs. Collins &amp; Co., of
+Birmingham, etc.]</p>
+
+<p>Until these hammers were introduced, no satisfactory method had
+been devised for altering the force of the blow. The plan generally
+adopted was to have either a tightening pulley acting on the
+driving belt, a friction driving clutch, or a simple brake on the
+driving pulley, put in action by the hand or foot of the workman.
+Heavy blows were produced by simply increasing the number of blows
+per minute (and therefore the velocity), and light blows by
+diminishing it--a plan which was quite contrary to the true
+requirements of the case. To prevent the shock of the hammer head
+being communicated to the driving gear, an elastic connection was
+usually formed between them, consisting of a steel spring or a
+cushion of compressed air. With the steel spring, the variation
+which could be given in the thickness of the work under the hammer
+was very limited, owing to the risk of breaking the spring; but
+with the compressed air or pneumatic connection the work might vary
+considerably in thickness, say from 0 to 8 in. with a hammer
+weighing 400lb. The pneumatic hammers had a crank, with a
+connecting rod or a slotted crossbar on the piston-rod, a piston
+and a cylinder which formed the hammer-head. The piston-rod was
+packed with a cup leather, or with ordinary packing, the latter
+required to be adjusted with the greatest nicety, otherwise the
+piston struck the hammer before lifting it, or else the force of
+the blow was considerably diminished. As the piston moved with the
+same velocity during its upward and downward strokes, and, in the
+latter, had to overtake and outrun the hammer falling under the
+action of gravity, the air was not compressed sufficiently to give
+a sharp blow at ordinary working speeds, and a much heavier hammer
+was required than if the velocity of the piston had been
+accelerated to a greater degree.</p>
+
+<p>As it is impossible in the limits of this paper to describe all
+the forms in which the movable fulcrum hammers have been arranged,
+two types only will be selected taken from actual work; namely, a
+small planishing hammer, and a medium-sized forging hammer.[1]</p>
+
+<p>[Footnote 1: To the makers, Messrs. J. Scott Rawlings &amp; Co,
+of Birmingham, the author is indebted for the working drawings of
+these hammers.]</p>
+
+<p>The small planishing hammer, Figs. 1 to 3, next page, is used
+for copper, tin, electro, and iron plate, for scythes, and other
+thin work, for which it is sufficient to adjust the force of the
+blow once for all by hand, according to the thickness and quality
+of the material before commencing to hammer it. The hammer weighs
+15 lb., and has a stroke variable from 2&frac12; in. to 9&frac12;
+in., and makes 250 blows per minute. The driving shaft, A, is
+fitted with fast and loose belt pulleys, the belt fork being
+connected to the pedal, P, which when pressed down by the foot of
+the workman, slides the driving belt on to the fast pulley and
+starts the hammer; when the foot is taken off the pedal, the weight
+on the latter moves the belt quickly on to the loose pulley, and
+the hammer is stopped. The flywheel on the shaft, A, is weighted on
+one side, so that it causes the hammer to stop at the top of its
+stroke after working; thus enabling the material to be placed on
+the anvil before starting the hammer. The movable fulcrum, B,
+consists of a stud, free to slide in a slot, C, in the framing, and
+held in position by a nut and toothed washer. On the fulcrum is
+mounted the socket, D, through which passes freely a round bar or
+rocking lever, E, attached at one end to the main piston, F, of the
+hammer, G, and having at the other extremity a long slide, H,
+mounted upon it. This slide is carried on the crank-pin, I,
+fastened to the disk, J, attached to the driving shaft, A. The
+crank-pin, in revolving, reciprocates the rocking lever, E, and
+main piston, F, and through the medium of the pneumatic connection,
+the hammer, G. The slide, H, in revolving with the crank-pin, also
+moves backward and forward along the rocking lever, approaching the
+fulcrum, B, during the down-stroke of the hammer, and receding from
+it during the up-stroke. By this means the velocity of the hammer
+is considerably accelerated in its downward stroke, causing a sharp
+blow to be given while it is gently raised during its upward
+stroke.</p>
+
+<p>To alter the force of the blow, the hammer, G, is made to rise
+and fall through a greater or less distance, as may be required,
+from the fixed anvil block, K, after the manner of the smith giving
+heavy or light blows on his anvil. It is evident that this special
+alteration of the stroke could not be obtained by altering the
+throw of a simple crank and connecting rod; but by placing the
+slot, C, parallel with the direction of the rocking lever, E, when
+the latter is in its lowest position, with the hammer resting on
+the anvil, and with the crank at the top of its stroke, this lowest
+position of the rocking lever and hammer is made constant, no
+matter what position the fulcrum, B, may have in the slot, C. To
+obtain a short stroke, and consequently a light blow, the fulcrum
+is moved in the slot toward the hammer, G; and to produce a long
+stroke and heavy blow the fulcrum is moved in the opposite
+direction.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 3 gives the details of the pneumatic connection between the
+main piston and the hammer, in which packing and packing glands are
+dispensed with. The hammer, G, is of cast steel, bored out to fit
+the main piston, F, the latter being also bored out to receive an
+internal piston, L. A pin, M, passing freely through slots in the
+main piston, F, connects rigidly the internal piston, L, with the
+hammer, G. When the main piston is raised by the rocking lever, the
+air in the space, X, between the main and internal pistons, is
+compressed, and forms an elastic medium for lifting the hammer;
+when the main piston is moved down, the air in the space, Y, is
+compressed in its turn, and the hammer forced down to give the
+blow. Two holes drilled in the side of the hammer renew the air
+automatically in the spaces, X and Y, at each blow of the
+hammer.</p>
+
+<p>Figs. 4 to 6, on the next page, represent the medium size
+forging hammer, for making forgings in dies, swaging and tilting
+bars, and plating edged tools, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The hammer weighs 1 cwt., has a stroke variable from 4 in. to
+14&frac12; in., and gives 200 blows per minute; the compressed air
+space between the main piston and the hammer is sufficiently long
+to admit forgings up to 3 in. thick under the hammer.</p>
+
+<p>To make forgings economically, it is necessary to bring them
+into the desired form by a few heavy blows, while the material is
+still in a highly plastic condition, and then to finish them by a
+succession of lighter blows. The heavy blows should be given at a
+slower rate than the lighter ones, to allow time for turning the
+work in the dies or on the anvil, and so to avoid the risk of
+spoiling it. In forging with the steam hammer the workman requires
+an assistant, who, with the lever of the valve motion in hand,
+obeys his directions as to starting and stopping, heavy or light
+blows, slow or quick blows, etc; the quickest speed attainable
+depending on the speed of the arm of the assistant. In the
+movable-fulcrum forging hammer the operations of starting and
+stopping, and the giving of heavy or light blows, are under the
+complete control of one foot of the workman, who requires therefore
+no assistant; and by properly proportioning the diameter of the
+driving pulley and size of belt to the hammer, the heavy blows are
+given at a slower rate than the light ones, owing to the greater
+resistance which they offer to the driving belt.</p>
+
+<p>In this hammer the pneumatic connection, the arrangements for
+the starting, stopping, and holding up of the hammer, as well as
+those for communicating the motion of the crank-pin to the hammer
+by means of a rocking lever and movable fulcrum, are similar to
+those in the planishing hammer, differing only in the details,
+which provide double guides and bearings for the principal working
+parts.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/10a.png"><img src=
+"images/10a_th.jpg" alt=
+"LONGWORTH'S POWER HAMMER WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">LONGWORTH'S POWER HAMMER WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.</p>
+
+<p>The movable fulcrum, B, Figs. 4 and 5, consists of two
+adjustable steel pins, attached to the fulcrum lever, Q, and turned
+conical where they fit in the socket, D. The fulcrum lever is
+pivoted on a pin, R, fixed in the framing of the machine, and is
+connected at its lower extremity to the nut, S, in gear with the
+regulating screw, T. The to-and-fro movement of the fulcrum lever,
+Q, by which heavy or light blows are given by the hammer, is placed
+under the control of the foot of the workman, in the following
+manner: U is a double-ended forked lever, pivoted in the center,
+and having one end embracing the starting pedal, P, and the other
+end the small belt which connects the fast pulley on the driving
+shaft, A, with the loose pulley, V, or the reversing pulleys, W and
+X. These are respectivly connected with the bevel wheels,
+W<sub>1</sub>, and X<sub>1</sub>, gearing into and placed at
+opposite sides of the bevel wheel, Z, on the regulating screw in
+connection with the fulcrum lever. When the workman places his foot
+on the pedal, P, to start the hammer, he finds his foot within the
+fork of the lever, U; and by slightly turning his foot round on his
+heel he can readily move the forked lever to right or left, so
+shifting the small belt on to either of the reversing pulleys, W or
+X, and causing the regulating screw, T, to revolve in either
+direction. The fulcrum lever is thus caused to move forward or
+backward, to give light or heavy blows. By moving the forked lever
+into mid position, the small belt is shifted into its usual place
+on the loose pulley, V, and the fulcrum remains at rest. To fix the
+lightest and heaviest blow required for each kind of work,
+adjustable stops are provided, and are mounted on a rod, Y,
+connected to an arm of the forked lever. When the nut of the
+regulating screw comes in contact with either of the stops, the
+forked lever is forced into mid position, in spite of the pressure
+of the foot of the workman, and thus further movement of the
+fulcrum lever, in the direction which it was taking, is prevented.
+The movable fulcrum can also be adjusted by hand to any required
+blow, when the hammer is stopped, by means of a handle in
+connection with the regulating screw.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion the author wishes to direct attention to the fact,
+that in many of our largest manufactories, particularly in the
+midland counties, foot and hand labor for forging and stamping is
+still employed to an enormous extent. Hundreds of "Olivers," with
+hammers up to 60 lb. in weight, are laboriously put in motion by
+the foot of the workman, at a speed averaging fifty blows per
+minute; while large numbers of stamps, worked by hand and foot, and
+weighing up to 120 lb., are also employed. The low first cost of
+the foot hammers and stamps, combined with the system of piece
+work, and the desire of manufacturers to keep their methods of
+working secret, have no doubt much to do with the small amount of
+progress that has been made; although in a few cases competition,
+particularly with the United States of America, has forced the
+manufacturer to throw the Oliver and hand-stamp aside, and to
+employ steam power hammers and stamps. The writer believes that in
+connection with forging and stamping processes there is still a
+wide and profitable field for the ingenuity and capital of
+engineers, who choose to occupy themselves with this minor, but not
+the less useful, branch of mechanics.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="5"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACES APPLIED TO THE PUDDLING OF
+IRON.</h2>
+
+<p>Since the year 1872, the large iron works at Ougr&eacute;e, near
+Liege, have applied the Bicheroux system of furnaces to heating,
+and, since the year 1877, to puddling. The results that have been
+obtained in this last-named application are so satisfactory that it
+appears to us to be of interest to speak of the matter in some
+detail.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus, which is shown in the opposite page, consists of
+three distinct parts: (1) a gas generator; (2) a mixing chamber
+into which the gases and air are drawn by the natural draught, and
+wherein the combustion of the gases begins; and (3) a furnace, or
+laboratory (not represented in the figure), wherein the combustion
+is nearly finished, and wherein take place the different reactions
+of puddling. These three parts are given dimensions that vary
+according to the composition of the different coals, and they may
+be made to use any sort of coal, even the fine and schistose kinds
+which would not be suitable for ordinary puddling. The gases and
+the air necessary for the combustion of these being brought
+together at different temperatures, and being drawn into the mixing
+chamber through the same chimney, it will be seen that the
+dimensions of the flues that conduct them should vary with the kind
+of coal used; and the manner in which the gases are brought
+together is not a matter of indifference.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/11a.png"><img src=
+"images/11a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACE.<br>
+<br>
+Vertical Section, and Horizontal Section through MNOPQR</p>
+
+<p>The gas generator consists of a hopper, A, into which drops,
+through small apertures a, the coal piled up on the platform, D.
+These apertures are closed with coal or bricks. The bottom of the
+generator is formed of a small standing grate. The coal, on falling
+upon a mass in a state of ignition, distills and becomes
+transformed into coke, which gradually slides down over a grate to
+produce afterward, through its own combustion, a distillation of
+the coal following it. But as these are features found in all
+generators we will not dwell upon them.</p>
+
+<p>The gases that are produced flow through a long horizontal flue,
+B, into a vertical conduit, E, into which there debouches at the
+upper part a series of small orifices, F, that conduct the air that
+has been heated. The gases are inflamed, and traverse the furnace c
+(not shown in the cut), from whence they go to the chimney. Before
+the air is allowed to reach the intervening chamber it is made to
+pass into the sole of the furnace and into the walls of the
+chamber, so that to the advantage of having the air heated there is
+joined the additional one of having those portions of the furnace
+cooled that cannot be heated with impunity.</p>
+
+<p>The incompletely burned gases that escape from the furnace are
+utilized in heating the boilers of the establishment. The
+dimensions given these furnaces vary greatly according to the
+charge to be used. All the results at Ougr&eacute;e have been
+obtained with 400 kilogramme charges, and the dimensions of the gas
+generators have been calculated for Six-Bonniers coal, which does
+not yield over 20 per cent. of gas.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of this system, which permits of expediting all
+the operations of puddling, are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. A notable economy in fuel, both as regards quantity and
+quality.</p>
+
+<p>2. Economy resulting from diminution in the waste of metal, with
+a consequent improvement in the quality of the products
+obtained.</p>
+
+<p>3. Diminution in cost of repairs.</p>
+
+<p>4. Less rapid wear in the grates.</p>
+
+<p>5. Improvement in the conditions of the work of puddling.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the first of these advantages, it may be stated that
+the puddling of ordinary Ougr&eacute;e forge iron, which required
+with other furnaces 900 to 1,000 kilogrammes of coal, is now
+performed with less than 600 kilogrammes per ton of the iron
+produced. The puddling of fine grained iron which required 1,300 to
+1,500 kilogrammes of coal is now done with 800. So much for
+quantity; as for quality the system presents also a very marked
+advantage in that it requires no rolling coal--the operation of the
+furnace being just as regular with fine coal, even that sifted
+through screens of 0.02 meter.</p>
+
+<p>The second class of advantages naturally results from the almost
+complete prevention of access of cold air. The saving in wastage
+amounts to 3 or 4 per cent., that is to say, 100 kilogrammes of
+iron produced is accompanied by a loss of only 9 to 10 kilogrammes,
+instead of 13 to 15 as ordinarily reckoned.</p>
+
+<p>The diminution in the cost of repairs is due to the fact that
+the furnace doors, of which there are two, permit of easy access to
+all parts of the sole; moreover, the coal never coming in contact
+with the fire-bridges, the latter last much longer than those in
+other styles of furnaces, and can be used for several weeks without
+the necessity of the least repair. The reduced wear of the grates
+results from the low temperature that can be used in the furnace,
+and the quantity of clinker that can be left therein without
+interfering with its operation, thus permitting of having the
+grates always black. These latter in no wise change, and after five
+months of work the square bars still preserve their sharpness of
+edges.</p>
+
+<p>As for the improvements in the conditions of the work of
+puddling, it may be stated that with a uniform price per 100
+kilogrammes for all the furnaces, the laborers working at the gas
+furnaces can earn 25 to 30 per cent. more than those working at
+ordinary furnaces.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="6"></a></p>
+
+<h2>GESSNER'S CONTINUOUS CLOTH-PRESSING MACHINE.</h2>
+
+<p>It is well known that there are several serious drawbacks in the
+usual plan of pressing woolen or worsted cloths and felts with
+press plates, press papers, and presses. Three objections of great
+weight may be mentioned, and events in Leeds give emphasis to a
+fourth. The three objections are--the labor required in setting or
+folding the cloth, the expense of the press papers, and the time
+required. The fourth objection, about which a dispute has occurred
+between the press-setters and the master finishers in Leeds, refers
+to the inapplicability of the common system to long lengths. The
+men object to these on account of the great labor involved in
+shifting the heavy mass of cloth and press plates to and from the
+presses. A minor drawback of this system is that it involves the
+presence of a fold up the middle of the piece. On account of these
+drawbacks it has long been understood to be desirable to expedite
+the process, and also to dispense with the press papers. This is
+the main purpose of the machine we now illustrate in section, in
+which the pressing is done continuously by what may be termed a
+species of ironing. The machine consists of a central hollow
+cylinder, C, three-quarters of the circumference of which is
+covered by the hollow boxes, M, heated by steam through the pipes
+shown, and which are mounted upon the levers, BB', whose fulcra are
+at bb. By means of the hand-wheel, T, and worm-wheel, n, which
+closes or opens the levers, BB', the pressure of the boxes upon the
+central roller may be adjusted at will, the spring-bolt, F,
+allowing a certain amount of yield. The faces of the press-boxes,
+MM, are covered by a curved sheet of German silver attached to the
+point, Y. This sheet takes the place of the press papers in the
+ordinary process. The course of the cloth through the machine is as
+follows, and is shown by the arrows: It is placed on the bottom
+board in front, and in its travel it passes over the rails, O,
+after which it is operated on by the brush, Z, leaving which it is
+conveyed over the rails, V and I, the rollers, K and P, and thence
+between the pressing roller, C, and the German silver press plate
+covering the heated boxes, M. Leaving these the piece passes over
+the roller, P, and is cuttled down in the bottom board by the
+cuttling motion, F, or a rolling-up motion may be applied. The
+maker states that arrangements for brushing and steaming may also
+be attached, so that in one passage through the machine a piece may
+be pressed, brushed, and steamed. The speed of the cylinder may be
+adjusted according to the quality or requirements of the goods that
+are under treatment. At the time of our visit, says the <i>Textile
+Manufacturer</i>, printed woolen pieces were being pressed at the
+rate of about four yards a minute, but higher speeds are often
+obtained. Messrs. Taylor, Wordsworth &amp; Co., who have erected
+many of these machines in Leeds, Bradford, and Batley, inform us
+that they find they are adapted for the pressing of a wide variety
+of cloths, from Bradford goods and thin serges to the heavy pieces
+of Dewsbury and Batley. The inventor, Ernst Gessner, of Aue,
+Saxony, adopts an ingenious expedient for pressing goods with thick
+lists. He provides an arrangement for moving the cylinder endwise,
+according to the different widths of the pieces to be treated. One
+list is left outside at the end of the cylinder, and the other at
+the opposite end of the pressing boxes. The machine we saw was 80
+in. wide on the roller, and it was one the design and construction
+of which undoubtedly do credit to Mr. Gessner.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/11b.png"><img src=
+"images/11b_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="8"></a></p>
+
+<h2>IMPROVEMENTS IN WOOLEN CARDING ENGINES.</h2>
+
+<p>Mr. Bolette, who has made a name for himself in connection with
+strap dividers, has experimented in another direction on the
+carding engine, and as his ideas contain some points of novelty we
+herewith give the necessary illustrations, so that our readers can
+judge for themselves as to the merit of these inventions.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/11c.png" alt=
+"Fig. 1."></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">Fig. 1.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 1 represents the feeding arrangement. Here the wool is
+delivered by the feed rollers, A A, in the usual manner. The longer
+fibers are then taken off by a comb, B, and brought forward to the
+stripper, E, which transfers them to the roller, H, and thence to
+the cylinder. The shorter fibers which are not seized by the comb
+fall down, but as they drop they meet a blast of air created by a
+fan, which throws the lighter and cleaner parts in a kind of spray
+upon the roller, L, whence they pass on to the cylinder, while the
+dirt and other heavier parts fall downwards into a box, and are by
+this means kept off the cylinder. It is evident that in this
+arrangement it is not intended to keep the long and the short
+fibers separate, but to utilize them all in the formation of the
+yarn. The arrangement shown in Fig. 2 refers to the delivery end.
+Instead of the sliver being wound upon the roller in the usual way,
+it runs upon a sheet of linen, P&sup1;, as in the case of carding
+for felt, with a to-and-fro motion in the direction of the axis of
+the rollers. In this way one or more layers of the fleece can be
+placed on the sheet, which in that case passes backwards and
+forwards from roller S to R, and <i>vice versa</i>. It is, in fact,
+the bat arrangement used for felt, only with this difference, that
+the bat is at once rolled up instead of going through the bat
+frame. In the manufacture of felt it is of course of importance to
+have many very thin layers of fleece superposed over each other in
+order to equalize it, and if the same is applied to the manufacture
+of cloth it will no doubt give satisfactory results, but may be
+rather costly.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/11d.png" alt=
+"Fig. 2."></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">Fig. 2.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="7"></a></p>
+
+<h2>NOVELTIES IN RING SPINDLES.</h2>
+
+<p>One of the drawbacks of ring spinning is the uneven pull of the
+traveler, which is the more difficult to counteract as it is
+exerted in jerks at irregular intervals. It is argued that with
+spindles and bearings as usually made the spindle is supported
+firmly in its bearing, and cannot give in case of such a lateral
+pull when exerted through the yarn by the traveler, and the
+consequence is either a breakage of the yarn or an uneven thread.
+Impressed with this idea, and in order to remedy this defect, an
+eminent Swiss firm has hit upon the notion of driving the spindle
+by friction, and to make it more or less loose in the bearings, so
+that in case of an extra pull by the traveler the spindle can give
+way a little, and thus prevent the breakage of the yarn. This idea
+has been carried out in four different ways, and as this seems to
+be an entirely new departure in ring spinning, we give the
+illustrations of their construction in detail.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/11e.png"><img src=
+"images/11e_th.jpg" alt="Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 1 represents Bourcart's recent arrangement of attaching the
+thread guide to the spindle rail and the adjustable spindle. The
+spindle is held by the sleeve, g, which latter is screwed into the
+spindle rail, S, this being moved by the pinion, a; the collar is
+elongated upwards in a cuplike form, c, the better to hold the oil,
+and keep it from flying; d is the wharf, which has attached to it
+the sleeve, m, and which is situated loosely in the space between
+the spindle and the footstep, e. Above the wharf the spindle is
+hexagonal in shape, and to this part is attached the friction
+plate, a. Between the latter and the upper surface of the wharf a
+cloth or felt washer is inserted, to act as a brake. The footstep,
+e, is filled with oil, in which run the foot of the spindle and the
+sleeve m, the latter turning upon a steel ring situated on the
+bottom of the footstep. As, thus, the foot of the spindle is quite
+free, the upper part of the spindle can give sideways in the
+direction of any sudden pull, and the foot of the spindle can
+follow this motion in the opposite direction, the collar forming
+the fulcrum for the spindle. By this alteration of the vertical
+position of the spindle into an inclined one (though ever so
+trifling), the contact of the friction plate, a, and the wharf is
+interrupted, and thus the speed of the spindle reduced. This will
+cause less yarn to be wound on, and the pull thus to be
+neutralized; but as the wharf keeps turning at the same speed, its
+centrifugal force will act again upon the friction plate, and thus
+bring the spindle back to its vertical position as soon as the
+extra drag has been removed.</p>
+
+<p>In Fig. 2 the footstep, e, has the foot of the spindle more
+closely fitting at the bottom, but the upper part of the step opens
+out gradually, and forms a conical cavity of a little larger
+diameter than the spindle, so that the latter has a considerable
+play sideways. The wharf carries in its lower part the sleeve, g,
+which runs upon a steel ring as above. The upper surface of the
+wharf is arched, and upon this is fitted the correspondingly arched
+friction plate, a, which latter is attached to the spindle by a
+screw. The position of the spindle is maintained by the collar, m.
+This collar is loose in the spindle rail, and only held by the
+spring, m'. If now, a lateral drag is exerted upon the upper part
+of the spindle, the collar car follows the direction of this drag,
+and the spindle thus be brought out of the vertical position, the
+friction plate slipping at the same time. The force of the spring
+conjointly with the centrifugal force will then bring back the
+spindle into its normal position as soon as the drag is again
+even.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 3 shows a spindle with a very long conical oil vessel, B,
+resting upon a disk, e", in cup, e', with a cover, e"'. The wharf,
+d, is here situated high up the spindle, has the same sleeve as in
+the preceding case, and runs round the bush, g, upon the ring, z.
+The friction plate resting upon the wharf is joined to the collar,
+a, running out into a cup shape, which is fixed to the spindle,
+which here has a hexagonal form. In this case the collar gives with
+the spindle, which latter has the necessary play in the long
+footstep; and as the collar and friction-plate are one, it is
+brought back to its normal place by centrifugal force.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiar arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. Here the ring and
+traveler, f, are placed as usual, but the spindle carries at the
+same time an inverted flier, t. The spindle turns loosely in the
+footstep, e, the oil chamber being carried up to the middle of its
+height. The wharf is placed in the same position as in the previous
+case, having also a sleeve running in the oil chamber, c, upon a
+steel ring, z. The friction-plate a, on the top of the wharf
+carries the flier, and on its upper surface is in contact with the
+inverted cup, a, which is attached to the spindle by a pin or
+screw. In order to limit at will the lateral motion of the spindle
+there is attached to the latter, between the footstep and the
+collar, a split ring, i, which can be closed more or less by a
+small set screw. The spindle is thus only held in the perpendicular
+position by its own velocity, which will facilitate a high degree
+of speed, through the entire absence of all friction in the
+bearings, this vertical position being assisted by the friction
+motion whenever the spindle has been drawn on one side. Although
+the notion of mounting spindles so that they can yield in order to
+center themselves is not new, it is evident that considerable
+ingenuity has been brought to bear upon the arrangement of the
+spindles we have described, but we are not in a position to say to
+what extent practice has in this case coincided with
+theory.--<i>Textile Manufacturer</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="17"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PHOTO-ENGRAVING ON ZINC OR COPPER.</h2>
+
+<h3>By LEON VIDAL.</h3>
+
+<p>This process is similar in many respects to the one which was
+some time ago communicated to the Photographic Society of France by
+M. Stronbinsky, of St. Petersburg, but in a much improved and
+complete form. An account of it was given by M. Gobert, at the
+meeting of the same society, on the 2d December, 1882. The
+following are the details, as demonstrated by me at the meeting of
+the 9th of May last:</p>
+
+<p>Sheets of zinc or of copper of a convenient size are carefully
+planished and polished with powdered pumice stone. The sensitive
+mixture is composed of:</p>
+
+<pre>
+  The whites of four fresh eggs beaten
+  to a froth......................... 100    parts
+  Pure bichromate of ammonia.........   2.50   "
+  Water..............................  50      "
+</pre>
+
+<p>After this mixture has been carefully filtered through a paper
+filter, a few drops of ammonia are added. It will keep good for
+some time if well corked and preserved from exposure to the light.
+Even two months after being prepared I have found it to be still
+good; but too large a quantity should not be prepared at a time, as
+it does not improve with keeping.</p>
+
+<p>I find that the dry albumen of commerce will answer as well as
+the fresh. In that case I employ the following formula:</p>
+
+<pre>
+  Dry albumen from eggs.............. 15 to 20    parts
+  Water..............................      100      "
+  Ammonia bichromate.................        2.50   "
+</pre>
+
+<p>Always add some drops of ammonia, and keep this mixture in a
+well corked bottle and in a dark place.</p>
+
+<p>To coat the metal plate, place it on a turning table, to which
+it is made fast at the center by a pneumatic holder; to assure the
+perfect adhesion of this holder, it is as well to wet the circular
+elastic ring of the holder before applying it to the metallic
+surface. When this is done, the table may be made to rotate quickly
+without fear of detaching the plate by the rapidity of the
+movement. The plate is placed in a perfectly horizontal position,
+where no dust can settle on it; the mixture is then poured on it,
+and distributed by means of a triangular piece of soft paper, so as
+to cover equally all the parts of the plate. Care should be taken
+not to flow too much liquid over the plate, and when the latter is
+everywhere coated, the excess is poured off into a different vessel
+from that which contains the filtered mixture, or else into a
+filter resting on that vessel. The turning table should now be
+inverted so that the sensitive surface may be downwards, and it is
+made to rotate at first slowly, afterwards more rapidly, so as to
+make the film, which should be very thin, quite smooth and even.
+The whole operation should be carried out in a subdued light, as
+too strong a light would render insoluble the film of bichromated
+albumen.</p>
+
+<p>When the film is equalized the plate must be detached from the
+turning table and placed on a cast iron or tin plate heated to not
+more than 40&deg; or 50&deg; C. A gentle heat is quite sufficient
+to dry the albumen quickly; a greater heat would spoil it, as it
+would produce coagulation. So soon as the film is dry, which will
+be seen by the iridescent aspect it assumes, the plate is allowed
+to cool to the ordinary temperature, and is then at once exposed
+either beneath a positive, or beneath an original drawing the lines
+of which have been drawn in opaque ink, so as to completely prevent
+the luminous rays from passing through them; the light should only
+penetrate through the white or transparent ground of the
+drawing.</p>
+
+<p>I say a <i>positive</i> because I wish to obtain an engraved
+plate; if I wanted to have a plate for typographic printing, I
+should have to take a <i>negative</i>. After exposure the plate
+must be at once developed, which is effected by dissolving in water
+those parts of the bichromated gelatine which have been protected
+from the action of light by the dark spaces of the clich&eacute;;
+these parts remain soluble, while the others have been rendered
+completely insoluble. If the plate were dipped in clear water it
+would be difficult to observe the picture coming out, especially on
+copper. To overcome this difficulty the water must be tinged with
+some aniline color; aniline red or violet, which are soluble in
+water, answers the purpose very well. Enough of the dye must be
+dissolved in the water to give it a tolerably deep color. So soon
+as the plate is plunged into this liquid the albumen not acted on
+by light is dissolved, while the insoluble parts are colored by
+absorbing the dye, so that the metal is exposed in the lines
+against a red or violet ground, according to the color of the dye
+used.</p>
+
+<p>When the drawing comes out quite perfect, and a complete copy of
+the original, the plate with the image on it is allowed to dry
+either of its own accord, or by submitting it to a gentle heat. So
+soon as it is dry it is etched, and this is done by means of a
+solution of perchloride of iron in alcohol. Both alcohol and iron
+perchloride will coagulate albumen; their action, therefore, on the
+image will not be injurious, since they will harden the remaining
+albumen still further. But to get the full benefit of this, the
+alcohol and the iron perchloride must both be free from water; it
+is therefore advisable to use the salt in crystals which have been
+thoroughly dried, and the alcohol of a strength of 95&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>The following is the formula:</p>
+
+<pre>
+  Perchloride of iron, well dried     50 gr.
+  Alcohol at 95&deg;                     100 "
+</pre>
+
+<p>This solution must be carefully filtered so as to get rid of any
+deposit which may form, and must be preserved in a well-corked
+bottle, when it will keep for a long time. The plate is first
+coated with a varnish of bitumen of Judea on the edges (if those
+parts are not already covered with albumen) and on the back, so
+that the etching liquid can only act on the lines to be engraved.
+It is then placed, with the side to be engraved downwards, in a
+porcelain basin, into which a sufficient quantity of the solution
+of perchloride of iron is poured, and the liquid is kept stirred so
+as to renew the portion which touches the plate; but care must be
+taken not to touch with the brush the parts where there is albumen
+remaining. The length of time that the etching must be continued
+depends on the depth required to be given to the engraving;
+generally a quarter of an hour will be found to be sufficient.
+Should it be thought desirable to extend the action over half an
+hour, the lines will be found to have been very deeply engraved.
+When the etching is considered to have been pushed far enough, the
+plate must be withdrawn from the solution, and washed in plenty of
+water; it must then be forcibly rubbed with a cloth so as to remove
+all the albumen, and after it has been polished with a little
+pumice, the engraving is complete.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that this process may be used with advantage
+instead of that of photo-engraving with bitumen, in cases where it
+is not advisable to use acids. One of my friends, Mr. Fisch,
+suggests the plan--which seems to deserve a careful
+investigation--of combining this process with that where bitumen is
+employed; it would be done somewhat in the following way. The plate
+of metal would be first coated evenly with bitumen of Judea on the
+turning table, and when the bitumen is quite dry, it should be
+again coated with albumen in the manner as described above. In full
+sunlight the exposure need not exceed a minute in length; then the
+plate would be laid in colored water, dried, and immersed in
+spirits of turpentine. The latter will dissolve the bitumen in all
+the parts where it has been exposed by the removal of the albumen
+not rendered insoluble by the action of light. But it remains to be
+seen whether the albumen will not be undermined in this method;
+therefore, before recommending the process, it ought to be
+thoroughly studied. The metal is now exposed in all the parts that
+have to be etched, while all the other parts are protected by a
+layer of bitumen coated with coagulated albumen. Hence we may
+employ as mordant water acidulated with 3, 4, or 5 per cent. of
+nitric acid, according as it is required to have the plate etched
+with greater or less vigor.</p>
+
+<p>By following the directions above given, any one wishing to
+adopt the process cannot fail of obtaining good results, One of its
+greatest advantages is that it is within the reach of every one
+engaged in printing operations.--<i>Photo News</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="18"></a></p>
+
+<h2>MERIDIAN LINE.</h2>
+
+<p>[Footnote: From Proceedings of the Association of County
+Surveyors of Ohio, Columbus, January, 1882.]</p>
+
+<p>The following process has been used by the undersigned for many
+years. The true meridian can thus be found within one minute of
+arc:</p>
+
+<p><i>Directions</i>.--Nail a slat to the north side of an upper
+window--the higher the better. Let it be 25 feet from the ground or
+more. Let it project 3 feet. Kear the end suspend a plumb-bob, and
+have it swing in a bucket of water. A lamp set in the window will
+render the upper part of the string visible. Place a small table or
+stand about 20 feet south of the plumb-bob, and on its south edge
+stick the small blade of a pocket knife; place the eye close to the
+blade, and move the stand so as to bring the blade, string, and
+polar star into line. Place the table so that the star shall be
+seen very near the slat in the window. Let this be done half an
+hour before the greatest elongation of the star. Within four or
+five minutes after the first alignment the star will have moved to
+the east or west of the string. Slip the table or the knife a
+little to one side, and align carefully as before. After a few
+alignments the star will move along the string--down, if the
+elongation is west; up, if east. On the first of June the eastern
+elongation occurs about half-past two in the morning, and as
+daylight comes on shortly after the observation is completed, I
+prefer that time of year. The time of meridian passage or of the
+elongation can be found in almost any work on surveying. Of course
+the observer should choose a calm night.</p>
+
+<p>In the morning the transit can be ranged with the knife blade
+and string, and the proper angle turned off to the left, if the
+elongation is east; to the right, if west.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of turning off the angle, as above described, I measure
+200 or 300 feet northtward, in the direction of the string, and
+compute the offset in feet and inches, set a stake in the ground,
+and drive a tack in the usual way.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose the distance is 250 feet and the angle 1&deg; 40', then
+the offset will be 7,271 feet, or 7 feet 3&frac14; inches. A minute
+of arc at the distance of 250 feet is seven-eighths of an inch; and
+this is the most accurate way, for the vernier will not mark so
+small a space accurately.</p>
+
+<h3>ANGLE OF ELONGATION.</h3>
+
+<p>This should be computed by the surveyor for each observation.
+The distance between the star and the pole is continually
+diminishing, and on January 1, 1882, was 1&deg; 18' 48".</p>
+
+<p>There is a slight annual variation in the distance. July 1,
+1882, it will be 1&deg; 19' 20". If from this latter quantity the
+observer will subtract 16" for 1883, and the same quantity for each
+succeeding year for the next four or five years, no error so great
+as one-quarter of a minute will be made in the position of the
+meridian as determined in the summer months. If winter observations
+are made, the distance in January should be used. The formula for
+computing the angle of elongation is easily made by any one
+understanding spherical trigonometry, and is this:</p>
+
+<pre>
+   R x sin. Polar dist.
+  --------------------- = sin. of angle of elongation.
+        cos. lat.
+</pre>
+
+<p>As an example, suppose the time is July, 1882, and the latitude
+40&deg;. Then the computation being made, the angle will be found
+to be 1&deg; 43' 34". A difference of six minutes in the latitude
+will make less than 10" difference in the angle, as one can see by
+trial. Any good State or county map will give the latitude to
+within one or two miles--or minutes.</p>
+
+<p>The facts being as here stated, the absurdity of the Ohio law,
+concerning the establishment of county meridians, becomes apparent.
+The longitude has nothing at all to do With the meridian; and a
+difference of <i>six miles</i> in latitude makes no appreciable
+error in the meridian established as here suggested, whereas the
+statute requires the latitude within <i>one half a second</i>,
+which is <i>fifty feet</i>. There are some other things, besides
+the ways of Providence, which may be said to be "past finding out."
+It is not probable that a surveyor would err so much as
+<i>three</i> miles in his latitude, but should he do so, then the
+error in his meridian line, resulting from the mistake, will be
+<i>five seconds</i>, and a line <i>one mile</i> long, run on a
+course 5" out of the way, will vary but <i>an inch and a half</i>
+from the true position. Surveyors well know that no such accuracy
+is attainable. R. W. McFARLAND,</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="19"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ELECTRO-MANIA.</h2>
+
+<h3>By W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS.</h3>
+
+<p>A history of electricity, in order to be complete, must include
+two distinct and very different subjects: the history of electrical
+science, and a history of electrical exaggerations and delusions.
+The progress of the first has been followed by a crop of the second
+from the time when Kleist, Muschenbroek, and Cuneus endeavored to
+bottle the supposed fluid, and in the course of these attempts
+stumbled upon the "Leyden jar."</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Lieberkuhn, of Berlin, describes the startling results which
+he obtained, or imagined, "when a nail or a piece of brass wire is
+put into a small apothecary's phial and electrified." He says that
+"if, while it is electrifying, I put my finger or a piece of gold
+which I hold in my hand to the nail, I receive a shock which stuns
+my arms and shoulders." At about the same date (the middle of the
+last century), Muschenbroek stated, in a letter to R&eacute;aumur,
+that, on taking a shock from a thin glass bowl, "he felt himself
+struck in his arms, shoulders, and breast, so that he lost his
+breath, and was two days before he recovered from the effects of
+the blow and the terror" and that he "would not take a second shock
+for the kingdom of France." From the description Of the apparatus,
+it is evident that this dreadful shock was no stronger than many of
+us have taken scores of times for fun, and have given to our
+school-follows when we became the proud possessors of our first
+electrical machine.</p>
+
+<p>Conjurers, mountebanks, itinerant quacks, and other adventurers
+operated throughout Europe, and were found at every country fair
+and <i>fete</i> displaying the wonders of the invisible agent by
+giving shocks and professing to cure all imaginable ailments.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the discoveries of Galvani and Volta, followed by the
+demonstrations of Galvani's nephew Aldini, whereby dead animals
+were made to display the movements of life, not only by the
+electricity of the Voltaic pile, but, as Aldini especially showed,
+by a transfer of this mysterious agency from one animal to
+another.</p>
+
+<p>According to his experiments (that seem to be forgotten by
+modern electricians) the galvanometer of the period, a prepared
+frog, could be made to kick by connecting its nerve and muscle with
+muscle and nerve of a recently killed ox, with, or without metallic
+intervention.</p>
+
+<p>Thus arose the dogma which still survives in the advertisements
+of electrical quacks, that "electricity is life," and the
+possibility of reviving the dead was believed by many. Executed
+criminals were in active demand; their bodies were expeditiously
+transferred from the gallows or scaffold to the operating table,
+and their dead limbs were made to struggle and plunge, their
+eyeballs to roll, and their features to perpetrate the most
+horrible contortions by connecting nerves with one pole, and
+muscles with the opposite pole of a battery.</p>
+
+<p>The heart was made to beat, and many men of eminence supposed
+that if this could be combined with artificial respiration, and
+kept up for awhile, the victim of the hangman might be restored,
+provided the neck was not broken. Curious tales were loudly
+whispered concerning gentle hangings and strange doings at Dr.
+Brookes's, in Leicester Square, and at the Hunterian Museum, in
+Windmill Street, now flourishing as "The Caf&eacute; de l'Etoile."
+When a child, I lived about midway between these celebrated schools
+of practical anatomy, and well remember the tales of horror that
+were recounted concerning them. When Bishop and Williams (no
+relation to the writer) were hanged for burking, i.e., murdering
+people in order to provide "subjects" for dissection, their bodies
+were sent to Windmill Street, and the popular notion was that,
+being old and faithful servants of the doctors, they were
+galvanized to life, and again set up in their old business.</p>
+
+<p>It is amusing to read some of the treatises on medical galvanism
+that were published at about this period, and contrast their
+positive statements of cures effected and results anticipated with
+the position now attained by electricity as a curative agent.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the brilliant discoveries of Faraday, Amp&egrave;re,
+etc., demonstrating the relations between electricity and
+magnetism, and immediately following them a multitude of patents
+for electro-motors, and wild dreams of superseding steam-engines by
+magneto-electric machinery.</p>
+
+<p>The following, which I copy from the <i>Penny Mechanic</i>, of
+June 10, 1837, is curious, and very instructive to those who think
+of investing in any of the electric power companies of to-day: "Mr.
+Thomas Davenport, a Vermont blacksmith, has discovered a mode of
+applying magnetic and electro-magnetic power, which we have good
+ground for believing will be of immense importance to the world."
+This announcement is followed by reference to Professor Silliman's
+<i>American Journal of Science and the Arts</i>, for April, 1837,
+and extracts from American papers, of which the following is a
+specimen: "1. We saw a small cylindrical battery, about nine inches
+in length, three or four in diameter, produce a magnetic power of
+about 300 lb., and which, therefore, we could not move with our
+utmost strength. 2. We saw a small wheel, five-and-a-half inches in
+diameter, performing more than 600 revolutions in a minute, and
+lift a weight of 24 lb. one foot per minute, from the power of a
+battery of still smaller dimensions. 3. We saw a model of a
+locomotive engine traveling on a circular railroad with immense
+velocity, and rapidly ascending an inclined plane of far greater
+elevation than any hitherto ascended by steam-power. And these and
+various other experiments which we saw, convinced us of the truth
+of the opinion expressed by Professors Silliman, Renwick, and
+others, that the power of machinery may be increased from this
+source beyond any assignable limit. It is computed by these learned
+men that a circular galvanic battery about three feet in diameter,
+with magnets of a proportionable surface, would produce at least a
+hundred horse-power; and therefore that two such batteries would be
+sufficient to propel ships of the largest class across the
+Atlantic. The only materials required to generate and continue this
+power for such a voyage would be a few thin sheets of copper and
+zinc, and a few gallons of mineral water."</p>
+
+<p>The Faure accumulator is but a very weak affair compared with
+this, Sir William Thomson notwithstanding. To render the date of
+the above fully appreciable, I may note that three months later the
+magazine from which it is quoted was illustrated with a picture of
+the London and Birmingham Railway Station displaying a first-class
+passenger with a box seat on the roof of the carriage, and followed
+by an account of the trip to Boxmoor, the first installment of the
+London and North-Western Railway. It tells us that, "the time of
+starting having arrived, the doors of the carriages are closed,
+and, by the assistance of the conductors, the train is moved on a
+short distance toward the first bridge, where it is met by an
+engine, which conducts it up the inclined plane as far as Chalk
+Farm. Between the canal and this spot stands the station-house for
+the engines; here, also, are fixed the engines which are to be
+employed in drawing the carriages up the inclined plane from Euston
+Square, by a rope upwards of a mile in length, the cost of which
+was upwards of &pound;400." After describing the next change of
+engines, in the same matter of course way as the changing of
+stage-coach horses, the narrative proceeds to say that "entering
+the tunnel from broad daylight to perfect darkness has an
+exceedingly novel effect."</p>
+
+<p>I make these parallel quotations for the benefit of those who
+imagine that electricity is making such vastly greater strides than
+other sources of power. I well remember making this journey to
+Boxmoor, and four or five years later traveling on a circular
+electro-magnetic railway. Comparing that electric railway with
+those now exhibiting, and comparing the Boxmoor trip with the
+present work of the London and North-Western Railway, I have no
+hesitation in affirming that the rate of progress in
+electro-locomotion during the last forty years has been far smaller
+than that of steam.</p>
+
+<p>The leading fallacy which is urging the electro-maniacs of the
+present time to their ruinous investments is the idea that
+electro-motors are novelties, and that electric-lighting is in its
+infancy; while gas-lighting is regarded as an old, or mature
+middle-aged business, and therefore we are to expect a marvelous
+growth of the infant and no further progress of the adult.</p>
+
+<p>These excited speculators do not appear to be aware of the fact
+that electric-lighting is older than gas-lighting; that Sir Humphry
+Davy exhibited the electric light in Albemarle Street, while London
+was still dimly lighted by oil-lamps, and long before gas-lighting
+was attempted anywhere. The lamp used by Sir Humphry Davy at the
+Royal Institution, at the beginning of the present century, was an
+arrangement of two carbon pencils, between which was formed the
+"electric arc" by the intensely-vivid incandescence and combustion
+of the particles of carbon passing between the solid carbon
+electrodes. The light exhibited by Davy was incomparably more
+brilliant than anything that has been lately shown either in
+London, or Paris, or at Sydenham. His arc was <i>four inches in
+length</i>, the carbon pencils were four inches apart, and a broad,
+dazzling arch of light bridged the whole space between. The modern
+arc lights are but pygmies, mere specks, compared with this; a leap
+of 1/3 or 1/4 inch constituting their maximum achievement.</p>
+
+<p>Comparing the actual progress of gas and electric lighting, the
+gas has achieved by far the greater strides; and this is the case
+even when we compare very recent progress.</p>
+
+<p>The improvements connected with gas-making have been steadily
+progressive; scarcely a year has passed from the date of Murdoch's
+efforts to the present time, without some or many decided steps
+having been made. The progress of electric-lighting has been a
+series of spasmodic leaps, backward as well as forward.</p>
+
+<p>As an example of stepping backward, I may refer to what the
+newspapers have described as the "discoveries" of Mr. Edison, or
+the use of an incandescent wire, or stick, or sheet of platinum, or
+platino-iridium; or a thread of carbon, of which the "Swan" and
+other modern lights are rival modifications.</p>
+
+<p>As far back as 1846 I was engaged in making apparatus and
+experiments for the purpose of turning to practical account "King's
+patent electric light," the actual inventor of which was a young
+American, named Starr, who died in 1847, when about 25 years of
+age, a victim of overwork and disappointment in his efforts to
+perfect this invention and a magneto-electric machine, intended to
+supply the power in accordance with some of the "latest
+improvements" of 1881 and 1882.</p>
+
+<p>I had a share in this venture, and was very enthusiastic until
+after I had become practically acquainted with the subject. We had
+no difficulty in obtaining a splendid and perfectly steady light,
+better than any that are shown at the Crystal Palace.</p>
+
+<p>We used platinum, and alloys of platinum and iridium, abandoned
+them as Edison did more than thirty years later, and then tried a
+multitude of forms of carbon, including that which constitutes the
+last "discovery" of Mr. Edison, viz., burnt cane. Starr tried this
+on theoretical grounds, because cane being coated with silica, he
+predicted that by charring it we should obtain a more compact stick
+or thread, as the fusion of the silica would hold the carbon
+particles together. He finally abandoned this and all the rest in
+favor of the hard deposit of carbon which lines the inside of
+gas-retorts, some specimens of which we found to be so hard that we
+required a lapidary's wheel to cut them into the thin sticks.</p>
+
+<p>Our final wick was a piece of this of square section, and about
+1/8 of an inch across each way. It was mounted between two
+forceps--one holding each end, and thus leaving a clear half-inch
+between. The forceps were soldered to platinum wires, one of which
+passed upward through the top of the barometer tube, expanded into
+a lamp glass at its upper part. This wire was sealed to the glass
+as it passed through. The lower wire passed down the middle of the
+tube.</p>
+
+<p>The tube was filled with mercury and inverted over a cup of
+mercury. Being 30 inches long up to the bottom of the expanded
+portion, or lamp globe, the mercury fell below this and left a
+Torricellian vacuum there. One pole of the battery, or
+dynamo-machine, was connected with the mercury in the cup, and the
+other with the upper wire. The stick of carbon glowed brilliantly,
+and with perfect steadiness.</p>
+
+<p>I subsequently exhibited this apparatus in the Town-hall of
+Birmingham, and many times at the Midland Institute. The only
+scientific difficulty connected with this arrangement was that due
+to a slight volatilization of the carbon, and its deposition as a
+brown film upon the lamp glass; but this difficulty is not
+insuperable.--<i>Knowledge</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="20"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ACTION OF MAGNETS UPON THE VOLTAIC ARC.</h2>
+
+<p>The action of magnets upon the voltaic arc has been known for a
+long time past. Davy even succeeded in influencing the latter
+powerfully enough in this way to divide it, and since his time
+Messrs. Grove and Quet have studied the effect under different
+conditions. In 1859, I myself undertook numerous researches on this
+subject, and experimented on the induction spark of the Ruhmkorff
+coil, the results of these researches having been published in the
+last two editions of my notes on the Ruhmkorff apparatus.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13a.png" alt="FIG. 1"></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 1</p>
+
+<p>These researches were summed up in the journal <i>La
+Lumi&egrave;re Electrique</i> for June 15, 1879. Recently, Mr.
+Pilleux has addressed to us some new experiments on the same
+subject, made on the voltaic arc produced by a De Meritens
+alternating current machine. Naturally, he has found the same
+phenomena that I had made known; but he thinks that these new
+researches are worthy of interest by reason of the nature of the
+arc in which he experimented, and which, according to him, is of a
+different nature from all those on which, up to the present time,
+experiments have been made. Such a distinction as this, however,
+merits a discussion.</p>
+
+<p>With the induction spark, magnets have an action only on the
+aureola which accompanies the line of fire of the static discharge;
+and this aureola, being only a sort of sheath of heated air
+containing many particles of metal derived from the rheophores,
+represents exactly the voltaic arc.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13b.png" alt="FIG. 2"></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 2</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, although the induced currents developed in the bobbin
+are alternately of opposite direction, the galvanometer shows that
+the currents that traverse the break are of the same direction, and
+that these are direct ones. The reversed currents are, then,
+arrested during their passage; and, in order to collect them, it
+becomes necessary to considerably diminish the gaseous pressure of
+the aeriform conductor interposed in the discharge; to increase its
+conductivity; or to open to the current a very resistant metallic
+derivation. By this latter means, I have succeeded in isolating,
+one from the other, in two different circuits, the direct induced
+currents and the reversed induced ones. As only direct currents
+can, in air at a normal pressure, traverse the break through which
+the induction spark passes, the aureola that surrounds it may be
+considered as being exactly in the same conditions as a voltaic
+arc, and, consequently, as representing an extensible conductor
+traversed by a current flowing in a definite direction. Such a
+conductor is consequently susceptible of being influenced by all
+the external reactions that can be exerted upon a current; only, by
+reason of its mobility, the conductor may possibly give way to the
+action exerted upon the current traversing it, and undergo
+deformations that are in relation with the laws of Amp&egrave;re.
+It is in this manner that I have explained the different forms that
+the aureola of the induction spark assumes when it is submitted to
+the action of a magnet in the direction of its axial line, or in
+that of its equatorial line, or perpendicular to these latter, or
+upon the magnetic poles themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments of a very definite kind have not yet been made as to
+the nature of the arc produced by induced currents developed in
+alternating current machines; but, from the experiments made with
+electric candles, we are forced to admit that the current reacts as
+if it were alternately reversed through the arc, since the carbons
+are used up to an equal degree; and, moreover, Mr. Pilleux's
+experiments show that effects analogous to those of induction coils
+are produced by the reaction of magnets upon the arc. There is,
+then, here a doubtful point that it would be interesting to clear
+up; and we believe that it is consequently proper to introduce in
+this place Mr. Pilleux's note:</p>
+
+<p>"Having at my disposal," says he, "a powerful vertical voltaic
+arc of 12 centimeters in length, kept up by alternately reversed
+currents, and one of the most powerful permanent magnets that Mr.
+De Meritens employs for magneto-electric machines, I have been
+enabled to make the following experiments:</p>
+
+<p>"1. When I caused one of the poles of my magnet to slowly
+approach the voltaic arc, I ascertained that, at a distance of 10
+centimeters, the arc became flattened so as to assume the
+appearance of those gas jets called 'butterfly.' The plane of the
+'butterfly' was parallel with the pole that I presented, or, in
+other words, with the section of the magnet. At the same time, the
+arc began to emit a strident noise, which became deafening when the
+pole of the magnet was brought to within a distance of about 2
+millimeters. At this moment, the butterfly form produced by the arc
+was <i>greatly spread out, and reduced to the thickness of a sheet
+of paper</i>; and then it burst with violence, and projected to a
+distance a great number of particles of incandescent carbon.</p>
+
+<p>"2. The magnet employed being a horseshoe one, when I directed
+it laterally so as to present successively, now the north and then
+the south pole to the arc, the 'butterfly' pivoted upon itself so
+as not to present the same surface to each pole of the magnet."</p>
+
+<p>By referring to the accompanying figure, which we extract from
+our note on the Ruhmkorff apparatus, it will be seen that the
+aureola which developed as a circular film from right to left at D,
+on the north pole of the magnet, N.S. (Fig. 1), projected itself in
+an opposite direction at C, upon the south pole, S, of the same
+magnet; but, between the two poles, these two contrary actions
+being obliged to unite, they gave rise in doing so to a very
+characteristic helicoid spiral whose direction depended upon that
+of the current of discharge through the aureola, or upon the
+polarity of the magnetic poles. On the contrary, when the discharge
+took place in the direction of the equatorial line, as in Fig. 2,
+the circular film developed itself in the plane of the neutral line
+above or below the line of discharge, according to the direction of
+the current and the magnetic polarity of the magnet.</p>
+
+<p>There is, then, between Mr. Pilleux's experiments and my own so
+great an analogy that we might draw the deduction therefrom that
+induced currents in alternating machines have, like those of the
+Ruhmkorff coil, a definite direction, which would be that of
+currents having the greatest tension, that is to say, that of
+direct currents. This hypothesis seems to us the more plausible in
+that Mr. J. Van Malderem has demonstrated that the attraction of
+solenoids with the currents, not straight, of magneto-electric
+machines is almost as great as that of the same solenoids with
+straight currents; and it is very likely that the difference which
+may then exist should be so much the less in proportion as the
+induced currents have more tension. We might, then, perhaps explain
+the different effects of the wear of the carbons serving as
+rheophores, according as the currents are continuous or
+alternating, by the different calorific effects produced on these
+carbons, and by the effects of electric conveyance which are a
+consequence of the passage of the current through the arc.</p>
+
+<p>We know that with continuous currents the positive carbon
+possesses a much higher temperature than the negative, and that its
+wear is about twice greater than that of the latter. But such
+greater wear of the positive carbon is especially due to the fact
+that combustion is greater on it than on the negative, and also to
+the fact that the carbonaceous particles carried along by the
+current to the positive pole are deposited in part upon the other
+pole. Supposing that these polarities of the carbons were being
+constantly alternately reversed, the effects might be symmetrical
+from all quarters, although the only current traversing the break
+were of the same direction; for, admitting that the reverse
+currents could not traverse the break, they would exist none the
+less for all that, and they might give rise (as has been
+demonstrated by Mr. Gaugain with regard to the discharges of the
+induction spark intercepted by the insulating plate of a condenser)
+to return discharges through the generator, which would then have,
+in the metallic part of the circuit, the same direction as the
+direct currents succeeding, although they had momentarily brought
+about opposite polarities in the electrodes. What might make us
+suppose such an interpretation of the phenomenon to have its
+<i>raison d'etre</i>, is that with the induced currents of the
+Ruhmkorff coil, it is not the positive pole that is the hottest,
+but rather the negative; from whence we might draw the deduction
+that it is not so much the direction of the current that determines
+the calorific effect in the electrodes, as the conditions of such
+current with respect to the generator. I should not be surprised,
+then, if, in the arc formed by the alternating currents of
+magneto-electric machines, there should pass only one current of
+the same direction, and which would be the one formed by the
+superposition of direct currents, and if the reverse currents
+should cause return discharges in the midst of the generating
+bobbins at the moment the direct currents were generated.--<i>Th.
+Du Moncel</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="21"></a></p>
+
+<h2>VOLCKMAR'S SECONDARY BATTERIES.</h2>
+
+<p>The inventive genius of the country is now directed to these
+important accessories of electric enterprise, and no wonder, for as
+far as can at present be seen, the secret of electric motion lies
+in these secondary batteries. Among other contributions of this
+kind is the following, by Ernest Volckmar, electrician, Paris:</p>
+
+<p>The object of this invention is to render unnecessary the use in
+secondary batteries of a porous pot which creates useless
+resistance to the electric current, and to store in an apparatus of
+comparatively small weight and bulk considerable electric force. To
+this end two reticulated or perforated plates of lead of similar
+proportions are prepared, and their interstices are filled with
+granules or filaments of lead, by preference chemically pure. These
+plates are then submitted to pressure, and placed together, with
+strips of nonconducting material interposed between them, in a
+suitable vessel containing a bath of acidulated water. The plates
+being connected with wires from an electric generator are brought
+for a while under the action of the current, to peroxidize and
+reduce the whole of the finely divided lead exposed to the
+acidulated water. The secondary battery is then complete. It will
+be understood that any number of these pairs of plates may be
+combined to form a secondary battery, their number being determined
+by the amount of storage required. The perforated plates of lead
+may be prepared by drilling, casting, or in other convenient
+manner, but the apertures, of whatever form, should be placed as
+closely together as possible, and the finely divided lead to be
+peroxidized is pressed into the cells or cavities so as to fill
+their interiors only.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="12"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY, AND
+THE MINERALS OCCURRING THEREIN.</h2>
+
+<h3>By NELSON H. DARTON.</h3>
+
+<p>There will be many persons in the city of New York and its
+suburbs who will not have the time or facilities for leaving town
+during the summer, to spend a part of their time enjoying the
+country, but would have sufficient time to take occasional
+recreation for short periods. I have sought by this paper to show a
+pleasurable, and at the same time very instructive use for the time
+of this latter class, and that is in mineralogy. In the surrounding
+parts of New York are many mineralogical localities, known to no
+others than a few professional mineralogists, etc., and from which
+an excellent assortment of minerals may be obtained, which would
+well grace a cabinet and afford considerable instruction and
+entertainment to their owner and friends, besides acting as an
+incentive to a further study of this and the other sciences. These
+localities which I will discuss are all within an hour's ride from
+New York, and the expenses inside of a half dollar, and generally
+very much less. I could detail many other places further off, but
+will reserve that for another paper.</p>
+
+<p>The course which I will pursue in my explanations I have
+purposely made very simple, avoiding--or when using,
+explaining--all technical terms. The apparatus and tests noticed
+are of the most rudimentary style consistent with that which is
+necessary to attain the simple purpose of distinguishment, and
+altogether I have prepared this paper for those having at the
+present time little or no knowledge or practice in mineralogy,
+while those having it can be led perhaps by the details of the
+localities noticed. Another reason why I have written so in detail
+of this last subject is, because the experiences of most amateur
+mineralogists are generally so very discouraging in their endeavors
+to find the minerals, and there is everything in giving a good
+start to properly fix the interest on the subject. The reason of
+these discouragements is simple, and generally because they do not
+know the portion of the locality, say, for instance, a certain
+township, in which the minerals occur. And if they do succeed in
+finding this, it is seldom that the portion in which the mineral
+occurs, which is generally some small inconspicuous vein or
+fissure, is found; and even in this it is generally difficult to
+recognize and isolate the mineral from the extraneous matter
+holding it. As an instance of this I might cite thus: Dana, in his
+text book on mineralogy, will mention the locality for a certain
+species, as Bergen Hill--say for this instance, dogtooth calespar.
+When we consider that Bergen Hill, in the limited sense of the
+expression, is ten miles long and fully one mile wide, and as the
+rock outcrops nearly all over it, and it is also covered with
+quarries, cuttings, etc., it may be seen that this direction is
+rather indefinite. To the professional mineralogist it is but an
+index, however, and he may consult the authority it is quoted
+from--the <i>American Journal of Science</i>, etc.--and thus find
+the part referred to, or by consulting other mineralogists who
+happen to know. Again, the person having found by inquiry that the
+part referred to is the Pennsylvania Railroad, and as this is fully
+a mile long and interspersed with various prominent looking, but
+veins of a mineral of little value, at any rate not the one in
+question, they are few who could suppose that it occurred in that.
+Apparently a vein of it would not be noticed at all from the
+surrounding rock of gravelly earth, but there it is, and in a vein
+of chlorite. This is so throughout the long and more or less
+complete stated lists of mineralogical localities. Thus I will, in
+describing the mineral, after explaining the conditions under which
+it occurs, give almost the exact spot where I have found the same
+mineral myself, and have left sufficiently fine specimens to carry
+away, and thus no time will be lost in going over fruitless ground,
+and further, this paper is written up to the date given at its end,
+insuring a necessary presence of them.</p>
+
+<p>In order that one not familiar with mineral specimens should not
+carry off from the various localities a variety of worthless
+stones, etc., which are frequently more or less attractive to an
+inexperienced eye, the following hints may be salutary.</p>
+
+<p>There are the varieties of three minerals, which are very
+commonly met with in greater or less abundance in mineralogical
+trips: they are of calcite, steatite, and quartz. They occur in so
+many modifications of form, color, and condition that one might
+speedily form a cabinet of these, if they were taken when met with,
+and imagine it to be of great value. The first of these is calcite.
+It occurs as marble, limestone; calcspar, dogtooth spar, nail head
+spar, stalactites, and a number of other forms, which are only
+valuable when occurring in perfect crystals or uniquely set upon
+the rock holding it. The calcspar is extremely abundant at Bergen
+Hill, where it might be mistaken for many of the other minerals
+which I describe as occurring there, and even in preference to
+them, to one's great chagrin upon arriving home and testing it, to
+find that it is nothing but calcite. In order to avoid this and
+distinguish this mineral on the field, it should be tested with a
+single drop of acid, which on coming in contact with it bubbles up
+or effervesces like soda water, seidlitz powder, etc., while it
+does not do so with any of the minerals occurring in the same
+locality. This acid is prepared for use as follows: about twenty
+drops of muriatic acid are procured from a druggist in a half-ounce
+bottle, which is then filled up with water and kept tightly corked.
+It is applied by taking a drop out on a wisp of broom or a small
+minim dropper, which may be obtained at the druggist's also. I do
+not say that in every case this mineral should be rejected, because
+it is frequently very beautiful and worthy of place in a cabinet,
+but should be kept only under the conditions mentioned further on
+in this paper, under the head of "Calcite in Weehawken Tunnel."</p>
+
+<p>The next mineral abundant in so many forms is quartz, and is not
+so readily distinguished as calcite. It is found of every color,
+shape, etc., possible, and that which is found in any of the
+localities I am about to describe, with the exception of fine
+crystals on Staten Island, are of no value and may be rejected,
+unless answering in detail to the description given under Staten
+Island. The method of distinguishing the quartz is by its hardness,
+which is generally so great that it cannot be scratched by the
+point of a knife, or at least with great difficulty, and a fragment
+of it will scratch glass readily; thus it is distinguished from the
+other minerals occurring in the localities discussed in this
+paper.</p>
+
+<p>The other minerals so common are the varieties of steatite. This
+is especially so at Bergen Hill and Staten Island. They occur in
+amorphous masses generally, and may be distinguished by being so
+soft as to be readily cut by the finger nail. I will detail further
+upon the soapstone forms in discussing the localities on Staten
+Island, and the chloritic form under the head of "Weehawken
+Tunnel." The surest method of avoiding these and recognizing the
+others by their appearance, which is generally the only guide used
+by a professional mineralogist, is to copy off the lists of the
+various minerals I describe, and, by visiting the American Museum
+of Natural History on any week day except Mondays and Tuesdays, one
+may see and become familiar with the minerals they are going in
+quest of, besides others in the cases. This method is much more
+satisfactory than printed descriptions, and saves the labor of many
+of the distinguishing manipulations I am about to describe, besides
+saving the trouble of bringing inferior specimens of the minerals
+home.</p>
+
+<p>In going forth on a trip one should be provided with a
+mineralogical hammer, or one answering its purpose, and a cold
+chisel with which to detach or trim the minerals from adhering
+rocks, the bottle of acid before referred to, and a three cornered
+file for testing hardness, as explained further on. As I noticed
+before, the better plan of distinguishing a mineral is by being
+familiar with its appearance, but as this is generally
+impracticable, I will detail the modes used in lieu of this to be
+applied on bringing the minerals home. These distinguishments
+depend on difference in specific gravity, hardness, solubility in
+hot acids, and the action of high heat. I will explain the
+application of each one separately, commencing with--</p>
+
+<p><i>The Specific Gravity</i>.--In ascertaining the specific
+gravity the following apparatus is necessary: a small pair of hand
+scales with a set of weights, from one grain to one ounce. These
+can be procured from the apparatus maker, the scales for about
+fifty cents, and the weights for not much over the same amount. The
+scales are prepared for this work by cutting two small holes in one
+of the scale pans, near together, with a pointed piece of metal,
+and tying a piece of silk thread about eight inches long into
+these. In a loop at the end of this thread the mineral to be
+examined is suspended. It should be a pure representative of the
+mineral it is taken from, should weigh about from one hundred
+grains to an ounce, and be quite dry and free from dirt. If the
+piece of mineral obtained is very large, this sized portion may be
+often taken from it without injury; but it will not do to mar the
+beauty of a mineral to ascertain its specific gravity, and it is
+generally only applicable when a small piece is at hand. With more
+weights, however, a piece of a quarter pound weight may be taken if
+necessary. The mineral is tied into the loop and weighed, the
+weight being set down in the note book, either in grains or decimal
+parts of an ounce. Call this result A. It is then weighed in some
+water held in a vessel containing about a quart, taking care while
+weighing it that it is entirely immersed, but at the same time does
+not touch either the sides or bottom. Both weighings should be
+accurate to a grain. This result we call B. The specific gravity is
+found by subtracting B from A, and dividing A by the remainder. For
+instance, if the mineral weighed eight hundred grains when weighed
+in the air, and in the water six hundred, giving us the equation:
+800 / (800 - 600) = sp. gr., or 4, which is the specific gravity of
+the mineral. If the mineral whose specific gravity is sought is an
+incrustation on a rock, or a mixture of a number of minerals, or
+would break to pieces in the water, the specific gravity is by this
+method of course unattainable, and other data must be used.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Comparative Hardness</i>.--The next characteristic of the
+mineral to be ascertained is the comparative hardness. In
+mineralogy there is a scale fixed for comparison, from 1 to 10, 10
+being the hardest, the diamond, and Number 1 the soft soapstone.
+These and the intermediate minerals fixed upon the scale are
+generally inaccessible to those who may use the contents of this
+paper, and I will give some more familiar materials for comparison.
+8, 9, and 10 are the topaz, sapphire, and diamond respectively, and
+as these and minerals of similar hardness will probably not be
+found in any of the localities of which I make mention, we need not
+become accustomed to them for the present. 7 is of sufficient
+hardness to scratch glass, and is also not to be cut with the file
+before mentioned, which is used for these determinations. 6 is of
+the hardness of ordinary French glass. 5 is about the hardness of
+horse-shoe or similar iron; 4 of the brown stone (sandstone) of
+which the fronts of many city buildings, etc., are built; 3 of
+marble; 2 of alabaster; and 1 as French chalk, or so soft as to be
+readily cut with the finger nail. The method of using and applying
+these comparisons is by having the above matters at hand, and
+compare them by the relative ease with which they can be cut by
+running the edge of the file over their surface. One will soon
+become familiar with the scale, and it may of course then be
+discarded. As it is one of the most important characteristics of
+some of the minerals, it should be carefully executed, and the
+result carefully considered. It is of course inapplicable under
+those conditions with minerals that are in very small crystals or
+in a fibrous condition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Action of Hot Acids</i>.--This very important test is never,
+like the above, applicable upon the field, but applied when home is
+reached. From the body of the mineral as pure and clean as possible
+a portion is chipped, about the size of a small pea; this is
+wrapped in a piece of stiff wrapping paper, and after placing it in
+contact with a solid body, crushed finally by a blow from the
+hammer. A pinch of the powder so obtained is taken up on the point
+of a penknife, and transferred into a test tube. Two or more of
+these should be provided, about six inches long. They may be
+obtained in the apparatus shop for a trifle. Some hydrochloric, or,
+as it is generally called, muriatic acid, is poured upon it to the
+depth of about three quarters of an inch; the tube is then placed
+in some boiling water heated over a lamp in a tinned or other
+vessel, and allowed to boil for from ten to fifteen minutes; the
+tube is then removed and its contents allowed to cool, and then
+examined. If the powder has all disappeared, we term the mineral
+"soluble;" if more or less is dissolved, "partly soluble;" if none,
+"insoluble;" and if the contents of the tube are of a solid
+transparent mass like jelly, "gelatinous;" while if transparent
+gelatinous flakes are left, it is so termed. As this method of
+distinguishment is always applicable, it is very important, and its
+detail and result should be carefully noticed. Care should be taken
+that only a small portion of the mineral is used, and also but
+little acid; the action should be observed, and is frequently a
+characteristic, in the case with calcspar, which effervesces while
+dissolving. The acid used is hydrochloric at first, and then, if
+the mineral cannot he recognized, the same treatment may be
+repeated using nitric acid. Both of these acids should be at hand
+and two ounces are generally sufficient.</p>
+
+<p><i>Action of Heat</i>.--This is, perhaps, the most important
+characteristic, and, when taken with the preceding data, will
+identify any of the minerals found in any one locality, which I
+will describe, from each other. The heat is applied to the mineral
+by means of a candle and blowpipe. A thick wax candle answers well,
+and an ordinary japanned tin blowpipe, costing twenty cents, will
+serve the purpose. The substance to be examined is held on a loop
+of platinum wire about one inch to the left and just below the top
+of the wick, which is bent toward it. Here it is steadily held, as
+is shown in Fig. 1, and the flame of the candle bent over upon it,
+and the heat intensified by blowing a steady and strong current of
+air across it by means of the blowpipe held in the mouth and
+supported by the right hand, whose elbow is resting upon the table.
+The current of air is difficult to keep up by one unaccustomed to
+the blowpipe, the skill of using which is readily obtained; it
+consists in breathing through the nostrils, while the air is forced
+out by pressure on the air held by the inflated cheeks, and not
+from the lungs. This can be practiced while not using the
+blow-pipe, and may readily be accomplished by one's keeping his
+cheeks distended with air and breathing at the same time.</p>
+
+<p>This heat is steadily applied until the splinter of mineral has
+been kept at a high red heat for a sufficient length of time to
+convince one of what it may do, as fuse or not, or on the edges.
+The first two are evident, as when it fuses it runs into a globule;
+the last, by inspecting it before and after the heating with a
+magnifying glass; sometimes it froths up when heated, and is then
+said to "intumesce;" or, if it flies to fragments, "decrepitates."
+Upon the first it is further heated; but in the latter case, a new
+splinter of mineral must be broken off from the mass and heated
+upon the wire very cautiously until quite hot, when it may then be
+readily heated further without fear of loss. For holding the
+splinter of mineral, which should well represent the mass and be
+quite small, is a three-inch length of platinum wire of the
+thickness of a cambric-needle; this may be bought for about ten
+cents at the apparatus shop. The ends should be looped, as is shown
+in Fig. 2, and the mineral placed in the loop.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes a mineral has to be fused with borax, as I mention
+further on in my tables. This is done by heating the wire-loop to
+redness, and plunging it into some borax; what adheres is fused
+upon it by heating. Some more is accumulated in the same manner,
+until the loop is filled with a fair-sized globule. A small
+quantity of the mineral, which had been crushed as for the acid
+test, is caused to adhere to it while it is molten, and then the
+heat of the blast directed upon it for some time until either the
+small fragments of mineral dissolve, or positively refuse to do so.
+After cooling, the aspect of the globule is noticed as to color,
+transparency, etc. Care must be taken that too large an amount of
+the mineral is not taken, a very minute amount being
+sufficient.</p>
+
+<p>I trust by the use of these distinguishing reactions one will be
+able to recognize by the tables to be given the name of the mineral
+in hand, especially as they are from certain parts, where all the
+minerals occurring therein are known to us; and I have worded the
+characteristics so that they will serve to isolate from all that
+possibly could be found in that locality.</p>
+
+<p>The first general locality is Bergen Hill, New Jersey. This
+comprises the range of bluffs of trap rock commencing at Bergen
+Point and running up behind Jersey City and Hoboken, etc., to the
+part opposite about Thirtieth Street, New York, where it comes
+close to the river, and from there along the river to the north for
+a long distance, known as the Palisades. It is about a mile wide on
+an average, and from a few feet to about two hundred feet in
+height. The mineralogical localities in and upon it are at the
+following parts, commencing at the south: First Pennsylvania
+Railroad cuts where the mining operations are just about completed;
+then the Erie Tunnel, in which the specimens that first made Bergen
+Hill noted as a mineralogical locality, and whose equals have not
+since been procured, were found, but which is now inaccessible to
+the general public. Further north is the Morris and Essex Tunnel,
+in which many fine specimens were secured, and is also
+inaccessible; and last, but far from being least, is the Ontario
+Tunnel at Weehawken; and, as it is the only practicable part
+besides the Pennsylvania Railroad and a number of surface outcrops
+which I will mention, I will commence with that.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Weehawken Tunnel</i>--This tunnel is now being cut
+through the trap-rock for the New York, Ontario, and Western
+Railroad, and will be completed in a few months, but will,
+probably, be available as a mineralogical locality for a year to
+come. It is located about half a mile south of the Weehawken Ferry
+from Forty-second Street, New York city, and the place where to
+climb upon the hill to get to the shafts leading to it is made
+prominent by the large body of light-colored rock on the dump, a
+few rods north of where the east entrance is to be. The western end
+is in the village of New Durham, on the New Jersey Northern
+Railroad, and recognized by the immense earth excavations. A pass
+is necessary to gain admittance down the shafts, and this can be
+procured from the office of the company, between the third and
+fourth shafts to the tunnel, in the grocery and provision store
+just to the north of the tramway connecting the shafts on the
+surface. As it will not be necessary to go down in any of the
+shafts besides the first and second in order to fulfill the objects
+of this paper, no difficulty need be encountered in procuring the
+pass if this is stated.</p>
+
+<p>These two shafts are about eight hundred feet apart and one
+hundred and seventy feet deep. A platform elevator is the mode of
+access to the tunneled portion below, and a free shower-bath is
+included in the descent; consequently, a rubber-coat and water
+tight boots are necessary. A pair of overalls should be worn if one
+is to engage in any active exploration below; candles should also
+be provided, as the electric lights, at the face of the headings,
+give but little light, and remind one very forcibly of a dim flash
+light with a foliaged tree in front of it. The electric wires for
+supplying these arrangements run along the north side of the tunnel
+for those on the east headings, and on the south side for the west.
+They are excellent things to keep clear of, as they have sufficient
+current passing through them to knock one down; thus their position
+can be readily ascertained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modes of Occurrence of the Minerals</i>.--In general, the
+greater number of the specimens which are to be found in the tunnel
+occur in veins generally perpendicular, and with other minerals of
+little or no value, as calcite, chlorite, and imperfect crystals of
+the same mineral. A few occur in nodules inclosed in the solid body
+of rock, and in which condition they are seldom of value. The
+greater abundance are in the veins of the dark-green soft chlorite,
+and some few in horizontal beds. The minerals are found in the
+first condition by examining all the veins running from floor to
+ceiling of the tunnel. The ores of calcite first mentioned are very
+conspicuous, they being white in the dense black rock. They may be
+chipped from, as there are about thirty or forty of them exposed in
+each shaft, and the character of the minerals examined to see if
+anything but calcite is in it. This is ascertained by a drop of
+acid, as explained before, and by the descriptions given further
+on. The veins of chlorite are not so conspicuous, being of a
+dark-green color; but by probing along the walls with a stick or
+hammer, they may be recognized by their softness, or by its dull
+glistening appearance. They are comparatively few, but from an inch
+to three feet wide; and minerals are found by digging it out with a
+stick or a three-foot drill, to be had at the headings. Where the
+most minerals occur in the chlorite is when plenty of veins of
+calcite are in its vicinity, and its edges near the trap are dry
+and crumbly. It is here where the minerals are found in this
+crumbly chlorite, and generally in geodes--that is, the faces of
+the minerals all point inward, formerly a spherical mass--rough and
+uncouth on the outside, and from half an inch to nearly a foot in
+diameter. These are valuable finds, and well worth digging for. The
+beds of minerals generally are of but one species, and will be
+mentioned under the head of the minerals occurring in them.
+Besides, in the tunnel there are generally more or less perfect
+minerals upon the main dump over the edge of the bluff toward the
+river. Here many specimens that have escaped the eyes of the miners
+may be found among the loose rock, being constantly strewn out by
+the incline of the bed; in fact, this is the only place in which
+quite a number of the incident minerals may be found; but I will
+not linger longer on this, as I shall refer to it under the
+minerals individually.</p>
+
+<p>The minerals occurring at the tunnel are as follows, with their
+descriptions and locations in the order of their greatest
+abundance:</p>
+
+<p><i>Calcite</i>.--This mineral occurs in great abundance in and
+about the tunnel, and from all the shafts. There are two forms
+occurring there, the most abundant of which is the rhombohedral,
+after Fig. 3. It can generally be obtained, however, in excellent
+crystals, which, although perfect in form, are opaque, but often
+large and beautiful. It is always packed with a thousand or its
+multiple of other crystals into veins of a few inches thick; and
+crystals are obtained by carefully breaking with edge of the cold
+chisel these masses down to the fundamental form shown. As the
+masses are never secured by the miners, they can always be picked
+from the piles of <i>d&eacute;bris</i> around the shafts and the
+dumps, and afford some little instruction as to the manner in which
+a mineral is built up by crystallization, and may be subdivided by
+cleavage to a crystal of the same shape exactly, but
+infinitesimally small. A crystal to be worth preserving should be
+about an inch in diameter, and as transparent as is attainable.</p>
+
+<p>Another form of calcite which is to be sparingly found is what
+is called dogtooth spar, having the form shown in Fig. 4. They
+occur in clear wine-yellow-colored crystals, from a quarter to half
+an inch in length; they occur in the chlorite in geodes of variable
+sizes, but generally two and a half inches in diameter, and which,
+when carefully broken in half, showed beautiful grottoes of these
+crystals. The few of these that I have found were in the four-foot
+vein of chlorite down the Shaft No. 1, to the west of the shaft
+about one hundred and fifty feet, and on the south wall; it may be
+readily found by probing for it, and then the geodes by digging in.
+There need be no difficulty in finding this vein if these
+conditions are carefully considered, or if one of the miners be
+asked as to the soft vein. Both these forms of calcite may be
+distinguished from the other minerals by first effervescing on
+coming in contact with the acids; second, by glowing with an
+intense (almost unbearably so) light when heated with the blowpipe,
+but not fusing. Their specific gravity is 2.6, or near it, and
+hardness about 3, or equal to ordinary unpolished white marble.</p>
+
+<p><i>Natrolite</i>.--The finest specimens of this mineral that
+have ever been found in Bergen Hill were taken from a bed of it in
+this tunnel, having in its original form, before it was cut out by
+the tunnel passing through, over one hundred square feet, and from
+one-half to two and a half and even three inches in thickness; it
+was in all possible shapes and forms--all extremely rare and
+beautiful. A large part of one end of this bed still remains, and,
+by careful cutting, fine masses may be obtained. This bed may be
+readily found; it is nearly horizontal, and in its center about
+four feet from the floor of the tunnel, and about half an inch
+thick. It is down Shaft No. 2, on the north wall, and commences
+about eighty feet from the shaft. It is cut into in some places,
+but there is plenty more left, and can be obtained by cutting the
+rock above it and easing it out by means of the blade of a knife or
+similar instrument. This natrolite is a grouping of very small but
+perfect crystals, having the forms shown in Fig. 5; they are from a
+quarter to an inch long, and, if not perfectly transparent, are of
+a pure white color; they may be readily recognized by their form,
+and occurring in this bed. Its hardness, which is seldom to be
+ascertained owing to the delicacy of the crystals, is about 5, and
+the specific gravity 2.2. This is readily found, but is no
+distinction; its reaction before the blowpipe, however, is
+characteristic, it readily fusing to a transparent globule, clear
+and glassy, and by forming a jelly when heated with acids. The bed
+holding the upright crystals is also natrolite in confused matted
+masses. This mineral has also been found in other parts of the
+shaft, but only in small druses. There is a prospect at present
+that another bed will be uncovered soon, and some more fine
+specimens to be easily obtained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pectolite</i>, or as it is termed by the miners, "silky
+spar."--This mineral is quite abundant and in fine masses, not of
+the great beauty and size of those taken from the Erie Tunnel, but
+still of great uniqueness. The mineral is recognized by its
+peculiar appearance, as is shown in Fig. 6, where it may be seen
+that it is in groups of fine delicate fibers about an inch long,
+diverging from a point into fan-shaped groups. The fibers are very
+tightly packed together, as are also the groups; they are very
+tough individually, and have a hardness of 4, and a specific
+gravity of about 2.5. It gelatinizes on boiling with acid, and a
+fragment may be readily fused in the blowpipe flame, yielding a
+transparent globule. The appearance is the most striking
+characteristic, and at once distinguishes this mineral from any of
+the others occurring in this locality. Considerable quantities of
+pectolite may generally be found on the dump, but also in Shaft No.
+1, and especially No. 2. The veins of it are difficult to
+distinguish from the calcite, as they are almost identical in
+color, and many of the calcite veins are partly of pectolite--in
+fact, every third or fourth vein will contain more or less of it.
+There is, however, a very fine vein of pectolite about twenty-five
+feet further east from the natrolite bed; it runs from the floor to
+ceiling, and is about two inches in thickness; some specimens of
+which I took from these were unusually unique in both size and
+appearance. It makes a very handsome specimen for the cabinet, and
+should be carefully trimmed to show the characteristics of the
+mineral.</p>
+
+<p><i>Datholite</i>.--This mineral has been found very frequently
+in the tunnel, it occurring in pockets in the softer trap near the
+chlorite, and also in the latter, generally at a depth of one
+hundred and fifty feet from the surface, and consequently near the
+ceiling of the tunnel. All that has been found of any great beauty
+has been in the western end of the Shaft No. 1 and the eastern of
+Shaft No. 2, where the trap is quite soft; here it is found nearly
+every day in greater or less quantity, and from this some may
+generally be found on the dump, or, in the vein of chlorite which I
+mentioned as a locality for the dogtooth spar, considerable may be
+obtained in it and on its western edge near the ceiling. A ladder
+about thirteen feet long is used for attending the lights, and may
+generally be borrowed, and access to the remainder of this pocket
+thus gained. Datholite is also very characteristic in appearance,
+and can only be confounded with some forms of calcite occurring
+near it. It occurs in small glassy, nearly globular crystals; they
+are generally not over three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and
+generally pure and perfectly transparent, having a hardness of a
+little over 5, and specific gravity of 3; as it generally occurs as
+a druse upon the trap, or an apopholite, calcite, etc., this is
+seldom attainable, however, and we have a very distinctive
+characteristic in another test: this is the blowpipe, under which
+it at first intumesces and then fuses to a transparent globule, and
+the flame, after playing upon it, is of a deep green color. Nitric
+acid must be used to boil it up with, and with it it may be readily
+gelatinized. This last test will seldom be necessary, however, and
+may be dispensed with if the hardness and blowpipe reactions may be
+ascertained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apopholite</i>.--This beautiful mineral has been found in
+fair abundance at times in Shafts No. 1 and 2 in pockets, and
+seldom in place, most of it being taken from the loose stone at the
+mouth of the shaft, and it may generally be found on the dump. It
+is readily mistaken for calcite by the miners and those unskilled
+in mineralogy, but a drop of acid will quickly show the difference.
+The sizes of the crystals are very various, from an eighth of an
+inch long or thick, to, in one case, an inch and a half. The colors
+have been varied from white to nearly all tints, including pink,
+purple, blue, and green; the white variety is, however, the most
+abundant, and makes a handsome cabinet specimen. The crystals are
+generally packed together in a mass, but are frequently set apart
+as heavy druses of crystals having the form shown in Fig. 7.
+Sometimes, as in the former grouping, the crystals are without the
+pyramidal terminations, and are then right square prisms. The
+fracture being at perfect right angles, distinguishes it from
+calcite. Its hardness is generally fully 5, the specific gravity
+between 2.4 and 2.5; it is difficult to fuse before the blowpipe,
+but is finally fused into an opaque globule. Upon heating with
+nitric acid it partly dissolves, and the remainder becomes flaky
+and gelatinous. Apopholite, although quite rare, now may be bought
+from the men, or at least one of the engineers of Shaft No. 2's
+elevator, and generally at low terms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phrenite</i>.--This mineral is quite abundant in Shafts No. 1
+and 2, in very small masses, incrustations, and even in small
+crystals. It occurs embedded in or incrusting the trap, and also
+with calcite and apopholite. The only sure place to find it is at
+the southwest side of an opening through the pile of drift rock
+under the trestle work of the tramway, between shaft No. 1 and the
+dump, and within a few feet of a number of wooden vats sunk into
+the ground seen just before descending the hills and near the edge.
+Here on a number of blocks of trap it may be found, a greenish
+white incrustation about as thick as a knife blade; it also may be
+found on the main dump, and is sometimes found in plates one-eighth
+of an inch thick, of a darker green color, upon calcite. Its
+easiest distinguishment from the other minerals of this locality,
+with which it might be confounded, is its great hardness of from 6
+to 7. It is very fragile and brittle, however, and is never
+perfectly transparent, but quite opaque; its specific gravity is
+2.9, and it is readily fused before the blowpipe after intumescing.
+It partly dissolves in acid without gelatinizing, leaving a flaky
+residue; it is a beautiful mineral when in masses or crystals of a
+dark green color, but the best place in the vicinity to secure
+specimens of this kind is, as I will detail hereafter, at Paterson,
+N. J.</p>
+
+<p><i>Iron and Copper Pyrites</i>.--Both of these common but
+frequently beautiful minerals occur in the tunnel and adjacent
+rocks in great abundance. The crystals are generally about
+one-fourth of an inch in diameter, and groups of these may be
+frequently obtained on the dump in the shafts, especially No. 1 and
+2, and where the rock is being cleared away for the eastern
+entrance to the tunnel. They resemble each other very much; the
+iron pyrites, however, is in cubical forms and having the great
+hardness of from 6 to 7, while the copper pyrites, less abundant
+and in forms having triangles for bases, but having sometimes other
+forms and a hardness of but 3 to 4. Both are similar in aspect to a
+piece of brass, and cannot be mistaken for any other mineral. The
+form of the copper pyrites is shown in Fig. 8; the iron is, as
+before noted, in cubes, more or less modified.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stilbite</i>.--Small quantities of this beautiful mineral
+have been found in Shaft No. 2, in a small bed of but a few square
+feet in area, but quite thick and appearing much like natrolite.
+This bed was about one hundred feet east from Shaft No. 2, and in
+the center of the heading when it was at that point. It has been
+encountered since in small quantities, and it would do well to look
+out for it in the fresh tunneled portion after the date appended to
+this paper. It generally occurs in the form shown in Fig. 9,
+grouped very similarly to natrolite, and being right upon the rock
+or a thin bed of itself. The crystals are generally half an inch
+long, but often less. The modifications of the above form, which
+are frequent in this species, strike one forcibly of the
+resemblance they bear to a broad stone spear head on a diminutive
+scale, with a blunted edge; their hardness is about 4, specific
+gravity 2.2, the color generally a pearly white or grayish. After a
+long boiling with nitric acid it gelatinizes, but it foams up and
+fuses to a transparent glass before the blowpipe. A little stilbite
+may often be found on the dumps.</p>
+
+<p><i>Laumonite</i> occurs in very small quantities on calcite or
+apopholite, and can hardly be expected to be found on the trip; but
+as it might be found, I will detail some of its characteristics.
+Hardness 4, specific gravity 2.3; it generally occurs in small
+crystals, but more frequently in a crumbly, chalky mass, which it
+becomes upon exposure to the air. The crystals are generally
+transparent and frequently tinged yellow in color. It gelatinizes
+by boiling with acid, and after intumescing before the blowpipe,
+fuses to a frothy mass. To keep this mineral when in crystals from
+crumbling upon exposure it may be dipped in a thin mastic varnish
+or in a gum-arabic solution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heulandite</i>.--This rare mineral has been found under the
+same conditions as laumonite in Shaft No. 2, but it is seldom to be
+met with, and then in small crystals. It is of a pure white color,
+sometimes transparent. It intumesces and readily fuses before the
+blowpipe, and dissolves in acid without gelatinizing. Hardness 4,
+specific gravity 2.2.</p>
+
+<p>The few other minerals occurring in the tunnel are so extremly
+rare as not to be met with by any other than an expert, and it is
+impossible to detail the localities, as they generally occur as
+minute druses or incrustations upon other minerals with which they
+may be confounded, and have been removed as soon as discovered. The
+minerals referred to are analcime, chabazite, Thompsonite, and
+finally, the mineral which I first found in this formation,
+Hayesine, which is extremely rare, and of which I only obtained
+sufficient to cover a square inch. The particulars in regard to its
+locality, etc., maybe found in the <i>American Journal of
+Sciences</i> for June, page 458. I will now sum up the
+characteristics of these several minerals of this locality in the
+table:</p>
+
+<pre>
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+   Name.  |  H. |Sp.|Action of        |Action of        |Color.|Appearance.
+          |     |Gr.|Blowpipe.        |hot acid.        |      |
+----------+-----+---+-----------------+-----------------+------+---------------
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Calcite   |  3  |2.6|Infusible,       |Soluble with     |White |Like Fig.
+          |     |   |but glows        |effervescence    |      |3 and 4.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Natrolite |  5  |2.2|Readily fused    |Forms a jelly    |  do. |Like Fig 5.
+          |     |   |to clear globule |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Pectolite |  4  |2.5|      do.        |  do.  do.       |  do. |Divergent
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |fibers, Fig. 6.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Datholite |  5  |3.0|Intumesces, fused|Forms a jelly    |Color-|Small, nearly
+          |     |   |to clear globule,|                 |less  |spherical, etc.
+          |     |   |gives green flame|                 |white |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Apopholite|  5  |2.5|Difficult, fused |Partly soluble   |Tinted|Like Fig. 7.
+          |     |   |to opaque globule|in nitric acid   |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Phrenite  |  6  |2.9|Intomesces, fused|Partly soluble   |Green-|In tables and
+          |to 7 |   |to clear globule |in nitric acid,  |ish   |incrustations.
+          |     |   |                 |leaving flakes   |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Iron      |  6  |5.0|Burns and yields |                 |Brass |Cubical.
+pyrites   |to 7 |   |a black globule, |                 |      |
+          |     |   |decrepitates     |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Copper    |  3  |4.2|    do.     do.  |                 |  do. |Tetrahedronal.
+pyrites   |to 4 |   |                 |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Stilbite  |  4  |2.2|Intumesces and   |Difficult; jelly |White |Like Fig. 8.
+          |     |   |fuses readily    |on long boiling  |      |
+          |     |   |                 |with nitric acid.|      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Laumonite |  4  |2.3|Intumesces and   |Readily          |  do. |Generally
+          |to 0 |   |fuses to frothy  |gelatinizes      |      |chalky.
+          |     |   |mass             |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Heulandite|  4  |2.2|Intumesces and   |Soluble, no      |  do. |In right
+          |     |   |readily fuses    |jelly            |      |rhomboidal
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |prisms.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+</pre>
+
+<p><i>To Distinguish the Minerals together the one from the
+other</i>.--Calcite by effervescing on placing a drop of acid upon
+it. Natrolite resembles stilbite, but may be distinguished by
+gelatinizing readily with hydrochloric acid and by not intumescing
+when heated before the blowpipe; from the other minerals by the
+form of the crystals and their setting, also the locality in the
+tunnel in which it was found.</p>
+
+<p>Pectolite sometimes resembles some of the others, but may be
+readily distinguished by its <i>tough</i> long fibers, not brittle
+like natrolite. Datholite may generally be distinguished by the
+form of its crystals and their glassy appearance, with great
+hardness, and by tingeing the flame from the blowpipe of a true
+green color. Apopholite is distinguished from calcite, as noticed
+under that species, and from the others by its form, difficult
+fusibility, and part solubility.</p>
+
+<p>Phrenite is characterized by its hardness, greenish color,
+occurrence, and action of acid. Iron pyrites is always known by its
+brassy metallic aspect and great hardness. Copper pyrites, by its
+aspect from the other minerals, and from iron pyrites by its
+inferior hardness and less gravity.</p>
+
+<p>Stilbite is characterized by its form, difficult gelatinizing,
+and intumescence before the blowpipe; from natrolite as mentioned
+under that species.</p>
+
+<p>Laumonite is known by its generally chalky appearance and a
+probable failure in finding it.</p>
+
+<p>Heulandite is distinguished from stilbite by its crystals and
+perfect solubility; from apopholite by form of crystals.</p>
+
+<p>In the next part of this paper I will commence with Staten
+Island.</p>
+
+<p>July 1, 1882. (<i>To be continued</i>.)</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="13"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ANTISEPTICS.</h2>
+
+<p>The author has endeavored to ascertain what agents are able to
+destroy the spores of bacilli, how they behave toward the
+microphytes most easily destroyed, such as the moulds, ferments,
+and micrococci, and if they suffice at least to arrest the
+development of these organisms in liquids favorable to their
+multiplication. His results with phenol, thymol, and salicylic acid
+have been unfavorable. Sulphurous acid and zinc chloride also
+failed to destroy all the germs of infection. Chlorine, bromine,
+and mercuric chloride gave the best results; solutions of mercuric
+chloride, nitrate, or sulphate diluted to 1 part in 1,000 destroy
+spores in ten minutes.--<i>R. Koch</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="14"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CRYSTALLIZATION AND ITS EFFECTS UPON IRON.</h2>
+
+<h3>By N.B. WOOD, Member of the Civil Engineers' Club, of
+Cleveland.</h3>
+
+<p>[Footnote: Read January 10th. 1882.]</p>
+
+<p>The question has been asked, "What is the chemically scientific
+definition of crystallization?" Now as the study of crystallization
+and its effect upon matter, physically as well as chemically, will
+be of interest, considering the subject matter for discussion, I
+shall not only endeavor to answer the question, as I understand it,
+but try to treat it somewhat technologically.</p>
+
+<p>Having this object in view, I have prepared or brought about the
+conditions necessary to the formation of a few crystals of various
+chemical substances, which for various reasons, such as lack of
+time and bad weather, are not as perfect as could be desired, but
+will perhaps subserve the purpose for which they were designed. I
+think you will agree with me that they are beautiful, if they are
+imperfect, and I can assure you that the pleasure of watching their
+formation fully repays one for the trouble, if for no other reason
+than the mere gratification of the senses. From the earliest times
+and by all races of men, the crystal has been admired and imitated,
+or improved by cutting and polishing into faces of various
+substances. I have also procured specimens of steel and iron which
+show the effect of crystallization, which was produced (perhaps)
+under known conditions, so that the conclusions which we arrive at
+from their study will have a fair chance of being logical, at
+least, and perhaps of some practical value.</p>
+
+<p>When we examine inanimate nature we find two grand divisions of
+matter, <i>fluid</i> and <i>solid</i>. These two divisions may be
+subdivided into, the former gaseous and liquid, the latter
+amorphous and crystalline; but whether one or the other of these
+divisions be considered, their ultimate and common division will be
+the ATOM. By the atom we understand that portion of matter which
+admits of no further division, which, though as inconceivable for
+minuteness as space is for extent, has still definite weight, form,
+and volume; which under favorable circumstances, has that power or
+force called cohesion, the intensity of which constitutes strength
+of material, which every engineer is supposed to understand, but
+which lies far beyond the powers of the human mind for
+comprehension or analysis. When we apply a magnet to a mass of iron
+filings, we observe the particles arrange themselves in regular
+order, having considerable strength in one direction, and very
+little or none in any other. Now, although we understand very
+little about the force which holds these particles in position, we
+do know that it is actual force applied from without and maintained
+at the expense of some of the known sources of force. But the force
+or power or property of cohesion seems to be a quality stored
+within the atom itself, in many cases similar to magnetism, having
+powerful attraction in some directions and very little or none in
+others. A crystal of mica, for instance, or gypsum may be divided
+to any degree of thinness, but is very difficult to even break.
+This property of crystals is termed cleavage. Cohesion and
+crystallization are affected variously by various circumstances,
+such as heat or its absence, motion or its absence, etc. In fact,
+almost every phenomenon of nature within the range of ordinary
+temperatures has effects which may be favorable to the
+crystallization of some substances, and at the same time
+unfavorable to others; so it will be seen that it is impossible to
+lay down any rule for it except for named substances, like
+substances requiring like conditions, to bring its atoms into that
+state of equilibrium where crystallization can occur. If we examine
+crystals carefully we find, not only that nature has here provided
+geometric forms of marvelous beauty and exactness, with faces of
+polish and quoins of acuteness equal to the work of the most
+skillful lapidist, "but that in whatever manner or under whatever
+circumstances a crystal may have been formed, whether in the
+laboratory of the chemist or the workshop of nature, in the bodies
+of animals or the tissues of plants, up in the sky or in the depths
+of the earth, whether so rapidly that we may literally see its
+growth, or by the slow aggregation of its molecules during perhaps
+thousands of years, we always find that the arrangement of the
+faces is subject to fixed and definite laws." We find also that a
+crystal is always finished and has its form as perfectly developed
+when it is the minutest point discernible by the microscope as when
+it has attained its ultimate growth. I might add parenthetically
+that crystals are sometimes of immense size, one at Milan of quartz
+being 3 feet 3 inches long and 5 feet 6 inches in circumference,
+and is estimated to weigh over 800 pounds; and a gigantic beryl at
+Grafton, N. H., is over 4 feet in length and 32 inches in diameter,
+and weighs not less than 5,000 pounds; but the most perfect
+specimens are of small size, as some accident is sure to overtake
+the larger ones before they acquire their growth, to interfere with
+their symmetry or transparency. This you will see abundantly
+illustrated by the examples which I have prepared, as also the
+constancy of the angles of like faces. Chemically speaking, the
+crystal is always a perfect chemical body, and can never be a
+mechanical mixture. This fact has been of great value to the
+science of chemistry in developing the atomic theory, which has
+demonstrated that a body can only exist chemically combined when a
+definite number of atoms of each element is present, and that there
+is no certainty of such proportions existing except in the crystal.
+I hold before you a crystal of common alum. Its chemical symbol
+would be
+Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>,3SO<sub>3</sub>+KO,SO<sub>3</sub>+24H<sub>
+2</sub>O. If we knew its weight and wished to know its ultimate
+component parts, we could calculate them more readily than we could
+acquire that knowledge by any other means. But the elements of this
+quantity of uncrystallized alum could not be computed. Then we may
+define crystallization to be the operation of nature wherein the
+chemical atoms or molecules of a substance have sufficient
+polarized force to arrange themselves about a central attracting
+point in definite geometrical forms.</p>
+
+<p>Fresenius defines it thus: "<i>Every operation, or process,
+whereby bodies are made to pass from the fluid to the solid state,
+and to assume</i> certain fixed, <i>mathematically definable,
+regular forms</i>." It would be folly for me to attempt to
+criticise Fresenius, but I give you both definitions, and you can
+take your choice. The definition of Fresenius, however, will not
+suit our present purpose, because the crystallization of wrought
+iron occurs, or seems to, <i>after</i> the iron has acquired a
+<i>solid state</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Iron, as you all know, is known to the arts in three forms: cast
+or crude, steel, and wrought or malleable. Cast iron varies much in
+chemical composition, being a mixture of iron and carbon chiefly,
+as constant factors, with which silicium in small quantities (from
+1 to 5 per cent.), phosphorus, sulphur, and sometimes manganese
+(e.g. spiegeleisen) and various other elements are combined. All of
+these have some effect upon the crystalline structure of the mass,
+but whatever crystallization takes place occurs at the moment of
+solidification, or between that and a red heat, and varies much,
+according to the time occupied in cooling, as to its composition.
+My own experience leads me to think that a cast iron having about 3
+per cent. of carbon, a small per centage of phosphorus, say about
+&frac12; of 1 per cent., and very small quantities of silicium, the
+less the better, and traces of manganese (the two latter substances
+<i>slagging</i> out almost entirely during the process of remelting
+for casting), makes a metal best adapted to the general use of the
+founder. Such proportions will make a soft, even grained, dark gray
+iron, whose crystals are small and bright, and whose fracture will
+be uneven and sharp to the touch. The phosphorus in this instance
+gives the metal liquidity at a low temperature, but does not seem
+to influence the crystallization to any appreciable extent. The two
+elements to be avoided by the founder are silicium and sulphur.
+These give to iron a peculiar crystalline appearance easily
+recognized by an experienced person. Silicium seems to obliterate
+the sparkling brilliancy of the crystalline faces of good iron, and
+replace them with very fine dull ones only discernible with a lens,
+and the iron breaks more like stoneware than metal, while sulphur
+in appreciable quantities gives a striated crystalline texture
+similar to chilled iron, and very brittle. Phosphorus in very large
+quantities acts similarly. The form of the crystal in cast iron is
+the octahedron, so that right angles with sharp corners should be
+avoided as much as possible in castings, as the most likely
+position for a crystal to take would be with its faces along the
+line of the angle. Steel, to be of any value as such, <i>must</i>
+be made of the purest material. Phosphorus and sulphur <i>must</i>
+not exist, except in the most minute quantities, or the metal is
+worthless. If either of these substances be present in a bar of
+steel, its structure will be coarse, crystalline and weak. The
+reason of this is unknown, but probably their presence reduces the
+power of cohesion; and, that being reduced, gives the molecules of
+steel greater freedom to arrange themselves in conformity with
+their polarity, and this in its turn again weakens the mass by the
+tendency of the crystals to cleavage in certain directions. Carbon
+is a constant element in steel, as it is in cast iron, but is
+frequently replaced by chromium, titanium, etc., or is said to be,
+though it is not quite clear to me how it can be so if steel is a
+chemical compound. However this may be, we know that a piece of
+good soft steel breaks with a fine crystalline fracture, and the
+same piece hardened when broken shows either an amorphous structure
+or one very finely crystalline, which would indicate that the
+crystals had been broken up by the action of heat, and that they
+had not had sufficient time to return to their original position on
+account of the sudden cooling. The tendency of the molecules of
+steel after hardening to assume their natural position when cold
+seems to be very great, for we have often seen large pieces of
+steel burst asunder after hardening, though lying untouched, and
+sometimes with such force as to hurl the fragments to some
+distance. If a piece of steel be subjected to a bright yellow or
+white heat its nature is entirely changed, and the workman says it
+is burnt. Though this is not actually a fact, it does well enough
+to express that condition of the metal. Steel cannot be burnt
+unless some portion of it has been oxidized. The carbon would of
+course be attacked first, its affinity for oxygen being greatest;
+but we find nothing wanting in a piece of burnt steel. It can, by
+careful heating, hammering and hardening, be returned to its former
+excellence. Then what change has taken place? I should say that two
+modifications have been made, one physical, the other chemical. The
+change chemically is that of a chemical compound to a mixture of
+carbon and iron, so that in a chemical sense it resembles cast
+iron. The change physically is that of crystallization, being due
+partly to chemical change and partly to the effect of heat. I have
+procured a specimen of steel showing beautifully the effect of
+overheating. The specimen is labeled No. 1, and is a piece of Park
+Brothers' steel (one of the best brands made in America). It has
+been heated at one end to proper heat for hardening, and at the
+other is what is technically called "burnt." It has been broken at
+intervals of about 1&frac12; inches, showing the transition from
+amorphous or proper hardening to highly crystalline or "burnt."
+Malleable or wrought iron is or should be pure iron. Of course in
+practice it is seldom such, but generally nearly so, being usually
+98, 99, or even more per cent. It is exceedingly prone to
+crystallization, the purer varieties being as much subject to it as
+others, except those contaminated with phosphorus, which affects it
+similarly with steel, and makes it very weak to cross and tensile
+strains. I have never estimated the quantity present in any except
+one specimen, a bar of 1&frac12; round, which literally fell to
+pieces when dropped across a block of iron. It had 1.32 per cent.
+of phosphorus and was very crystalline, though the crystals were
+not very large. Iron which has been, when first made, quite
+fibrous, when subjected to a series of shocks for a greater or less
+period, according to their intensity, when subjected to intense
+currents of electricity, or when subjected to high temperatures, or
+has by mechanical force been pushed together, or, as it is called,
+upset, becomes extremely crystalline. Under all of these
+circumstances it is subjected to one physical phenomenon, that of
+motion. It would seem that if a bar of iron were struck, the blow
+would shake the whole mass, and consequently the relative position
+of the particles remain unchanged, but this is not the case. When
+the blow is struck it takes an appreciable length of time for the
+effect to be communicated to the other end so as to be heard, if
+the distance is great. This shows that a small force is
+communicated from particle to particle independently along the
+whole mass, and that each atom actually moves independently of its
+neighbor. Then, if there be any attraction at the time tending to
+arrange it differently, it will conform to it. So much for theory
+with regard to this important matter. It looks well on paper, but
+do the facts of the case correspond? If practically demonstrated
+and systematically executed, experiments fail to corroborate the
+theory, and if, furthermore, we find there is no necessity for the
+theory, we naturally conclude that it is all wrong, or, at least,
+imperfectly understood. Now there is one other quality imparted to
+iron by successive shocks, which, I think, is independent of
+crystallization, and this quality is hardness and consequent
+brittleness. One noticeable feature about this also is, that as
+"absolute cohesion" or tensile strength diminishes, "relative
+cohesion" or strength to resist crushing increases. Specimens Nos.
+2, 3, and 4 are pieces of Swedish iron, probably from the
+celebrated mines of Dannemora. Nos. 2 and 3 are parts of the same
+bolt, which, after some months' use on a "heading machine" in a
+bolt and nut works, where it was subjected to numerous and violent
+shocks, (perhaps 50,000 or 60,000 per day), it broke short off, as
+you see in No 2, showing a highly crystalline fracture. To test
+whether this structure continued through the bolt, I had it nicked
+by a blacksmith's cold chisel and broken. The specimen shows that
+it is still stronger at that point than at the point where it is
+actually broken, but the resulting fracture shows the same
+crystalline appearance. I next had specimen No. 4 cut from a fresh
+bar of iron which had never been used for anything. It also shows a
+crystalline fracture, indicating that this peculiarity had existed
+in the iron of both from the beginning.</p>
+
+<p>I next took specimen No. 3 and subjected it to a careful
+annealing, taking perhaps two hours in the operation. Although it
+is a 1-1/8 bolt and has V threads cut upon it we were unable to
+break it, although bent cold through an arc of 90&deg;, and
+probably would have doubled upon itself if we had had the means to
+have forced it. Now what does this show? Have the crystals been
+obliterated by the process of annealing, or has only their cleavage
+been destroyed, so that when they break, instead of showing
+brilliant, sparkling faces, they are drawn into a fibrous looking
+mass? The latter seems to be the most plausible theory, to which I
+admit objections may be raised. For my own part, I am inclined to
+the belief that the crystal exists in all iron which is finished
+above a bright red heat, and that between that and black heat they
+are formed and have whatever characteristics circumstances may
+confer upon them, modified by the action of agencies heretofore
+mentioned.</p>
+
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+<pre>
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+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+344, August 5, 1882, by Various
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+</pre>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 344,
+August 5, 1882, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 344, August 5, 1882
+
+Author: Various
+
+Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8717]
+Release Date: August, 2005
+First Posted: August 3, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 344 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles
+Franks and the Distributed Proofreaders Team
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 344
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, August 5, 1882
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 344.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--The Panama Canal. By
+     MANUEL EISSLER. I.--Historical notes.--Spanish Discoveries
+     in Central America.--Early explorations.--Nicaragua
+     projects.--Panama railway, etc.
+
+     Improved Averaging Machine.
+
+     Compound Beam Engine. 4 figures.--Borsig's improved
+     compound beam engine.
+
+     Power Hammers with Movable Fulcrum.--By DANIEL
+     LONGWORTH. 5 figures.
+
+     The Bicheroux System of Furnaces Applied to the Puddling of
+     Iron. 2 figures.
+
+     Gessner's Continuous Cloth Pressing Machine. 3 figures.
+
+     Novelties in Ring Spindles. 4 figures.
+
+     Improvements in Woolen Carding Engines.
+
+II.  NATURAL HISTORY.--Metamorphosis of the Deer's
+     Antlers.--Annual changes. 9 figures.
+
+     Monkeys. By A.R. WALLACE.--Comparison of skeletons of man,
+     orang outang, and chimpanzee.--Other anatomical resemblances
+     and diversities.--The different kinds of monkeys and the
+     countries they inhabit.--American monkeys.--Lemurs.
+     --Distribution, affinities, and zoological rank of monkeys.
+
+     Silk Producing Bombyces and other Lepidoptera reared in
+     1881. By ALFRED WAILLY, Member Lauriat de la Societe
+     d'Acclimatation de France.--An extended and important
+     European, Asiatic, and American silk worms, and other
+     silk producers.
+
+III. MINERALOGY, METALLURGY, ETC.--The Mineralogical
+     Localities In and Around New York City and the Minerals
+     Occurring Therein.--By NELSON H. DARTON.--Chances for
+     collecting within one hour's ride of New York.--Methods
+     of collecting and testing.--Localities on Bergen
+     Hill.--The Weehawken Tunnel.--Minerals and modes of
+     occurrence.--Calcite.--Natrolite.--Pectolite.--Datholite.
+     --Apopholite.--Phrenite.--Iron and copper pyrites.
+     --Stilbite.--Laumonite.--Heulandite.
+
+     Antiseptics.
+
+     Crystallization and its Effects Upon Iron. By N.B. WOOD.--
+     Beauty of Crystals.--Nature of cohesion.--Cleavage.--Growth
+     of crystals.--Some large crystals.--Cast iron.--Influence
+     of phosphorus and sulphur.--Nature of steel.--Burnt
+     steel.--Effect of annealing.
+
+IV.  ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--The Cathedral of Burgos, Spain.
+     --Full page illustration from photograph.
+
+     Description of Burgos Cathedral.
+
+     Photo-Engraving on Zinc and Copper. By LEON VIDAL.
+
+     Meridian Line.--A surveyor's method of finding the true
+     meridian.--By R.W. MCFARLAND.
+
+V.   ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electro Mania. By W. MATTIEU
+     WILLIAMS.--Example of electrical exaggeration and
+     delusion.--Early scientific attempts at electro-motors,
+     electric lamps, etc.
+
+     Action of Magnets Upon the Voltaic Arc. By TH. DU
+     MONCEL. 2 figures.
+
+     Volckmar's Secondary Batteries.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+METAMORPHOSIS OF THE DEER'S ANTLERS.
+
+
+Every year in March the deer loses its antlers, and fresh ones
+immediately begin to grow, which exceed in size those that have just
+been lost. Few persons probably have been able to watch and observe the
+habits of the animal after it has lost its antlers. It will, therefore,
+be of interest to examine the accompanying drawings, by Mr. L. Beckmann,
+one of them showing a deer while shedding its antlers, and the other
+as the animal appears after losing them. In the first illustration the
+animal has just lost one of its antlers, and fright and pain cause it
+to throw its head upward and become disturbed and uneasy. The remaining
+antler draws down one side of the head and is very inconvenient for the
+animal. The remaining antler becomes soon detached from its base,
+and the deer turns--as if ashamed of having lost its ornament and
+weapon--lowers its head, and sorrowfully moves to the adjoining thicket,
+where it hides. A friend once observed a deer losing its antlers, but
+the circumstances were somewhat different. The animal was jumping over a
+ditch, and as soon as it touched the further bank it jumped high in the
+air, arched its back, bent its head to one side in the manner of an
+animal that has been wounded, and then sadly approached the nearest
+thicket, in the same manner as the artist has represented in the
+accompanying picture. Both antlers dropped off and fell into the ditch.
+
+[Illustration: METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--FIRST STAGE.]
+
+Strong antlers are generally found together, but weak ones are lost at
+intervals of two or three days. A few days after this loss the stumps
+upon which the antlers rested are covered with a skin, which grows
+upward very rapidly, and under which the fresh antlers are formed, so
+that by the end of July the bucks have new and strong antlers, from
+which they remove the fine hairy covering by rubbing them against young
+trees. It is peculiar that the huntsman, who knows everything in regard
+to deer, and has seventy-two signs by which he can tell whether a male
+or female deer passes through the woods, does not know at what age the
+deer gets its first antlers and how the antlers indicate the age of the
+animal. Prof. Altum, in Eberswalde, has given some valuable information
+in regard to the relation between the age of the deer and the forms of
+their antlers, but in some respects he has not expressed himself very
+clearly, and I think that my observations given in addition to his may
+be of importance. When the animal is a year old--that is, in June--the
+burrs of the antlers begin to form, and in July the animal has two
+protuberances of the size of walnuts, from which the first branches of
+the antlers rise; these branches having the length of a finger only, or
+being even shorter, as shown at 1, in diagram, on p. 5481. After the
+second year more branches are formed, which are considerably longer and
+much rougher at the lower ends than the first. The third pair of antlers
+is different from its predecessors, inasmuch as it has "roses," that is,
+annular ridges around the bases of the horn, which latter are now bent
+in the shape of a crescent. Either the antler has a single branch (Fig.
+3, _a_), or besides the point it has another short end, which is a most
+rare shape, and is known as a "fork" (Fig. 3, _b_), or it has two forks
+(Fig. 3, _c_). In the following year the antlers take the form shown
+in Fig. 4, and then follows the antler shown in Fig. 5, _a_, which
+generally has "forks" in place of points, and is known as forked antler
+in contradistinction to the point antler shown in Fig. 5, _b_, which
+retains the shape of the antler, Fig. 4, but has additional or
+intermediate prongs or branches. The huntsmen designate the antlers by
+the number of ends or points on the two antlers. For instance, Fig. 4 is
+a six-ender; Fig. 5 shows an eight-ender, etc.; and antlers have been
+known to have as many as twenty-two ends. If the two antlers do not
+have the same number of ends the number of ends on the larger antler
+is multiplied by two and the word "odd" is placed before the word
+designating the number of ends. For instance, if one antler has
+three ends and the other four, the antler would be termed an "odd"
+eight-ender. The sixth antler shown in Fig. 6 is a ten-ender, and
+appears in two different forms, either with a fork at the upper end, as
+shown in Fig. 6, _a_, or with a crown, as shown in Fig. 6, _b_. In Fig.
+7 an antler is shown which the animal carries from its seventh year
+until the month of March of its eighth year. From that time on the
+crowns only increase and change. The increase in the number of points is
+not always as regular as I have described it, for in years when food
+is scarce and poor the antlers are weak and small, and when food is
+plentiful and rich the antlers grow exceedingly large, and sometimes
+skip an entire year's growth.--_Karl Brandt, in Leipziger lllustrirte
+Zeitung_.
+
+[Illustration: METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--SECOND STAGE.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MONKEYS.
+
+By ALFRED R. WALLACE.
+
+
+If the skeleton of an orang-outang and a chimpanzee be compared with
+that of a man, there will be found to be the most wonderful resemblance,
+together with a very marked diversity. Bone for bone, throughout the
+whole structure, will be found to agree in general form, position, and
+function, the only absolute differences being that the orang has nine
+wrist bones, whereas man and the chimpanzee have but eight; and the
+chimpanzee has thirteen pairs of ribs, whereas the orang, like man, has
+but twelve. With these two exceptions, the differences are those of
+shape, proportion, and direction only, though the resulting differences
+in the external form and motions are very considerable. The greatest of
+these are, that the feet of the anthropoid or man-like apes, as well as
+those of all monkeys, are formed like hands, with large opposable thumbs
+fitted to grasp the branches of trees, but unsuitable for erect walking,
+while the hands have weak, small thumbs, but very long and powerful
+fingers, forming a hook, rather than a hand, adapted for climbing up
+trees and suspending the whole weight from horizontal branches. The
+almost complete identity of the skeleton, however, and the close
+similarity of the muscles and of all the internal organs, have produced
+that striking and ludicrous resemblance to man, which every one
+recognizes in these higher apes, and, in a less degree, in the whole
+monkey tribe; the face and features, the motions, attitudes, and
+gestures being often a strange caricature of humanity. Let us, then,
+examine a little more closely in what the resemblance consists, and how
+far, and to what extent, these animals really differ from us.
+
+Besides the face, which is often wonderfully human--although the absence
+of any protuberant nose gives it often a curiously infantile aspect,
+monkeys, and especially apes, resemble us most closely in the hand and
+arm. The hand has well-formed fingers, with nails, and the skin of the
+palm is lined and furrowed like our own. The thumb is, however, smaller
+and weaker than ours, and is not so much used in taking hold of
+anything. The monkey's hand is, therefore, not so well adapted as that
+of man for a variety of purposes, and cannot be applied with such
+precision in holding small objects, while it is unsuitable for
+performing delicate operations, such as tying a knot or writing with a
+pen. A monkey does not take hold of a nut with its forefinger and thumb,
+as we do, but grasps it between the fingers and the palm in a clumsy
+way, just as a baby does before it has acquired the proper use of
+its hand. Two groups of monkeys--one in Africa and one in South
+America--have no thumbs on their hands, and yet they do not seem to be
+in any respect inferior to other kinds which possess it. In most of the
+American monkeys the thumb bends in the same direction as the fingers,
+and in none is it so perfectly opposed to the fingers as our thumbs are;
+and all these circumstances show that the hand of the monkey is, both
+structurally and functionally, a very different and very inferior organ
+to that of man, since it is not applied to similar purposes, nor is it
+capable of being so applied.
+
+When we look at the feet of monkeys we find a still greater difference,
+for these have much larger and more opposable thumbs, and are therefore
+more like our hands; and this is the case with all monkeys, so that even
+those which have no thumbs on their hands, or have them small and weak
+and parallel to the fingers, have always large and well-formed thumbs on
+their feet. It was on account of this peculiarity that the great French
+naturalist Cuvier named the whole group of monkeys Quadrumana, or
+four-handed animals, because, besides the two hands on their fore-limbs,
+they have also two hands in place of feet on their hind-limbs. Modern
+naturalists have given up the use of this term, because they say that
+the hind extremities of all monkeys are really feet, only these feet
+are shaped like hands; but this is a point of anatomy, or rather of
+nomenclature, which we need not here discuss.
+
+Let us, however, before going further, inquire into the purpose and
+use of this peculiarity, and we shall then see that it is simply an
+adaptation to the mode of life of the animals which possess it. Monkeys,
+as a rule, live in trees, and are especially abundant in the great
+tropical forests. They feed chiefly upon fruits, and occasionally eat
+insects and birds'-eggs, as well as young birds, all of which they find
+in the trees; and, as they have no occasion to come down to the ground,
+they travel from tree to tree by jumping or swinging, and thus pass the
+greater part of their lives entirely among the leafy branches of lofty
+trees. For such a mode of existence, they require to be able to move
+with perfect ease upon large or small branches, and to climb up rapidly
+from one bough to another. As they use their hands for gathering fruit
+and catching insects or birds, they require some means of holding on
+with their feet, otherwise they would be liable to continual falls, and
+they are able to do this by means of their long finger-like toes and
+large opposable thumbs, which grasp a branch almost as securely as a
+bird grasps its perch. The true hands, on the contrary, are used chiefly
+to climb with, and to swing the whole weight of the body from one branch
+or one tree to another, and for this purpose the fingers are very long
+and strong, and in many species they are further strengthened by being
+partially joined together, as if the skin of our fingers grew together
+as far as the knuckles. This shows that the separate action of the
+fingers, which is so important to us, is little required by monkeys,
+whose hand is really an organ for climbing and seizing food, while their
+foot is required to support them firmly in any position on the branches
+of trees, and for this purpose it has become modified into a large and
+powerful grasping hand.
+
+Another striking difference between monkeys and men is that the former
+never walk with ease in an erect posture, but always use their arms in
+climbing or in walking on all-fours like most quadrupeds. The monkeys
+that we see in the streets dressed up and walking erect, only do so
+after much drilling and teaching, just as dogs may be taught to walk in
+the same way; and the posture is almost as unnatural to the one animal
+as it is to the other. The largest and most man-like of the apes--the
+gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang-outang--also walk usually on all-fours;
+but in these the arms are so long and the legs so short that the body
+appears half erect when walking; and they have the habit of resting on
+the knuckles of the hands, not on the palms like the smaller monkeys,
+whose arms and legs are more nearly of an equal length, which tends
+still further to give them a semi-erect position. Still they are never
+known to walk of their own accord on their hind legs only, though they
+can do so for short distances, and the story of their using a stick and
+walking erect by its help in the wild state is not true. Monkeys, then,
+are both four-handed and four-footed beasts; they possess four hands
+formed very much like our hands, and capable of picking up or holding
+any small object in the same manner; but they are also four-footed,
+because they use all four limbs for the purpose of walking, running, or
+climbing; and, being adapted to this double purpose, the hands want the
+delicacy of touch and the freedom as well as the precision of movement
+which ours possess. Man alone is so constructed that he walks erect with
+perfect ease, and has his hands free for any use to which he wishes
+to apply them; and this is the great and essential bodily distinction
+between monkeys and men.
+
+We will now give some account of the different kinds of monkeys and the
+countries they inhabit.
+
+
+THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MONKEYS AND THE COUNTRIES THEY INHABIT.
+
+Monkeys are usually divided into three kinds--apes, monkeys, and
+baboons; but these do not include the American monkeys, which are really
+more different from all those of the Old World than any of the
+latter are from each other. Naturalists, therefore, divide the whole
+monkey-tribe into two great families, inhabiting the Old and the New
+World respectively; and, if we learn to remember the kind of differences
+by which these several groups are distinguished, we shall be able
+to understand something of the classification of animals, and the
+difference between important and unimportant characters.
+
+Taking first the Old World groups, they may be thus defined: apes have
+no tails; monkeys have tails, which are usually long; while baboons have
+short tails, and their faces, instead of being round and with a man-like
+expression as in apes and monkeys, are long and more dog-like. These
+differences are, however, by no means constant, and it is often
+difficult to tell whether an animal should be classed as an ape, a
+monkey, or a baboon. The Gibraltar ape, for example, though it has no
+tail, is really a monkey, because it has callosities, or hard pads of
+bare skin on which it sits, and cheek pouches in which it can stow away
+food; the latter character being always absent in the true apes, while
+both are present in most monkeys and baboons. All these animals,
+however, from the largest ape to the smallest monkey, have the same
+number of teeth as we have, and they are arranged in a similar manner,
+although the tusks or canine teeth of the males are often large, like
+those of a dog.
+
+The American monkeys, on the other hand, with the exception of the
+marmosets, have four additional grinding teeth (one in each jaw on
+either side), and none of them have callosities, or cheek pouches. They
+never have prominent snouts like the baboons; their nostrils are placed
+wide apart and open sideways on the face; the tail, though sometimes
+short, is never quite absent; and the thumb bends the same way as the
+fingers, is generally very short and weak, and is often quite wanting.
+We thus see that these American monkeys differ in a great number of
+characters from those of the Eastern hemisphere; and they have this
+further peculiarity, that many of them have prehensile or grasping
+tails, which are never found in the monkeys of any other country.
+This curious organ serves the purpose of a fifth hand. It has so much
+muscular power that the animal can hang by it easily with the tip curled
+round a branch, while it can also be used to pick up small objects with
+almost as much ease and exactness as an elephant's trunk. In those
+species which have it most perfectly formed it is very long and
+powerful, and the end has the underside covered with bare skin, exactly
+resembling that of the finger or palm of the hand and apparently equally
+sensitive. One of the common kinds of monkeys that accompany street
+organ-players has a prehensile tail, but not of the most perfect kind;
+since in this species the tail is entirely clad with hair to the tip,
+and seems to be used chiefly to steady the animal when sitting on a
+branch by being twisted round another branch near it. The statement is
+often erroneously made that all American monkeys have prehensile tails;
+but the fact is that rather less than half the known kinds have them
+so, the remainder having this organ either short and bushy, or long
+and slender, but entirely without any power of grasping. All
+prehensile-tailed monkeys are American, but all American monkeys are not
+prehensile-tailed.
+
+By remembering these characters it is easy, with a little observation,
+to tell whether any strange monkey comes from America or from the Old
+World. If it has bare seat-pads, or if when eating it fills its mouth
+till its cheeks swell out like little bags, we may be sure it comes from
+some part of Africa or Asia; while if it can curl up the end of its tail
+so as to take hold of anything, it is certainly American. As all the
+tailed monkeys of the Old World have seat-pads (or ischial callosities
+as they are called in scientific language), and as all the American
+monkeys have tails, but no seat-pads, this is the most constant external
+character by which to distinguish them; and having done so we can look
+for the other peculiarities of the American monkeys, especially the
+distance apart of the nostrils and their lateral position.
+
+The whole monkey-tribe is especially tropical, only a few kinds being
+found in the warmer parts of the temperate zone. One inhabits the Rock
+of Gibraltar, and there is one very like it in Japan, and these are the
+two monkeys which live furthest from the equator. In the tropics they
+become very abundant and increase in numbers and variety as we approach
+the equator, where the climate is hot, moist, and equable, and where
+flowers, fruits, and insects are to be found throughout the year. Africa
+has about 55 different kinds, Asia and its islands about 60, while
+America has 114, or almost exactly the same as Asia and Africa together.
+Australia and its islands have no monkeys, nor has the great and
+luxuriant island of New Guinea, whose magnificent forests seem so well
+adapted for them. We will now give a short account of the different
+kinds of monkeys inhabiting each of the tropical continents.
+
+Africa possesses two of the great man-like apes--the gorilla and the
+chimpanzee, the former being the largest ape known, and the one which,
+on the whole, perhaps most resembles man, though its countenance is less
+human than that of the chimpanzee. Both are found in West Africa, near
+the equator, but they also inhabit the interior wherever there are great
+forests; and Dr. Schweinfurth states that the chimpanzee inhabits the
+country about the sources of the Shari River in 28 deg. E. long. and 4 deg. N.
+lat.
+
+The long-tailed monkeys of Africa are very numerous and varied. One
+group has no cheek pouches and no thumb on the hand, and many of these
+have long soft fur of varied colors. The most numerous group are the
+Guenons, rather small long-tailed monkeys, very active and lively,
+and often having their faces curiously marked with white or black, or
+ornamented with whiskers or other tufts of hair; and they all have large
+cheek pouches and good sized thumbs. Many of them are called green
+monkeys, from the greenish yellow tint of their fur, and most of them
+are well formed, pleasing animals. They are found only in tropical
+Africa.
+
+The baboons are larger but less numerous. They resemble dogs in the
+general form and the length of the face or snout, but they have hands
+with well-developed thumbs on both the fore and hind limbs; and this,
+with something in the expression of the face and their habit of sitting
+up and using their hands in a very human fashion, at once shows that
+they belong to the monkey tribe. Many of them are very ugly, and in
+their wild state they are the fiercest and most dangerous of monkeys.
+Some have the tail very long, others of medium length, while it is
+sometimes reduced to a mere stump, and all have large cheek pouches and
+bare seat pads. They are found all over Africa, from Egypt to the Cape
+of Good Hope; while one species, called the hamadryas, extends from
+Abyssinia across the Red Sea into Arabia, and is the only baboon found
+out of Africa. This species was known to the ancients, and it is often
+represented in Egyptian sculptures, while mummies of it have been found
+in the catacombs. The largest and most remarkable of all the baboons
+is the mandrill of West Africa, whose swollen and hog-like face is
+ornamented with stripes of vivid blue and scarlet. This animal has a
+tail scarcely two inches long, while in size and strength it is not much
+inferior to the gorilla. The large baboons go in bands, and are said to
+be a match for any other animals in the African forests, and even to
+attack and drive away the elephants from the districts they inhabit.
+
+Turning now to Asia, we have first one of the best known of the large
+man-like apes--the orang-outang, found only in the two large islands,
+Borneo and Sumatra. The name is Malay, signifying "man of the woods,"
+and it should be pronounced orang-ootan, the accent being on the first
+syllable of both words. It is a very curious circumstance that, whereas
+the gorilla and chimpanzee are both black, like the negroes of the same
+country, the orang-outang is red or reddish brown, closely resembling
+the color of the Malays and Dyaks who live in the Bornean forests.
+Though very large and powerful, it is a harmless creature, feeding on
+fruit, and never attacking any other animal except in self-defense. A
+full-grown male orang-outang is rather more than four feet high, but
+with a body as large as that of a stout man, and with enormously long
+and powerful arms.
+
+Another group of true apes inhabit Asia and the larger Asiatic islands,
+and are in some respects the most remarkable of the whole family. These
+are the Gibbons, or long-armed apes, which are generally of small size
+and of a gentle disposition, but possessing the most wonderful agility.
+In these creatures the arms are as long as the body and legs together,
+and are so powerful that a gibbon will hang for hours suspended from
+a branch, or swing to and fro and then throw itself a great distance
+through the air. The arms, in fact, completely take the place of the
+legs for traveling. Instead of jumping from bough to bough and running
+on the branches, like other apes and monkeys, the gibbons move along
+while hanging suspended in the air, stretching their arms from bough to
+bough, and thus going hand over hand as a very active sailor will climb
+along a rope. The strength of their arms is, however, so prodigious,
+and their hold so sure, that they often loose one hand before they have
+caught a bough with the other, thus seeming almost to fly through the
+air by a series of swinging leaps; and they travel among the network of
+interlacing boughs a hundred feet above the earth with as much ease and
+certainty as we walk or run upon level ground, and with even greater
+speed. These little animals scarcely ever come down to the ground of
+their own accord; but when obliged to do so they run along almost erect,
+with their long arms swinging round and round, as if trying to find some
+tree or other object to climb upon. They are the only apes who naturally
+walk without using their hands as well as their feet; but this does not
+make them more like men, for it is evident that the attitude is not an
+easy one, and is only adopted because the arms are habitually used to
+swing by, and are therefore naturally held upward, instead of downward,
+as they must be when walking on them.
+
+The tailed monkeys of Asia consist of two groups, the first of which
+have no cheek pouches, but always have very long tails, They are
+true forest monkeys, very active and of a shy disposition. The most
+remarkable of these is the long-nosed monkey of Borneo, which is very
+large, of a pale brown color, and distinguished by possessing a long,
+pointed, fleshy nose, totally unlike that of all other monkeys. Another
+interesting species is the black and white entellus monkey of India,
+called the "Hanuman," by the Hindoos, and considered sacred by them.
+These animals are petted and fed, and at some of the temples numbers
+of them come every day for the food which the priests, as well as the
+people, provide for them.
+
+The next group of Eastern monkeys are the Macaques, which are more like
+baboons, and often run upon the ground. They are more bold and vicious
+than the others. All have cheek pouches, and though some have long
+tails, in others the tail is short, or reduced to a mere stump. In some
+few this stump is so very short that there appears to be no tail, as in
+the magot of North Africa and Gibraltar, and in an allied species that
+inhabits Japan.
+
+
+AMERICAN MONKEYS.
+
+The monkeys which inhabit America form three very distinct groups:
+1st, the Sapajous, which have prehensile or grasping tails; 2nd, the
+Sagouins, which have ordinary tails, either long or short; and, 3rd, the
+Marmosets, very small creatures, with sharp claws, long tails which are
+not prehensile, and a smaller number of teeth than all other American
+monkeys. Each of these three groups contain several sub-groups, or
+_genera_, which often differ remarkably from each other, and from all
+the monkeys of the Old World.
+
+We will begin with the howling monkeys, which are the largest found in
+America, and are celebrated for the loud voice of the males. Often in
+the great forests of the Amazon or Oronooko a tremendous noise is heard
+in the night or early morning, as if a great assemblage of wild beasts
+were all roaring and screaming together. The noise may be heard for
+miles, and it is louder and more piercing than that of any other
+animals, yet it is all produced by a single male howler, sitting on the
+branches of some lofty tree. They are enabled to make this extraordinary
+noise by means of an organ that is possessed by no other animal. The
+lower jaw is unusually deep, and this makes room for a hollow bony
+vessel about the size of a large walnut, situated under the root of the
+tongue, and having an opening into the windpipe by which the animal
+can force air into it. This increases the power of its voice, acting
+something like the hollow case of a violin, and producing those
+marvelous rolling and reverberating sounds which caused the celebrated
+traveler Waterton to declare that they were such as might have had their
+origin in the infernal regions. The howlers are large and stout bodied
+monkeys, with bearded faces, and very strong and powerfully grasping
+tails. They inhabit the wildest forests; they are very shy, and are
+seldom taken captive, though they are less active than many other
+American monkeys.
+
+Next come the spider monkeys, so called from their slender bodies and
+enormously long limbs and tail. In these monkeys the tail is so long,
+strong, and perfect, that it completely takes the place of a fifth hand.
+By twisting the end of it round a branch the animal can swing freely in
+the air with complete safety; and this gives them a wonderful power of
+climbing end passing from tree to tree, because the distance they can
+stretch is that of the tail, body, and arm added together, and these are
+all unusually long. They can also swing themselves through the air for
+great distances, and are thus able to pass rapidly from tree to tree
+without ever descending to the ground, just like the gibbons in the
+Malayan forests. Although capable of feats of wonderful agility, the
+spider monkeys are usually slow and deliberate in their motions, and
+have a timid, melancholy expression, very different from that of most
+monkeys. Their hands are very long, but have only four fingers, being
+adapted for hanging on to branches rather than for getting hold of small
+objects. It is said that when they have to cross a river the trees on
+the opposite banks of which do not approach near enough for a leap,
+several of them form a chain, one hanging by its tail from a lofty
+overhanging branch and seizing hold of the tail of the one below it,
+then gradually swinging themselves backward and forward till the lower
+one is able to seize hold of a branch on the opposite side. He then
+climbs up the tree, and, when sufficiently high, the first one lets go,
+and the swing either carries him across to a bough on the opposite side
+or he climbs up over his companions.
+
+Closely allied to the last are the woolly monkeys, which have an equally
+well developed prehensile tail, but better proportioned limbs, and a
+thick woolly fur of a uniform gray or brownish color. They have well
+formed fingers and thumbs, both on the hands and feet, and are rather
+deliberate in their motions, and exceedingly tame and affectionate in
+captivity. They are great eaters, and are usually very fat. They are
+found only in the far interior of the Amazon valley, and, having a
+delicate constitution, seldom live long in Europe. These monkeys are not
+so fond of swinging themselves about by their tails as are the spider
+monkeys, and offer more opportunities of observing how completely this
+organ takes the place of a fifth hand. When walking about a house, or on
+the deck of a ship, the partially curled tail is carried in a horizontal
+position on the ground, and the moment it touches anything it twists
+round it and brings it forward, when, if eatable, it is at once
+appropriated; and when fastened up the animal will obtain any food that
+may be out of reach of its hands with the greatest facility, picking up
+small bits of biscuit, nuts, etc., much as an elephant does with the tip
+of his trunk.
+
+We now come to a group of monkeys whose prehensile tail is of a less
+perfect character, since it is covered with hair to the tip, and is of
+no use to pick up objects. It can, however, curl round a branch, and
+serves to steady the animal while sitting or feeding, but is never used
+to hang and swing by in the manner so common with the spider monkeys and
+their allies. These are rather small-sized animals, with round heads and
+with moderately long tails. They are very active and intelligent, their
+limbs are not so long as in the preceding group, and though they have
+five fingers on each hand and foot, the hands have weak and hardly
+opposable thumbs. Some species of these monkeys are often carried about
+by itinerant organ men, and are taught to walk erect and perform many
+amusing tricks. They form the genus _Cebus_ of naturalists.
+
+The remainder of the American monkeys have non-prehensile tails, like
+those of the monkeys of the Eastern hemisphere; but they consist of
+several distinct groups, and differ very much in appearance and habits.
+First we have the Sakis, which have a bushy tail and usually very long
+and thick hair, something like that of a bear. Sometimes the tail is
+very short, appearing like a rounded tuft of hair; many of the species
+have fine bushy whiskers, which meet under the chin, and appear as if
+they had been dressed and trimmed by a barber, and the head is often
+covered with thick curly hair, looking like a wig. Others, again, have
+the face quite red, and one has the head nearly bald, a most remarkable
+peculiarity among monkeys. This latter species was met with by Mr. Bates
+on the Upper Amazon, and he describes the face as being of a vivid
+scarlet, the body clothed from neck to tail with very long, straight,
+and shining white hair, while the head was nearly bald, owing to the
+very short crop of thin gray hairs. As a finish to their striking
+physiognomy these monkeys have bushy whiskers of a sandy color meeting
+under the chin, and yellowish gray eyes. The color of the face is so
+vivid that it looks as if covered with a thick coat of bright scarlet
+paint. These creatures are very delicate, and have never reached Europe
+alive, although several of the allied forms have lived some time in our
+Zoological Gardens.
+
+An allied group consists of the elegant squirrel monkeys, with long,
+straight, hairy tails, and often adorned with pretty variegated colors.
+They are usually small animals; some have the face marked with black and
+white, others have curious whiskers, and their nails are rather sharp
+and claw like. They have large round heads, and their fur is more glossy
+and smooth than in most other American monkeys, so that they more
+resemble some of the smaller monkeys of Africa. These little creatures
+are very active, running about the trees like squirrels, and feeding
+largely on insects as well as on fruit.
+
+Closely allied to these are the small group of night monkeys, which have
+large eyes, and a round face surrounded by a kind of ruff of whitish
+fur, so as to give it an owl like appearance, whence they are sometimes
+called owl-faced monkeys. They are covered with soft gray fur, like that
+of a rabbit, and sleep all day long concealed in hollow trees. The
+face is also marked with white patches and stripes, giving it a rather
+carnivorous or cat like aspect, which, perhaps, serves as a protection,
+by causing the defenseless creature to be taken for an arboreal tiger
+cat or some such beast of prey.
+
+This finishes the series of such of the American monkeys as have a
+larger number of teeth than those of the Old World. But there is another
+group, the Marmosets, which have the same number of teeth as Eastern
+monkeys, but differently distributed in the jaws, a premolar being
+substituted for a molar tooth. In other particulars they resemble the
+rest of the American monkeys. They are very small and delicate creatures
+some having the body only seven inches long. The thumb of the hands
+is[1] not opposable, and instead of nails they have sharp compressed
+claws. These diminutive monkeys have long, non-prehensile tails, and
+they have a silky fur often of varied and beautiful colors. Some are
+striped with gray and white, or are of rich brown or golden brown tints,
+varied by having the head or shoulders white or black, while in many
+there are crests, frills, manes, or long ear tufts, adding greatly to
+their variety and beauty. These little animals are timid and restless;
+their motions are more like those of a squirrel than a monkey. Their
+sharp claws enable them to run quickly along the branches, but they
+seldom leap from bough to bough like the larger monkeys. They live on
+fruits and insects, but are much afraid of wasps, which they are said to
+recognize even in a picture.
+
+[Transcribers note 1: Changed from '... it not opposable', ...]
+
+This completes our sketch of the American monkeys, and we see that,
+although they possess no such remarkable forms as the gorilla or the
+baboons, yet they exhibit a wonderful diversity of external characters,
+considering that all seem equally adapted to a purely arboreal life.
+In the howlers we have a specially developed voice organ, which is
+altogether peculiar; in the spider monkeys we find the adaptation to
+active motion among the topmost branches of the forest trees carried to
+an extreme point of development; while the singular nocturnal monkeys,
+the active squirrel monkeys, and the exquisite little marmosets, show
+how distinct are the forms under which the same general type, may be
+exhibited, and in how many varied ways existence may be sustained under
+almost identical conditions.
+
+
+LEMURS.
+
+In the general term, monkeys, considered as equivalent to the order
+Primates, or the Quadrumana of naturalists, we have to include another
+sub-type, that of the Lemurs. These animals are of a lower grade than
+the true monkeys, from which they differ in so many points of structure
+that they are considered to form a distinct sub-order, or, by some
+naturalists, even a separate order. They have usually a much larger head
+and more pointed muzzle than monkeys; they vary considerably in the
+number, form, and arrangement of the teeth; their thumbs are always well
+developed, but their fingers vary much in size and length; their tails
+are usually long, but several species have no tail whatever, and they
+are clothed with a more or less woolly fur, often prettily variegated
+with white and black. They inhabit the deep forests of Africa,
+Madagascar, and Southern Asia, and are more sluggish in their movements
+than true monkeys, most of them being of nocturnal and crepuscular
+habits. They feed largely on insects, eating also fruits and the eggs or
+young of birds.
+
+The most curious species are--the slow lemurs of South India, small
+tailless nocturnal animals, somewhat resembling sloths in appearance,
+and almost as deliberate in their movements, except when in the act of
+seizing their insect prey; the Tarsier, or specter lemur, of the Malay
+islands, a small, long tailed nocturnal lemur, remarkable for the
+curious development of the hind feet, which have two of the toes very
+short, and with sharp claws, while the others have nails, the third toe
+being exceedingly long and slender, though the thumb is very large,
+giving the feet a very irregular and _outre_ appearance; and, lastly,
+the Aye-aye, of Madagascar, the most remarkable of all. This animal has
+very large ears and a squirrel like tail, with long spreading hair.
+It has large curved incisor teeth, which add to its squirrel like
+appearance, and caused the early naturalists to class it among the
+rodents. But its most remarkable character is found in its fore feet
+or hands, the fingers of which are all very long and armed with sharp
+curved claws, but one of them, the second, is wonderfully slender,
+being not half the thickness of the others. This curious combination of
+characters shows that the aye-aye is a very specialized form--that is,
+one whose organization has been slowly modified to fit it for a peculiar
+mode of life. From information received from its native country, and
+from a profound study of its organization, Professor Owen believes
+that it is adapted for the one purpose of feeding on small wood-boring
+insects. Its large feet and sharp claws enable it to cling firmly to the
+branches of trees in almost any position; by means of its large delicate
+ears it listens for the sound of the insect gnawing within the branch,
+and is thus able to fix its exact position; with its powerful curved
+gnawing teeth it rapidly cuts away the bark and wood till it exposes the
+burrow of the insect, most probably the soft larva of some beetle, and
+then comes into play the extraordinary long wire-like finger, which
+enters the small cylindrical burrow, and with the sharp bent claw hooks
+out the grub. Here we have a most complex adaptation of different parts
+and organs, all converging to one special end, that end being the same
+as is reached by a group of birds, the woodpeckers, in a different way;
+and it is a most interesting fact that, although woodpeckers abound in
+all the great continents, and are especially common in the tropical
+forests of Asia, Africa, and America, they are quite absent from
+Madagascar. We may, therefore, consider that the aye-aye really occupies
+the same place in nature in the forests of this tropical island, as do
+the woodpeckers in other parts of the world.
+
+
+DISTRIBUTION, AFFINITIES, AND ZOOLOGICAL RANK OF MONKEYS.
+
+Having thus sketched an outline of the monkey tribe as regards their
+more prominent external characters and habits, we must say a few words
+on their general relations as a distinct order of mammalia. No other
+group so extensive and so varied as this, is so exclusively tropical in
+its distribution, a circumstance no doubt due to the fact that monkeys
+depend so largely on fruit and insects for their subsistence. A very
+few species extend into the warmer parts of the temperate zones, their
+extreme limits in the northern hemisphere being Gibraltar, the Western
+Himalayas at 11,000 feet elevation, East Thibet, and Japan. In America
+they are found in Mexico, but do not appear to pass beyond the tropic.
+In the Southern hemisphere they are limited by the extent of the forests
+in South Brazil, which reach about 30 deg. south latitude. In the East,
+owing to their entire absence from Australia, they do not reach the
+tropic; but in Africa, some baboons range to the southern extremity of
+the continent.
+
+But this extreme restriction of the order to almost tropical lands is
+only recent. Directly we go back to the Pliocene period of geology,
+we find the remains of monkeys in France, and even in England. In the
+earlier Miocene, several kinds, some of large size, lived in France,
+Germany, and Greece, all more or less closely allied to living forms of
+Asia and Africa. About the same period monkeys of the South American
+type inhabited the United States. In the remote Eocene period the same
+temperate lands were inhabited by lemurs in the East, and by curious
+animals believed to be intermediate between lemurs and marmosets in the
+West. We know from a variety of other evidence that throughout these
+vast periods a mild and almost sub-tropical climate extended over all
+Central Europe and parts of North America, while one of a temperate
+character prevailed as far north as the Arctic circle. The monkey tribe
+then enjoyed a far greater range over the earth, and perhaps filled a
+more important place in nature than it does now. Its restriction to the
+comparatively narrow limits of the tropics is no doubt mainly due to the
+great alteration of climate which occurred at the close of the Tertiary
+period, but it may have been aided by the continuous development of
+varied forms of mammalian life better fitted for the contrasted seasons
+and deciduous vegetation of the north temperate regions. The more
+extensive area formerly inhabited by the monkey tribe, would have
+favored their development into a number of divergent forms, in distant
+regions, and adapted to distinct modes of life. As these retreated
+southward and became concentrated in a more limited area, such as were
+able to maintain themselves became mingled together as we now find them,
+the ancient and lowly marmosets and lemurs subsisting side by side with
+the more recent and more highly developed howlers and anthropoid apes.
+
+Throughout the long ages of the Tertiary period monkeys must have been
+very abundant and very varied, yet it is but rarely that their fossil
+remains are found. This, however, is not difficult to explain. The
+deposits in which mammalian remains most abound are those formed in
+lakes or in caverns. In the former the bodies of large numbers of
+terrestrial animals were annually deposited, owing to their having been
+caught by floods in the tributary streams, swallowed up in marginal bogs
+or quicksands, or drowned by the giving way of ice. Caverns were the
+haunts of hyenas, tigers, bears, and other beasts of prey, which dragged
+into them the bodies of their victims, and left many of their bones to
+become embedded in stalagmite or in the muddy deposit left by floods,
+while herbivorous animals were often carried into them by these floods,
+or by falling down the swallow-holes which often open into caverns from
+above. But, owing to their arboreal habits, monkeys were to a great
+extent freed from all these dangers. Whether devoured by beasts or birds
+of prey, or dying a natural death, their bones would usually be left on
+dry land, where they would slowly decay under atmospheric influences.
+Only under very exceptional circumstances would they become embedded
+in aqueous deposits; and instead of being surprised at their rarity
+we should rather wonder that so many have been discovered in a fossil
+state.
+
+Monkeys, as a whole, form a very isolated group, having no near
+relations to any other mammalia. This is undoubtedly an indication of
+great antiquity. The peculiar type which has since reached so high a
+development must have branched off the great mammalian stock at a very
+remote epoch, certainly far back in the Secondary period, since in the
+Eocene we find lemurs and lemurine monkeys already specialized. At this
+remoter period they were probably not separable from the insectivora,
+or (perhaps) from the ancestral marsupials. Even now we have one living
+form, the curious Galeopithecus or flying lemur, which has only recently
+been separated from the lemurs, with which it was formerly united, to be
+classed as one of the insectivora; and it is only among the Opossums and
+some other marsupials that we again find hand-like feet with opposable
+thumbs, which are such a curious and constant feature of the monkey
+tribe.
+
+This relationship to the lowest of the mammalian tribes seems
+inconsistent with the place usually accorded to these animals at the
+head of the entire mammalian series, and opens up the question whether
+this is a real superiority or whether it depends merely on the obvious
+relationship to ourselves. If we could suppose a being gifted with
+high intelligence, but with a form totally unlike that of man, to have
+visited the earth before man existed in order to study the various forms
+of animal life that were found there, we can hardly think he would have
+placed the monkey tribe so high as we do. He would observe that their
+whole organization was specially adapted to an arboreal life, and this
+specialization would be rather against their claiming the first rank
+among terrestrial creatures. Neither in size, nor strength, nor beauty,
+would they compare with many other forms, while in intelligence they
+would not surpass, even if they equaled, the horse or the beaver. The
+carnivora, as a whole, would certainly be held to surpass them in the
+exquisite perfection of their physical structure, while the flexible
+trunk of the elephant, combined with his vast strength and admirable
+sagacity, would probably gain for him the first rank in the animal
+creation.
+
+But if this would have been a true estimate, the mere fact that the ape
+is our nearest relation does not necessarily oblige us to come to any
+other conclusion. Man is undoubtedly the most perfect of all animals,
+but he is so solely in respect of characters in which he differs from
+all the monkey tribe--the easily erect posture, the perfect freedom
+of the hands from all part in locomotion, the large size and complete
+opposability of the thumb, and the well developed brain, which enables
+him fully to utilize these combined physical advantages. The monkeys
+have none of these; and without them the amount of resemblance they have
+to us is no advantage, and confers no rank. We are biased by the too
+exclusive consideration of the man-like apes. If these did not exist
+the remaining monkeys could not be thereby deteriorated as to their
+organization or lowered in their zoological position, but it is doubtful
+if we should then class them so high as we now do. We might then dwell
+more on their resemblances to lower types--to rodents, to insectivora,
+and to marsupials, and should hardly rank the hideous baboon above the
+graceful leopard or stately stag. The true conclusion appears to be,
+that the combination of external characters and internal structure which
+exists in the monkeys, is that which, when greatly improved, refined,
+and beautified, was best calculated to become the perfect instrument
+of the human intellect and to aid in the development of man's higher
+nature; while, on the other hand, in the rude, inharmonious, and
+undeveloped state which it has reached in the quadrumana, it is by no
+means worthy of the highest place, or can be held to exhibit the most
+perfect development of existing animal life.--_Contemporary Review_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS.]
+
+
+
+
+SILK-PRODUCING BOMBYCES AND OTHER LEPIDOPTERA REARED IN 1881.
+
+By ALFRED WAILLY, Membre Laureat de la Societe d'Acclimatation de
+France.
+
+
+By referring to my reports for the years 1879 and 1880, which appeared
+in the _Journal of the Society of Arts_, February 13 and March 5, 1880,
+February 25 and March 4, 1881, it will be seen that the bad weather
+prevented the successful rearing in the open air of most species of
+silk-producing larvae. In 1881, the weather was extremely favorable up
+to the end of July, but the incessant and heavy rains of the month of
+August and beginning of September, proved fatal to most of the larvae
+when they were in their last stages. However, in spite of my many
+difficulties, I had the satisfaction of seeing them to their last
+stage. Larvae of all the silk-producing bombyces were preserved in their
+different stages, and can be seen in the Bethnal-green Museum. In July,
+when the weather was magnificent, the little trees in my garden were
+literally covered with larvae of more species than I ever had before, and
+two or three more weeks of fair weather would have given me a good crop
+of cocoons, instead of which I only obtained a very small number. The
+sparrows, as usual, also destroyed a quantity of worms, in spite of wire
+or fish-netting placed over some of the trees.
+
+On the trees were to be seen--_Attacus cynthia_ (the Ailantus silkworm),
+the rearing of which was, as usual, most successful; _Samia cecropia_
+and _Samia gloveri_, from America; also hybrids of _Gloveri cecropia_
+and _Cecropia gloveri_; _Samia promethea_ and _Telea polyphemus_;
+_Attacus pernyi_, and a new hybrid, which I obtained this last season by
+the crossing of Pernyi with Royle. For the first time I reared _Actias
+selene_, from India, on a nut-tree in the garden, and _Attacus atlas_,
+on the ailantus. The _Selene_ larvae reached their fifth and last stage.
+The Atlas larvae only reached the third stage, and were destroyed by the
+heavy rains; only two remained on the tree till about the 8th or 9th of
+September, when they had to be removed. I shall now reproduce the notes
+I took on some of the various species I reared.
+
+_Actias Selene_.--With sixty cocoons I only obtained one pairing. The
+moths emerged from the beginning of March till the 13th of August,
+at intervals of some duration, or in batches of males or females. I
+obtained a pairing of Selene on the 30toh of June, 1881, and the worms
+commenced to hatch on the 13th of July. The larvae in first stage are of
+a fine brown-red, with a broad black band in the middle of the body. The
+second stage commenced on the 20th of July; larvae, of a lighter reddish
+color, without the black band; tubercles black. Third stage commenced on
+the 28th of July; larvae green; the first four tubercles yellow, with a
+black ring at the base; other tubercles, orange yellow. Fourth stage
+commenced on the 6th of August; larvae green; first four tubercles
+golden-yellow, the others orange-red. Fifth stage commenced on the 19th
+of August; first four tubercles yellow, with a black ring at the base;
+other tubercles yellow, slightly tinged with orange-red; lateral band
+brown and greenish yellow; head and forelegs dark-brown. As stated
+before, the larvae were reared on a nut-tree in the garden, till the last
+stage. Selene feeds on various trees--walnut, wild cherry, wild pear,
+etc. In Ceylon (at Kandy), it is found on the wild olive tree. As far as
+I am informed by correspondents in Ceylon, this species is not found--or
+is seldom found--on the coasts, but _Attacus atlas_ and Mylitta are
+commonly found there.
+
+_Attacus (antheroea) roylei_ (with sixty cocoons); three pairings only
+were obtained, and this species I found the most difficult to pair in
+captivity. Two moths emerged on the 5th of March, a male and a female,
+and a pairing was obtained; but the weather being then too cold, the ova
+were not fertile, the female moth, after laying about two hundred eggs,
+lived till the 22d of March, which is a very long time; this was owing
+to the low temperature. The moths emerged afterward from the 8th of
+April till the 25th of June. A pairing took place on the 2d of June, and
+another on the 6th of June.
+
+Roylei (the Himalaya oak silkworm) is very closely allied to Pernyi, the
+Chinese oak silkworm; the Roylei moths are of a lighter color, but the
+larvae of both species can hardly be distinguished from one another.
+The principal difference between the two species is in the cocoon. The
+Roylei cocoon is within a very large and tough envelope, while that of
+Pernyi has no outer envelope at all. The larvae of Roylei I reared did
+not thrive, and the small number I had only went to the fourth stage,
+owing to several causes. I bred them under glass, in a green-house. A
+certain number of the larvae were unable to cut the shell of the egg.
+
+Here are a few notes I find in my book: Ova of Roylei commenced to hatch
+on the 29th of June; second stage commenced on the 9th of July. The
+larvae in the first two stages seemed to me similar to those of Pernyi,
+as far as I could see. In second stage, the tubercles were of a
+brilliant orange-red; on anal segment, blue dot on each side. Third
+stage, four rows of orange-yellow tubercles, two blue dots on anal
+segment, brilliant gold metallic spots at the base of the tubercles on
+the back, and silver metallic spots at the base of the tubercles on the
+sides. No further notes taken.
+
+One of my correspondents in Vienna (Austria) obtained a remarkable
+success in the rearing of Roylei. From the twenty-five eggs he had
+twenty-three larvae hatched, which produced twenty-three fine cocoons.
+The same correspondent, with thirty-five eggs of _Samia gloveri_,
+obtained twenty cocoons. My other correspondents did not obtain any
+success in rearing these two species, as far as I know.
+
+_Hybrid Roylei-Pernyi_.--I have said that it is extremely difficult to
+obtain the pairing of Roylei moths in captivity. But the male Pernyi
+paired readily with the female Roylei. I obtained six such pairings, and
+a large quantity of fertile ova. The pairings of Roylei (female) with
+Pernyi (male) took place as follows: two on the 21st of May, one on the
+3d of June, two on the 4th of June, and one on the 6th.
+
+The larvae of this new hybrid, _Roylei-Pernyi_, contrary to what might
+have been expected, were much easier to rear than those of Roylei, and
+the cocoons obtained are far superior to those of Roylei, in size,
+weight, and richness of silk. The cocoon of my new hybrid has, like
+Roylei, an envelope, but there is no space between this envelope and the
+true cocoon inside. Therefore, this time, the crossing of two different
+species (but, it must be added, two very closely allied species) has
+produced a hybrid very superior, at least to one of the types, that of
+Roylei. The cocoons of the hybrid _Roylei-Pernyi_ seem to me larger and
+heavier than any Pernyi cocoons I have as yet seen.
+
+The larvae of this new hybrid have been successfully reared in France,
+in Germany, in Austria, and in the United States of North America. The
+cocoons obtained by Herr L. Huessman, one of my German correspondents,
+are remarkable for their size and beauty. The silk is silvery white.
+
+I have seventeen cocoons of this hybrid species, which number may be
+sufficient for its reproduction. But the question arises, "Will the
+moths obtained from these cocoons be susceptible of reproduction?"
+
+In my report on Lepidoptera for the year 1879, I stated, with respect to
+hybrids and degeneracy, that hybrids had been obtained by the crossing
+of _Attacus pernyi_ and _Attacus yama-mai_, but that, although the moths
+(some of which may be seen in the Bethnal-green Museum) are large and
+apparently perfect in every respect, yet these hybrids could not be
+reproduced. It must be stated that these two species differ essentially
+in one particular point. _Yama-mai_ hibernates in the _ovum_ state,
+while Pernyi hibernates in the _pupa_ state. The hybrids hibernated in
+the _pupa_ state. Roylei, as Pernyi, hibernates in the _pupa_ state.
+
+In the November number, 1881, of "The Entomologist," Mr. W.F. Kirby,
+of the British Museum, wrote an article having for its title,
+"Hermaphrodite-hybrid Sphingidae," in which, referring to hybrids of
+_Smerinthus ocellatus_ and _populi_, he says that hermaphroditism is the
+usual character of such hybrids.
+
+I extract the following passage from his article: "I was under the
+impression that hermaphroditism was the usual character of these
+hybrids; and it has suggested itself to my mind as a possibility, which
+I have not, at present, sufficient data either to prove or to disprove,
+that the sterility of hybrids in general (still a somewhat obscure
+subject) may perhaps be partly due to hybridism having a tendency to
+produce hermaphroditism."
+
+Now, will the moths of new hybrid Roylei pernyi (which I expect will
+emerge in May or June, 1882) have the same tendency to hermaphroditism
+as has been observed with the hybrids obtained by the crossing of
+_Smerinthus populi_ with _Sm. ocellatus_? I do not think that such will
+be the case with the moths of the hybrid Roylei-pernyi, on account of
+the close relationship of Roylei with Pernyi, but nothing certain can be
+known till the moths have emerged. Here are the few notes taken on the
+hybrid Roylei-pernyi: Ova commenced to hatch on the 12th of June; these
+were from the pairing which had taken place on the 21st of May. Larvae,
+black, with long white hairs. Second stage commenced on the 21st of
+June. Larva, of a beautiful green; tubercles orange-yellow; head dark
+brown. Third stage commenced on the 1st of July; fourth stage on the
+7th. Larva of same color in those stages; tubercles on the back,
+violet-blue or mauve; tubercles on the sides, blue. Fifth stage
+commenced on the 18th of July. Larva, with tubercles on back and sides,
+blue, or violet-blue. First cocoon commenced on the 10th of August. Want
+of time prevented me from taking fuller and more accurate notes.
+
+_Attacus Atlas_.--For the first time, as stated before, I attempted the
+rearing of a small number of Atlas larvae in the open air on the ailantus
+tree, but had to remove the last two remaining larvae in September; the
+others had all disappeared in consequence of the heavy and incessant
+rains. These larvae were from eggs sent to me by one of my German
+correspondents. The pairing of the moths had taken place on the 17th of
+July, and the eggs had commenced to hatch on the 4th of August.
+
+I had about eighty cocoons of another and larger race of Atlas imported
+from the Province of Kumaon, but only eight moths emerged at intervals
+from the 31st of July to the 30th of September. Not only did the moths
+emerge too late in the season, but there never was a chance of obtaining
+a pairing. In my report on Indian silkworms, published in the November
+number of the "Bulletin de la Societe d'Acclimatation," for the year
+1881, compiled from the work of Mr. J. Geoghegan, I reproduce the first
+appendix of Captain Thomas Hutton to Mr. Geoghegan's work, in which are
+given the names of all the Indian silkworms known by him up to the year
+1871.
+
+Of _Attacus atlas_, Captain Hutton says: "It is common at 5,500 feet at
+Mussoorie, and in the Dehra Doon; it is also found in some of the deep
+warm glens of the outer hills. It is also common at Almorah, where the
+larva feeds almost exclusively upon the 'Kilmorah' bush or _Berberis
+asiatica_; while at Mussoorie it will not touch that plant, but feeds
+exclusively upon the large milky leaves of _Falconeria insignis_.
+The worm is, perhaps, more easily reared than any other of the wild
+bombycidae."
+
+I will now quote from letters received from one of my correspondents in
+Ceylon, a gentleman of great experience and knowledge in sericulture.
+
+In a letter dated 24th August, 1881, my correspondent says: "The Atlas
+moth seems to be a near relation of the Cynthia, and would probably feed
+on the Ailantus. Here it feeds on the cinnamon and a great number of
+other trees of widely different species; but the tree on which I
+have kept it most successfully in a domestic state is the _Milnea
+roxburghiana_, a handsome tree, with dark-green ternate leaves, which
+keep fresh long after being detached from the tree. I do not think the
+cocoon can ever be reeled, as the thread usually breaks when it comes
+to the open end. I have tried to reel a great many Atlas cocoons, but
+always found the process too tedious and troublesome for practical use.
+
+"The Mylitta (Tusser) is a more hardy species than the Atlas, and I have
+had no difficulty in domesticating it. Here it feeds on the cashew-nut
+tree, on the so-called almond of this country (_Terminalia catappa_),
+which is a large tree entirely different from the European almond, and
+on many other trees. Most of the trees whose leaves turn red when about
+to fall seem to suit it, but it is not confined to these. In the case of
+the Atlas moth, I discovered one thing which may be well worth knowing,
+and that was, that with cocoons brought to the seaside after the larvae
+had been reared in the Central Provinces, in a temperature ten or twelve
+degrees colder, the moths emerged in from ten to twenty days after the
+formation of the cocoon. The duration of the _pupa_ stage in this, and
+probably in other species, therefore, depends upon the temperature in
+which the larvae have lived, as well as the degree of heat in which the
+cocoons are kept; and in transporting cocoons from India to Europe, I
+think it will be found that the moths are less liable to be prematurely
+forced out by the heat of the Red Sea when the larvae have been reared in
+a warm climate than when they have been reared in a cold one.
+
+"I do not agree with the opinion expressed in one of your reports, that
+the short duration of the larva stage, caused by a high temperature, has
+the effect of diminishing the size of the cocoons, because the Atlas
+and Tusser cocoons produced at the sea-level here are quite as large as
+those found in the Central Provinces at elevations of three thousand
+feet or more. According to the treatise on the "Silk Manufacture," in
+"Lardner's Cyclopedia," the Chinese are of opinion that one drachm
+of mulberry silkworms' eggs will produce 25 ounces of silk if the
+caterpillars attain maturity within twenty-five days; 20 ounces if the
+commencement of the cocoons be delayed until the twenty-eighth day; and
+only 10 ounces if it be delayed until between the thirtieth and fortieth
+day. If this is correct, a short-lived larva stage must, instead of
+causing small cocoons, produce just the contrary effect."
+
+In another letter, dated November 25, 1881, my correspondent says: "I am
+sorry that you have not had better success in the rearing of your
+larvae, but you should not despair. It is possible that the choice of an
+improper food-plant may have as much to do with failures as the coldness
+and dampness of the English climate. I lost many thousands of Atlas
+caterpillars before I found out the proper tree to keep them on in a
+domesticated state; and when I did attain partial success, I could
+not keep them for more than one generation, till I found the _Milnea
+roxburghiana_ to be their proper food plant. I do not know the proper
+food-plant of the Mylitta (Tusser), but I have succeeded very well with
+it, as it is a more hardy species than the Atlas. Though a Bombyx be
+polyphagous in a state of nature, yet I think most species have a tree
+proper to themselves, on which they are more at home than on any
+other plant. I should like, if you could find out from some your
+correspondents in India, on what species of tree Mylitta cocoons are
+found in the largest numbers, and what is about the greatest number
+found on a single tree. The Mylitta is common enough here, but there
+does not seem to be any kind of tree here on which the cocoons are to be
+found in greater numbers than twos and threes; and there must be some
+tree in India on which the cocoons are to be found in much greater
+plenty, because they could not otherwise be collected in sufficient
+quantity for manufacturing purposes. The Atlas is here found on twenty
+or more different kinds of trees, but a hundred or a hundred and fifty
+cocoons or larvae may be found on a single tree of _Milnea roxburghiana_,
+while they are to be found only singly, or in twos and threes, on any
+other tree that I know of. The Atlas and Mylitta seem to be respectively
+the Indian relations of the Cynthia and Pernyi. It is, therefore,
+probable that the Ailantus would be the most suitable European tree for
+the Atlas, and the oak for the Mylitta."
+
+_Attacus mylitta_ (_Antheraea paphia_).--I did not receive a single
+cocoon of this species for the season 1881. My stock consisted of seven
+cocoons, from the lot received from Calcutta at the end of February,
+1880. Five were female, and two male cocoons; one of the latter died,
+thus reducing the number to six. The moths emerged as follows: One
+female on the 21st of June, one female on the 26th, one female on the
+28th, one female on the 1st of July, and one male on the 3d of August;
+the latter emerging thirty-four days too late to be of any use for
+rearing purposes. The last female moth emerged, I think, about the end
+of September. These cocoons had hibernated twice, as has been the case
+with other Indian species. I had Indian cocoons which hibernated even
+three times.
+
+_Attacus cynthia_, from the province of Kumaon.--With the Atlas cocoons,
+a large quantity of Cynthia cocoons were collected in the province
+of Kumaon. Both species had, no doubt, fed on the same trees; as the
+Cynthia, like the Atlas cocoons, were all inclosed in leaves of the
+_Berberis vulgaris_, which shows that Cynthia is also a polyphagous
+species. It is already known that it feeds on several species of trees,
+besides the ailantus, such as the laburnum, lilac, cherry, and, I think,
+also on the castor-oil plant; the common barberry has, therefore, to be
+added to the above food plants.
+
+These Kumaon Cynthia cocoons were somewhat smaller and much darker in
+color than those of the acclimatized Cynthia reared on the ailantus. The
+moths of this wild Indian Cynthia were also of a richer color than those
+of the cultivated species in Europe.
+
+During the summer 1881, I saw cocoons of my own Cynthia race obtained
+from worms which had been reared on the laburnum tree. These cocoons
+were, as far as I can remember, of a yellowish or saffron color; which
+I had never seen before. This difference in the color of the cocoon was
+very likely produced by the change of food, although it has been stated,
+and I think it may be quite correct, that with many species of native
+lepidoptera the change of food-plants does not produce any difference of
+color in the insects obtained. With respect to the Cynthia worms reared
+on the laburnum instead of the ailantus, it may be that the moths, which
+will emerge from the yellow cocoons, will be similar to those obtained
+from cocoons spun by worms bred on the ailantus, and that the only
+difference will be in the color of the cocoons.
+
+The Kumaon Cynthia cocoons, as I found it to be the case with Indian
+species introduced for the first time into Europe, did not produce moths
+at the same time, nor as regularly as the acclimatized species. The
+moths emerged as follows: One female on the 22d of July; one female on
+the 25th; one male on the 3d August; one female on the 19th; one male on
+the 28th of August; one male on the 2d September; one female on the 3d.
+A pairing was obtained with the latter two. Two males emerged on the 4th
+of September; one male on the 6th; one male and one female on the 22d;
+one female on the 23d; and one female on the 25th of September. Five
+cocoons, which did not produce any moths, contain pupae, which are still
+in perfect condition; and the moths will no doubt emerge next summer
+(1882). As seen in my note, a pairing of this wild Indian Cynthia took
+place; this was from the evening of the 4th to the 5th of September. The
+eggs laid by the female moth were deposited in a most curious way, in
+smaller or larger quantities, but all forming perfect triangles. These
+eggs I gave to a florist who has been very successful in the rearing
+of silk-producing and other larvae; telling him to rear the Cynthia on
+lilacs grown in pots and placed in a hot-house, which was done. The
+worms, which hatched in a few days, as they were placed in a hot-house,
+thrived wonderfully well, and I might say they thrived too well, as they
+grew so fast and became so voracious that the growth of the lilac trees
+could not keep pace with the growth of the worms. These, at the fourth
+stage, became so large that the foliage was entirely devoured, and, of
+course, the consequence was that all the worms were starved. I only
+heard of the result of that experiment long after the death of the
+larvae; otherwise I should have suggested the use of another plant after
+the destruction of the foliage of the lilacs; the privet (_Ligustrum
+vulgare_) might have been tried, and success obtained with it.
+
+Of such species as _Attacus pyri_, of Central Europe, and _Attacus
+pernyi_, the North Chinese oak silkworm, which I have mentioned in my
+previous reports, and bred every season for several years, I shall only
+say that I never could rear Pyri in the open air in London, up to the
+formation of the cocoon. As to Pernyi, I had, in 1881, an immense
+quantity of splendid moths, from which I obtained the largest quantity
+of ova I ever had of this species. I had many thousands of fertile ova
+of Pernyi, which I was unable to distribute. Many schoolboys reared
+Pernyi worms, but with what success I do not yet know. The number of
+fertile ova obtained from Pyri moths was also more considerable than in
+former years, which was due partly to the good quality of the pupae, and
+partly to the very favorable weather in June, at the time the pairings
+of the moths took place.
+
+Leaving these, I now come to the North American species.
+
+_Telea polyphemus_.--As I have stated in former years, this is the best
+North American silkworm, producing a closed cocoon, somewhat smaller
+than that of Pernyi, but the silk seems as good as that of Pernyi.
+
+The cocoons of Polyphemus I had in 1881 were smaller and inferior in
+quality to those I had before. Those received in 1878 and 1879 were
+considerably finer and larger than those which were sent in 1880 and
+1881; besides, they were sent in much larger quantities. The cocoons
+received this year (1882) are finer than those of 1881, but yet they
+cannot be compared with those of 1878 and 1879.
+
+With about sixty cocoons of _Telea polyphemus_ I only obtained three
+pairings, which I attribute solely to the weakness of the moths, as
+the weather was all that could be desired for the pairings. The moths
+emerged from the 1st of June to the 20th of July. One male moth emerged
+on the 7th September. This latter was one from a small number of cocoons
+received from Alabama; the other cocoons of the same race had emerged at
+the same time as the cocoons from the Northern States. In the Northern
+States the species is single-brooded; in the Southern States it is
+double-brooded.
+
+The larvae of Polyphemus can be bred in the open air in England, almost
+as easily as those of Pernyi, and even Cynthia; they will pass through
+their five stages and spin their cocoons on the trees, unless the
+weather should be unexceptionally cold and wet, as was the case during
+the month of August, 1881, when the larvae had reached their full size;
+they were reared this year on the nut-tree, and some on the oak. The
+species is extremely polyphagous, and will feed well on oak, birch,
+chestnut, beech, willow, nut, etc.
+
+The moth of Polyphemus is very beautiful, and, as in some other species,
+varies in its shades of color. The larva is of a transparent green, of
+extreme beauty; the head is light brown; without any black dots, as in
+Pernyi; the spines are pink, and at the base of each of them there is a
+brilliant metallic spot. When the sun shines on them the larvae seem to
+be covered with diamonds. These metallic spots at the base of the spines
+are also seen on Pernyi, Yama mai, Mylitta, and other species of the
+genus Antheraea, all having a closed cocoon, but none of these have so
+many as Polyphemus.
+
+The cocoons of the species of the genus Actias are closed, but the larvae
+have not the metallic spots of the species of the genus Antheraea.
+
+_Samia Gloveri_.--Three North American silk-producing bombyces, very
+closely allied, have been mentioned in my previous reports; they are;
+_Samia ceanothi_, from California; _Samia gloveri_, from Utah and
+Arizona; and _Samia cecropia_, commonly found in most of the Northern
+States--the latter is the best and largest silk producer. Crossings of
+these species took places in 1880, and, as I stated before, the ova
+obtained from a long pairing between a Ceanothi female with a Gloveri
+male, were the only ones which were fertile. The Gloveri cocoons
+received in 1880 were of a very inferior quality, and produced moths
+from which no pairings could be obtained, although some crossings took
+place. In 1881, the Gloveri cocoons, on the contrary, produced fine,
+healthy moths; yet only five pairings could be obtained, with about one
+hundred cocoons. Besides these five pairings, a quantity of fertile
+ova were obtained by the crossings of _S. gloveri_ (female) with _S.
+cecropia_ (male), and Cecropia (female) with Gloveri (male). No success,
+so far as I know, was obtained with the rearing of the hybrid larvae; the
+rearings of the larvae of pure Gloveri were also, I think, a failure,
+only one correspondent having been successful; but some correspondents
+have not yet made the result of their experiments known to me. The larvae
+of _Samia cecropia, S. gloveri_, and _S. ceanothi_, are very much alike;
+and hardly any difference can be observed in the first two stages. In
+the third and fourth stages, the larvae of _S. cecropia_ and _S. gloveri_
+are also nearly alike; the principal difference between these two
+species and _S. cecropia_ being that the tubercles on the back are of a
+uniform color--orange-red, or yellow--while on Cecropia the first four
+dorsal tubercles are red, and the rest yellow. The tubercles on the
+sides are blue on the three species.
+
+The larvae of the hybrids _Gloveri-cecropia_ were, as far as I could
+observe, like those of Cecropia, but I noticed some with six red
+tubercles on the back instead of four, as on Cecropia. They were reared
+on plum, apple, and _Salix caprea_; in the open air.
+
+The larvae of _Samia gloveri_ were reared, during the first four stages
+on a wild plum-tree, then on _Salix, caprea_, and I reproduce the notes
+taken on this species, which I bred this year (1881) for the first time.
+
+Gloveri moths emerged from the 15th of May to the end of June; five
+pairings took place as follows: 1st, 4th, 9th, 24th, and 26th of June.
+First stage--larvae quite black. Second stage--larvae orange, with black
+spines. Third stage--dorsal spines, orange-red; spines on sides blue.
+Fourth stage--dorsal spines, orange or yellow, spines on the sides blue;
+body light blue on the back, and greenish yellow on the sides; head,
+green; legs, yellow. Fifth and sixth stage--larvae nearly the same;
+tubercles on the back yellow, the first four having a black ring at the
+base; side tubercles ivory-white, with a dark-blue base.
+
+The above-mentioned American species, like most other silk-producing
+bombyces, were bred in the open air; but besides these, I reared three
+other species of American bombyces in the house, under glass, and with
+the greatest success. These are: _Hyperchiria io_, a beautiful species
+mentioned in my report for the year 1879; _Orgyia leucostigma_, from ova
+received on December 29, 1880, from Madison, Wis., which hatched on the
+27th of May, 1881.
+
+The third American species reared under glass is the following very
+interesting bombyx: _Ceratocampa (Eacles) imperialis_. The pupae of
+this species are rough, and armed with small, sharp points at all the
+segments; the last segment having a thick, straight, and bifid tail. The
+moths, which measure from four to about six inches in expanse of wings,
+are bright yellow, with large patches and round spots of reddish-brown,
+with a purple gloss; besides these patches and round spots, the wings
+are covered with small dark dots. The male moth is much more blotched
+than the female, and although of a smaller size, is much more showy than
+the female.
+
+With twenty-four pupae of Imperialis I obtained nineteen moths from the
+21st of June to the 19th of July; five pupae died. Two pairings took
+place; the first from the evening of the 13th to the morning of the
+14th; the second from the evening of the 15th to the morning of the 16th
+of July.
+
+The ova, which are about the size of those of Yama-mai, Pernyi, or
+Mylitta, are rather flat and concave on one side, of an amber-yellow
+color and transparent, like those of sphingidae. When the larvae have
+absorbed the yellow liquid in the egg, and are fully developed; they can
+be seen through the shell of the egg, which is white or colorless when
+the larva has come out.
+
+The larvae of Imperialis, which have six stages, commenced to hatch on
+the 31st of July; the second stage commenced on the 7th of August; the
+third, on the 17th; the fourth, on the 29th of August; the fifth, on
+the 18th of September; and the sixth, on the 1st of October. The larvae
+commenced to pupate on 13th of October.
+
+The larvae of this curious species vary considerably in color. Some are
+of a yellowish color, others are brown and tawny, others are black or
+nearly black. My correspondent in Georgia, who bred this species the
+same season as I did, in 1881, had some of the larvae that were green. In
+all the stages the larvae have five conspicuous spines or horns; two on
+the third segment, two on the fourth, and one on the last segment but
+one; this is taking the head as the first segment with regard to the
+first four spines These spines are rough and covered with sharp points
+all round, and their extremities are fork-like. In the first three
+stages they are horny; in the last three stages these spines are fleshy,
+and much shorter in proportion than they are in the first three
+stages. The color of the spines in the last three stages is coral-red,
+yellowish, or black. In the fifth and sixth stages the spine on the last
+segment but one is very short.
+
+Here are a few and short notes from my book:
+
+1st stage. Larvae, about one-third of an inch; head, brown, shiny, and
+globulous.
+
+2d stage. Larvae, dark-brown, almost black; spines, white at the base,
+and black at the extremities; head shiny and light brown.
+
+3d stage. Larve, fine black; head black; white hairs on the back;
+spines, whitish, buff, or yellowish at the base, and black at the
+extremities; other larvae of a brown color.
+
+4th stage. Larvae, black granulated with white; long white hairs; horns,
+brown-orange with white tips; on each segment two brown spots. Spiracles
+well marked with outer circle, brown, then black; white and black dot in
+the center. Anal segment with brown ribs, the intervals black with white
+dots; head shining, black with two brown bands on the face, forming a
+triangle. Other larvae in fourth stage, velvety black, with coral-red
+spines; others with black spines.
+
+5th stage. Larvae, entirely black, with showy eye-like spiracles,
+polished black head; other larvae having the head brown and black. Larvae
+covered with long white hair; spines black or red. No difference noticed
+between the fifth and sixth stages.
+
+One larva on fourth stage was different from all others, and was
+described at the British Museum by Mr. W. F. Kirby as follows: "Larva
+reddish-brown, sparingly clothed with long slender white hairs, with
+four reddish stripes on the face, two rows of red spots on the back,
+spiracles surrounded with yellow, black and red rings; legs red, prolegs
+black, spotted with red. On segments three and four are four long
+coral-red fleshy-branched spines, two on each segment, below which, on
+each side, are two rudimentary ones just behind the head; in front of
+segment two are four similar rudimentary orange spines or tubercles;
+last segment black, strongly granulated and edges triangularly above and
+at the sides, with coral-red; several short rudimentary fleshy spines
+rising from the red portion; the last segment but one is reddish above,
+with a short red spine in the middle, and the one before it has a long
+coral-red spine in the middle similar to those of segments three and
+four, but shorter"
+
+As soon as my Imperialis larvae had hatched, I gave them various kinds of
+foliage, plane-tree, oak, pine, sallow, etc. At first they did not touch
+any kind of foliage, or they did not seem to touch any; and I was afraid
+I should be unable to rear them; but on the second or third day of their
+existence, they made up their minds and decided upon eating the foliage
+of some of the European trees I had offered them. They attacked oak,
+sallow, and pine, but did not touch the plane-tree leaves. In America,
+the larvae of Imperialis feed on button-wood, which is the American
+plane-tree (_Platanus occidentalis_), yet they did not take to _Platanus
+orientalis_. After a little time I reduced the foliage to oak and sallow
+branches, and ultimately gave them the sallow (_Salix caprea_) only, on
+which they thrived very well. I was pleased with this success; as I had
+previously read in a volume of the "Naturalist's Library" a description
+of _Ceratocampa imperialis_, which ends as follows: "The caterpillars
+are not common, and are the most difficult to bring to perfection in
+confinement, as they will not eat in that situation; and, even if they
+change into a chrysalis, they die afterward."
+
+Before I finish with _C. imperialis_, I must mention a peculiar fact.
+During the first stage, and, I think, also during the second, several
+larvae disappeared without leaving any traces. I also saw two smaller
+larvae held tight by the hind claspers of two larger ones. The larvae thus
+held and pressed were perfectly dead when I observed them, and I removed
+them. My impression then was that these larvae were carnivorous, not
+from this last fact alone, as I had previously observed it with larvae
+of Catocalae when they are too crowded, but from the fact that some had
+disappeared entirely from the glass under which they were confined. I
+began to reduce their numbers, and put six only under each glass, so as
+to be able to watch them better. Whether I had made a mistake or not
+previously to this I do not exactly know; but from this moment the
+larvae behaved in a most exemplary manner, especially when they became
+larger. They crawled over each other's backs without the least sign of
+spite or animosity, even when they were in sleep, in which case larvae
+are generally very sensitive and irritable, all were of a most pacific
+nature. It is, therefore, with the greatest pleasure that, for want of
+sufficient evidence, I withdraw this serious charge of cannibalism which
+I first intended to bring against them.
+
+From what has been said respecting the rearing of exotic silk-producing
+bombyces, especially tropical species, it must have been observed
+that several difficulties, standing in the way of success, have to be
+overcome. The moths of North American species emerge regularly enough
+during the months of May, June, or July, but Indian and other tropical
+species may emerge at any time of the year, if the weather is mild, as
+has been the case during this unusually mild winter of 1881-1882. From
+the end of December to the present time (March 14, 1882) moths of four
+species of Indian silk-producers, especially _Antheraea roylei_ and
+_Actias selene_, have constantly emerged, but only one or two at a time.
+These moths emerged from cocoons received in December and January last.
+
+It is only when these tropical species shall have been already reared in
+Europe that the emergence of the moths will be regular; then they will
+be single-brooded in Northern or Central Europe, and some will very
+likely become double-brooded in Southern Europe. But when just imported
+the moths of these tropical species will always be uncertain and
+irregular in their emergence; hence the importance of having a
+sufficient number of cocoons so as to meet this difficulty, i.e., the
+loss of the moths that emerge prematurely or irregularly.
+
+Before I conclude, I shall repeat what I already stated in a previous
+report, that the sending of live cocoons and pupae from India and other
+distant countries to Europe, can easily be done, so that they will
+arrive alive and in good condition, if care be taken that the boxes
+containing these live cocoons and pupae should not be left in the sun or
+near a fire (which has been the case before), and that they should at
+once be put in a cool place or in the ice-room of the steamer. The
+cocoons and pupae should be sent from October to March or April,
+according to distance, and it is most important to write on the cases,
+"Living silkworm cocoons or pupae, the case to be placed in the ice
+room."
+
+By taking this simple precaution, live cocoons and pupae, when newly
+formed, can be safely sent from very distant countries of Europe.
+
+To continue these interesting and useful studies, I shall always be glad
+to buy any number of live cocoons, or exchange them for other species,
+if preferable.
+
+ALFRED WAILLY.
+
+110 Clapham Road, London, S.W.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MOSQUITO OIL.
+
+
+A correspondent from Sheepshead Bay, a place celebrated for the size of
+its mosquitoes and the number of its amateur fishermen, recommends the
+following as a very good mixture for anointing the face and hands while
+fishing:
+
+  Oil of tar.           1 ounce.
+  Olive oil.            1 ounce.
+  Oil of pennyroyal.    1/2 ounce.
+  Spirit of camphor.    1/2 ounce.
+  Glycerine.            1/2 ounce.
+  Carbolic acid.        2 drachms.
+
+Mix. Shake well before using.--_Drug. Circular_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS.
+
+
+This most remarkable structure, in the province of the same name, adorns
+the city of Burgos, 130 miles north of Madrid. The corner stone was laid
+July 20, A.D. 1221, by Fernando III., and his Queen Beatrice, assisted
+by Archbishop Mauricio. The world is indebted to Mauricio for the
+selection of the site, and for the general idea and planning of what he
+intended should be, and in fact now is, the finest temple of worship in
+the world. This immense stone structure, embellished with airy columns,
+pointed arches, statues, inscriptions, delicate crestings, and flanked
+by two needles or aerial arrows, rises toward the heavens, a sublime
+invocation of Christian genius.
+
+Illuminated by the morning sun it appears, at a certain distance, as if
+the pyramids were floating in space; further on is seen the marvelous
+dome of the transept, crowned with eight towers of chiseled lace-work,
+over the center of the church.
+
+Pubic worship was held in a portion of the edifice nine years after the
+work was begun; from that time onward for three hundred years, various
+additional portions were completed. On March 4, 1539, the great
+transept, built fifty years previous, fell down; but was soon restored.
+August 16, 1642, at 61/2 o'clock, P.M., a furious hurricane overthrew the
+eight little towers that form the exterior corner of the dome; but in
+two years they were replaced, namely July 19, 1644: the same night the
+great bells sounded an alarm of fire, the transept having in some way
+become ignited. The activity of the populace, however, prevented the
+loss of the edifice, which for a time was in great danger.
+
+The first architect publicly mentioned in the archives of the edifice
+was the Master Enrique. He also directed the work of the Cathedral of
+Leon. He died July 10, 1277. The second architect was Juan Perez, who
+died in 1296, and was buried in the cloister, under the cathedral. He is
+believed to have been either the son or brother of the celebrated Master
+Pedro Perez, who designed the Cathedral of Toledo, and who died in 1299.
+The third architect of the Cathedral of Burgos was Pedro Sanchez, who
+directed the work in 1384; after him followed Juan Sanchez de Molina,
+Martin Fernandez, the three Colonias, Juan de Vallejo, Diego de Siloe,
+the elder Nicolas de Vergara, Matienzo, Pieredonda, Gil, Regines, and
+others. It is worthy of note that a number of Moorish architects were
+employed on the work during the 14th and 15th centuries, such as
+Mohomad, Yunce, the Master Hali, the Master Mahomet de Aranda, the
+Master Yunza de Carrion, the Master Carpenter Brahen. Among the figure
+sculptors employed were Juan Sanchez de Fromesta, the Masters Gil and
+Copin, the famous Felipe de Vigardi, Juan de Lancre, Anton de Soto, Juan
+de Villareal, Pedro de Colindres, and many others. Our engraving is from
+a recent number of _La Ilustracion Espanola y Americana_.
+
+[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS, SPAIN.--PHOTOGRAPH BY DE
+LAURENT.--DRWAWING BY M. HEBERT.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PANAMA CANAL.
+
+By MANUEL EISSLER, M.E., of San Francisco, Cal.
+
+I.
+
+HISTORICAL NOTES.
+
+
+When Cortez, in the year 1530, made the observation that the two great
+oceans could be seen from the peaks of mountains, he, in those remote
+days, preoccupied himself with the question to cut through the
+Cordilleras.
+
+Therefore, the idea of an interoceanic canal is by no means a modern
+one, as travelers and navigators observed that there was a great
+depression among the hills of the Isthmus of Panama. As Professor T.E.
+Nurse, of the U.S.N., says in his memoirs:
+
+"This problem of interoceanic communication has been justly said to
+possess not only practical value, but historical grandeur. It clearly
+links itself back to the era of the conquest of Cortez, three and a half
+centuries." [1] It is a problem which has been left for our modern era
+to solve, but nevertheless its history is thereby rendered still more
+interesting, having needed so many centuries to bring it to an issue.
+
+[Footnote 1: From Prof. Nurse's historical essay. See Survey of
+Nicaragua Canal, by Com. Lull.]
+
+Spain, which acquired through her Columbus a new empire, lying near, as
+it was supposed, to the riches of Asia, could not be indifferent, from
+the moment of her discoveries, to the means of crossing these lands to
+yet richer ones beyond.
+
+India, from the days of Alexander and of the geographers, Mela, Strabo,
+and Ptolemy, was the land of promise, the home of the spices, the
+inexhaustible fountain of wealth. The old routes of commerce thither had
+been closed one by one to the Christians; the overland trade had fallen
+into the hands of the Arabs; and at the fall of Constantinople, 1453,
+the commerce of the Black Sea and of the Bosphorus, the last of the old
+routes to the East, finally failed the Christian world. Yet even beyond
+the fame of the East, which tradition had brought down from Greek and
+Roman, much more had the crusaders kindled for Asia (Cathay) and its
+riches an ardor not easily suppressed in men's minds.
+
+The error of the Spanish Admiral in supposing that the eastern shores
+of Asia extended 240 degrees east of Spain, or to the meridian of
+the modern San Diego, in California--this error, insisted on in his
+dispatches and adopted and continued by his followers, still further
+animated the earlier Spanish sovereigns and the men whom they sent into
+the New World to reach Asia by a short and easy route.
+
+Nobody in Europe dreamt that Columbus had discovered a new continent,
+and when Balbao, in 1513, discovered the South Sea, then it was known
+that Asia lay beyond, and navigators directed their course there. On
+his deathbed, in 1506, Columbus still held to his delusion that he had
+reached Zipanga, Japan. In 1501 he was exploring the coast of Veragua,
+in Central America, still looking for the Ganges, and announcing his
+being informed on this coast of a sea which would bear ships to the
+mouth of that river, while about the same time the Cabots, under Henry
+VII., were taking possession of Newfoundland, believing it to be part of
+the island coast of China.
+
+Although these were grave blunders in geography and in navigation, the
+discoveries really made in the rich tropical zones, the acquirement of
+a new world, and the rich products continually reaching Europe from it,
+for a time aroused Spain from her lethargy. The world opened east and
+west. The new routes poured their spices, silks, and drugs through new
+channels into all the Teutonic countries. The strong purposes of having
+near access to the East were deepened and perpetuated doubly strong, by
+the certainties before men's eyes of what had been attained.
+
+Balbao, in 1513, gained from a height on the Isthmus of Panama the first
+proof of its separation from Asia; and Magellan enters the South Sea
+at the southern extremity of the country, now first proven to be thus
+separate and a continent. Men in those days began to think that creation
+was doubled, and that such discovered lands must be separate from India,
+China, and Japan. And the very successes of the Portuguese under Vasco
+da Gama, bringing from their eastern course the expectancy of Asia's
+wealth, intensely excited the Spaniards to renew their western search.
+
+The Portuguese, led around the Cape of Good Hope, had brought home vast
+treasures from the East, while the Spanish discoverers, as yet, had not
+reached the countries either of Montezuma or of the Inca. Their success
+"troubled the sleep of the Spaniards."
+
+Everything, then, of personal ambition and national pride, the thirst
+for gold, the zeal of religious proselytism, and the cold calculations
+of state policy, now concurred in the disposition to sacrifice what
+Spain already had of most value on the American shores in order to seize
+upon a greater good, the Indies, still supposed to be near at hand. And
+since it was now certain that the new lands were not themselves Asia,
+the next aim was to find the secret of the narrow passage across
+them which must lead thither. The very configuration of the isthmus
+strengthened the belief in the existence of such a passage by the number
+of its openings, which seemed to invite entrance in the expectancy that
+some one of them must extend across the narrow breadth of land.
+
+For this the Spanish government, in 1514, gave secret orders to
+D'Avilla, Governor of Castila del Oro, and to Juan de Solis, the
+navigator, to determine whether Castila del Oro were an island, and to
+send to Cuba a chart of the coast, if any strait were possible. For
+this, De Solis visited Nicaragua and Honduras; and later, led far to the
+south, perished in the La Plata. For this, Magellan entered the straits,
+which, strangely enough, he affirmed before setting out, that he "would
+enter," since he "had seen them marked out on the geographer Martin
+Behaim's globe." For this, Cortez sent out his expeditions on both
+coasts, exposing his own life and treasure, and sending home to the
+emperor, in his second relation, a map of the entire Gulf of Mexico
+(Dispatch from Cortez to Charles V., October 15, 1524). For this great
+purpose, and in full expectancy of success in it, the whole coast of
+the New World on each side, from Newfoundland on the northeast, curving
+westward on the south, around the whole sweep of the Gulf of Mexico,
+thence to Magellan's Straits, and thence through them up the Pacific to
+the Straits of Behring, was searched and researched with diligence.
+"Men could not get accustomed," says Humboldt, "to the idea that the
+continent extended uninterruptedly both so far north and south." Hence
+all these large, numerous, and persevering expeditions by the European
+powers.
+
+Among them, by priority of right and by her energy, was Spain. The great
+emperor was urgent on the conqueror of Mexico, and on all in subordinate
+positions in New Spain, to solve the secret of the strait. All Spain was
+awakened to it. "How majestic and fair was she," says Chevalier, "in the
+sixteenth century; what daring, what heroism and perseverance! Never had
+the world seen such energy, activity, or good fortune. Hers was a will
+that regarded no obstacles. Neither rivers, deserts, nor mountains far
+higher than those in Europe, arrested her people. They built grand
+cities, they drew their fleets, as in a twinkling of the eye, from the
+very forests. A handful of men conquered empires. They seemed a race of
+giants or demi-gods. One would have supposed that all the work necessary
+to bind together climates and oceans would have been done at the word of
+the Spaniards as by enchantment, and since nature had not left a passage
+through the center of America, no matter, so much the better for
+the glory of the human race; they would make it up by artificial
+communication. What, indeed, was that for men like them? It were done
+at a word. Nothing else was left for them to conquer, and the world was
+becoming too small for them."
+
+Certainly, had Spain remained what she then was, what had been in vain
+sought from nature would have been supplied by man. A canal or several
+canals would have been built to take the place of the long-desired
+strait. Her men of science urged it. In 1551, Gomara, the author of the
+"History of the Indies," proposed the union of the oceans by three of
+the very same lines toward which, to this hour, the eye turns with hope.
+
+"It is true," said Gomara, "that mountains obstruct these passes, but if
+there are mountains there are also hands; let but the resolve be made,
+there will be no want of means; the Indies, to which the passage will
+be made, will supply them. To a king of Spain, with the wealth of the
+Indies at his command, when the object to be obtained is the spice
+trade, what is possible is easy.
+
+But the sacred fire suddenly burned itself out in Spain. The peninsula
+had for its ruler a prince who sought his glory in smothering free
+thought among his own people, and in wasting his immense resources in
+vain efforts to repress it also outside of his own dominions through all
+Europe. From that hour, Spain became benumbed and estranged from all
+the advances of science and art, by means of which other nations, and
+especially England, developed their true greatness.
+
+Even after France had shown, by her canal of the south, that boats could
+ascend and pass the mountain crests, it does not appear that the
+Spanish government seriously wished to avail itself of a like means of
+establishing any communication between her sea of the Antilles and the
+South Sea. The mystery enveloping the deliberations of the council of
+the Indies has not always remained so profound that we could not know
+what was going on in that body. The Spanish government afterward opened
+up to Humboldt free access to its archives, and in these he found
+several memoirs on the possibility of a union between the two oceans;
+but he says that in no one of them did he find the main point, the
+height of the elevations on the isthmus, sufficiently cleared up, and
+he could not fail to remark that the memoirs were exclusively French or
+English. Spain herself gave it no thought. Since the glorious age of
+Balbao among the people, indeed, the project of a canal was in every
+one's thoughts. In the very wayside talks, in the inns of Spain, when a
+traveler from the New World chanced to pass, after making him tell of
+the wonders of Lima and Mexico, of the death of the Inca, Atahualpa,
+and the bloody defeat of the Aztecs, and after asking his opinion of El
+Dorado, the question was always about the two oceans, and what great
+things would happen if they could succeed in joining them.
+
+During the whole of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Spain
+had need of the best mode of conveyance for her treasures across the
+isthmus. Yet those from Peru came by the miserable route from Panama to
+the deadliest of climates. Porto Bello and her European wares for
+her colonies toiled up the Chagres river, while the roughest of
+communication farther north connected the Chimalapa and the Guasacoalcos
+in Mexico, and the trade there was limited sternly to but one port on
+each side. As late as Humboldt's visit, in 1802, when remarking upon the
+"unnatural modes of communication" by which, through painful delays, the
+immense treasures of the New World passed from Acapulco, Guayaquil,
+and Lima, to Spain, he says: "These will soon cease whenever an active
+government, willing to protect commerce, shall construct a good road
+from Panama to Porto Bello. The aristocratic nonchalance of Spain, and
+her fear to open to strangers the way to the countries explored for her
+own profit, only kept those countries closed." The court forbade, on
+pain of death, the use of plans at different times proposed. They
+wronged their own colonies by representing the coasts as dangerous and
+the rivers impassable. On the presentation of a memoir for improving the
+route through Tehuantepec, by citizens of Oaxaca, as late as 1775,
+an order was issued forbidding the subject to be mentioned. The
+memorialists were censured as intermeddlers, and the viceroy fell under
+the sovereign's displeasure for having seemed to favor the plans.
+
+The great isthmus was, however, further explored by the Spanish
+government for its own purposes; the recesses were traversed, and the
+lines of communication which we know to-day were then noted.
+
+In addition to the fact that comparatively little was explored north or
+south of that which early became the main highway, the Panama route,
+there is confirmation here of the truth that Spain concealed and even
+falsified much of her generally accurately made surveys. No stronger
+proof of this need be asked than that which Alcedo gives in connection
+with the proposal by Gogueneche, the Biscayan pilot, to open
+communication by the Atrato and the Napipi. "The Atrato," says the
+historian, "is navigable for many leagues, but the navigation of it is
+prohibited under pain of death, without the exception of any person
+whatever."
+
+The Isthmus of Nicaragua has always invited serious consideration for
+a ship canal route by its very marked physical characteristics, among
+which is chiefly its great depression between two nearly parallel ranges
+of hills, which depression is the basin of its large lake, a natural and
+all-sufficient feeder for such a canal.
+
+In 1524 a squadron of discovery sent out by Cortez on the coast of the
+South Sea, announced the existence of a fresh water sea at only
+three leagues from the coast; a sea which, they said, rose and fell
+alternately, communicating, it was believed, with the Sea of the North.
+Various reconnoissances were therefore made, under the idea that here
+the easy transit would be established between Spain and the spice lands
+beyond.
+
+It was even laid down on some of the old maps, that this open
+communication by water existed from sea to sea; while later maps
+represented a river, under the name of Rio Partido, as giving one of
+its branches to the Pacific Ocean and the other to Lake Nicaragua. An
+exploration by the engineer, Bautista Antonelli, under the orders of
+Philip II., corrected the false idea of an open strait.
+
+In the eighteenth century a new cause arose for jealousy of her
+neighbors and for keeping her northern part of the isthmus from their
+view. In the years 1779 and 1780 the serious purposes of the English
+government for the occupancy of Nicaragua, awakened the solicitudes of
+the Spanish government for this section. The English colonels, Hodgson
+and Lee, had secretly surveyed the lake and portions of the country,
+forwarding their plans to London, as the basis of an armed incursion,
+to renew such as had already been made by the superintendent of the
+Mosquito coast, forty years before, when, crossing the isthmus, he took
+possession of Realejo, on the Pacific, seeking to change its name to
+Port Edward. In 1780, Captain, afterward Lord Nelson, under orders from
+Admiral Sir Peter Parker, convoyed a force of two thousand men to San
+Juan de Nicaragua, for the conquest of the country.
+
+In his dispatches, Nelson said: "In order to give facility to the great
+object of government, I intend to possess the lake of Nicaragua, which,
+for the present, may be looked upon as the inland Gibraltar of Spanish
+America. As it commands the only water pass between the oceans, its
+situation must ever render it a principal post to insure passage to the
+Southern Ocean, and by our possession of it Spanish America is severed
+into two."
+
+The passage of San Juan was found to be exceedingly difficult; for the
+seamen, although assisted by the Indians from Bluetown, scarcely forced
+their boats up the shoals. Nelson bitterly regretted that the expedition
+had not arrived in January, in place of the close of the dry season. It
+was a disastrous failure, costing the English the lives of one thousand
+five hundred men, and nearly losing to them their Nelson.
+
+At this period, Charles III., of Spain, sent a commission to explore the
+country. These commissioners reported unfavorably as regarded the route;
+but fearing further intrusion from England, forbade all access to the
+coast; even falsifying and suppressing its charts and permanently
+injuring the navigation of the San Juan and the Colorado by obstructions
+in their beds.
+
+It is, however, a relief here to learn that when Humboldt visited the
+New World, he could say: "The time is passed when Spain, through a
+jealous policy, refused to other nations a thoroughfare across the
+possessions of which they kept the whole world so long in ignorance.
+Accurate maps of the coasts, and even minute plans of military
+positions, are published." It is also true that the Spanish Cortes,
+in 1814, decreed the opening of a canal, a decree deferred and never
+executed.
+
+It was reserved for our century to see this great project carried into
+execution, and it is but just that as a chronicler of events I should
+connect with the Canal of Panama the name of a family who have done much
+to bring the scheme, so to say, into practical execution.
+
+As early as the year 1836, Mr. Joly de Sabla turned his views toward the
+cutting of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. He resided at the time
+on the Island of Guadeloupe, one of the French West India Islands,
+where he possessed large estates. Of a high social position, the
+representative of one of France's ancient and noble families, with large
+means at his disposal and of an enterprising spirit much in advance of
+his time, he was well calculated to carry out such a grand scheme.
+
+He soon set about procuring from the Government of New Granada (now
+Colombia) the necessary grants and concessions, but much time and many
+efforts were spent before these could be brought to a satisfactory
+condition, and it was not until the year 1841 that he could again visit
+the Isthmus, bringing with him this time, on a vessel chartered by him
+for the purpose, a corps of engineers and employes, medical staff, etc.,
+etc. After two years spent in exploring and surveying a country at that
+time very imperfectly known, he returned to Guadeloupe to find his
+residence and most of his estates destroyed by the terrible earthquake
+that visited the island in February, 1843.
+
+Undaunted by this unexpected and severe blow, Mr. De Sabla persisted in
+his efforts, and in the same year obtained from the French government
+the establishment of a Consulate at Panama to insure protection to the
+future canal company, and also the sending of two government engineers
+of high repute (Messrs. Garella and Courtines), to verify the surveys
+already made and complete them.
+
+After receiving the respective reports of Garella and Courtines, Mr.
+De Sabla decided upon first constructing a railway across the Isthmus,
+postponing the cutting of the canal until this indispensable auxiliary
+should have rendered it practicable and profitable. He then presented
+the scheme in that shape to his friends in Paris and London, and formed
+a syndicate of thirteen members, among whom we may recall the names of
+the well known Bankers Caillard of Paris, and Baimbridge of London,
+of Sir John Campbell, then Vice President of the Oriental Steamship
+Company, of Viscount Chabrol de Chameane, and of Courtines, the
+exploring engineer.
+
+A new contract was then entered upon with New Granada in June, 1847, and
+early in 1848, the Syndicate was about to forward to the Isthmus the
+expedition which was to execute the preliminary works, while the company
+was being finally organized in Paris, and its stock placed.
+
+The success of the undertaking seemed to be assured beyond peradventure,
+when the unexpected breaking out of the French revolution in February,
+1848, dashed all hopes to the ground. Several of the prominent
+financiers engaged in the affair, taken by surprise by the suddenness of
+the revolution, had to suspend their payments and of course to withdraw
+from the Panama Canal and railroad scheme. Others withdrew from
+contagious fear and timidity. Finally the term fixed for carrying out
+certain obligations of the contract expired without their fulfillment
+by the company, and the concession was forfeited. Another contract was
+almost immediately applied for and granted with unseemly haste by the
+President of New Granada to Messrs. Aspinwall, Stephens and Chauncey,
+which resulted in the construction of the actual Panama Railroad.
+
+These gentlemen acted fairly in the matter, and in 1849, calling Mr.
+De Sabla to New York, offered him to join them in the new scheme.
+Unfortunately they had decided upon placing the Atlantic terminus of the
+railroad upon the low and swampy mud Island of Manzanillo, while Mr.
+De Sabla insisted on having it on the mainland on the dry and healthy
+northern shore of the Bay of Limon. They could not come to an
+understanding on this point, and Mr. De Sabla, whose experience and
+foresight taught him the dangers that would result to the shipping from
+the unprotected situation of the projected part (now Colon--Aspinwall),
+and who well knew the insalubrity of the malarial swamp constituting
+the Island of Manzanillo, withdrew forever from the undertaking, after
+having devoted to it without any benefit to himself, the best years of
+his life and a large portion of his private means.
+
+One of his sons, Mr. Theodore J. de Sabla, after having actively
+co-operated with Lieutenant Commander Wyse, in the original scheme
+of the present canal company, is now one of Count de Lesseps's
+representatives in the City of New York, and a director of the Panama
+Railroad Company.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED AVERAGING MACHINE.
+
+
+At the recent meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers, in
+this city, a paper on an improved form of the averaging machine was read
+by its inventor, Mr. Wm. S. Auchincloss.
+
+The ingenious method by which the weight of the platform is eliminated
+from the result of the work of the machine was exhibited and explained.
+This is accomplished by counterweights sliding automatically in tubes,
+so that in any position the unloaded platform is always in equilibrium.
+Any combination of representative weights can then be placed on this
+platform at the proper points of the scale. By then drawing the platform
+to its balancing point, the location of the center of gravity will at
+once be indicated on the scale by the pointer over the central trunnion.
+
+The weights may be arranged on a decimal system, with intermediate
+weights for closer working, or they may be made so as to express
+multiples or factors.
+
+Each machine is provided with a number of differing scales, divided
+suitably for various purposes. When the problem is one of time, the
+scale represents months and days; for problems of proportion, the zero
+of the scale is at the center of its length; for problems for the
+location of center of gravity of a system from a fixed point, the zero
+is at the extremity of the scale, etc.
+
+The machine exhibited has sixty-three transverse grooves, which, by
+arrangement of weights, can be made to serve the purposes of two hundred
+and fifty-two grooves.
+
+The machine is 29 inches in length, 9 inches in width, and weighs about
+13 pounds.
+
+With the machine can be found average dates, as, for instance, of
+purchases and of payments extending over irregular periods; also average
+prices, as for "futures," in comman use among cotton brokers. The
+problem of average haul, so often presented to the engineer, can be
+solved with ease and great celerity. Practical examples of the solution
+of these and a number of other problems involving proportions or
+averages were given by the author.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+COMPOUND BEAM ENGINE.
+
+
+The engine represented in Figs. 1 to 4 herewith is intended for a mill,
+and is of 530 to 800 indicated horse-power, the pressure being seven
+atmospheres, and the number of revolutions forty-five per minute. As
+will be seen by the drawing each cylinder is placed in a separate
+foundation plate, the two connecting rods acting upon cranks keyed
+at right angles upon the shaft, W, which carries the drum, T. The
+high-pressure cylinder, C, is 760 mm diameter, the low pressure cylinder
+being 1,220 mm. diameter, and the piston speed 2.28 m. The drum, which
+also fulfills the purpose of a fly wheel, is provided with twenty-eight
+grooves for ropes of 50 mm. diameter. With the exception of the
+cylinders, pistons, valves, and valve chests, the engines are of the
+same size, corresponding to the equal maximum pressures which come into
+action in each cylinder, and in this respect alone the engine differs in
+principle from an ordinary twin machine.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 1]
+
+The steam passes from the stop-valve, A, Fig. 4, through the steam pipe,
+D, to the high pressure cylinder, C, and having done its work, goes into
+the receiver, R, where it is heated. From the receiver it is led into
+the low-pressure cylinder, C1, and thence into the condenser. Provision
+is made for working both engines independently with direct steam when
+desired, suitable gear being provided for supplying steam of the proper
+pressure to the condensing engine, so that each engine shall perform
+exactly the same amount of work. The starting gear consists of a
+hand-wheel, H, which controls the stop valve, A, and of another h, which
+opens the valves for the jackets of the cylinders and receiver. The
+hand-wheel, h1 and h2, govern the valves, which turn the steam direct
+into the two cylinders. There are also lever, g, which opens the
+principal injection cock, H1, and the auxiliary injection cock, H2, the
+function of which is to assist in forming a speedy vacuum, when the
+engine has been standing for some time.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 2]
+
+The drum is 6.08 m. diameter, the breadth being 2.04 m., with a total
+weight of 33,000 kilos. The beams are of cast iron with balance weights
+cast on. The connecting rods and cross beams are of wrought iron, and
+the cranks, crank shaft, piston rods, valve rods, etc., of steel. The
+bed-plate for the main shaft bearings are cast in one piece with the
+standards for the beam, which are connected firmly together by the
+center bearing, M M1, which is cast in one piece, and also by the
+diagonal bracing piece, N N1. The construction of the cylinder and valve
+chests is shown in Fig. 1. The working cylinder is in the form of a
+liner to the cylinder, thus forming the steam jacket, with a view to
+future renewal. This lining has a flange at the lower part for bolting
+it down, being made steam-tight by the intervention of a copper packing
+ring. There is a similar ring at the upper part which is pressed down by
+the cylinder cover. The latter is cast hollow and strengthened by ribs.
+The pistons are provided with cast iron double self-expanding packing
+rings. For preventing accidents by condensed water, spring safety
+valves, ss and s1 s1, are connected to the valve chests. The valve gear,
+which is arranged in the same manner for both cylinders, is actuated
+by shafts, w and w1, rotated by toothed wheels as shown. Motion is
+communicated from the way-shafts, w and w1, by the eccentrics, and the
+eccentric rods, e1 e2 e3 e4, and the levers and rods belonging thereto,
+to the short steam valve rocking shafts levers, f1 f2 f3 f4, and the
+exhaust valve rocking shafts, k1 k2 k3 k4, the bearings of which are
+carried on brackets above the valve chests, which, being furnished with
+tappet levers, raise and lower the valves.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 3]
+
+The valves are conical, double-seated, and of cast iron, and the inlet
+and outlet valves are placed the one above the other, the seats being
+also conically ground and inserted through the cover of the valve chest.
+Both inlet and outlet valves are actuated from above, and are removable
+upward, an arrangement which admits of the valves being more easily
+examined than when the two are actuated from different sides of the
+valve chest. To carry out this idea the inlet valves are furnished with
+two guides, which, passing upward through the stuffing-box, are attached
+to a hard steel cross piece, which receives the action of a bent catch
+turning on a pin attached to the levers, t1, t2, t3, t4. The exhaust
+valves, on the contrary, have only one guide each, which passes upward
+through the seat of the admission valve, through the valve itself by
+means of a collar, and through the stuffing-box. It is furnished with
+hard steel armatures, through which the levers, z1 z2, Fig. 3, act upon
+the exhaust valves.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 4]
+
+The governor effects the acceleration or retardation of the loosening of
+the catch actuating the steam valve by means of hard steel projections
+on the shaft, v1, the position of which, by means of levers, is
+regulated by the governor, which in its highest position does not allow
+the lifting of the inlet valve at all. The regulation of the expansion
+by the governor from 0 to 0.45 takes place generally only in the case of
+the high-pressure cylinder, while the low-pressure cylinder has a fixed
+rate of expansion. Only when the low-pressure cylinder is required
+to work with steam direct from the boiler is the governor applied to
+regulate the expansion in it. An exact action in the valve guides and
+a regular descent is secured by furnishing them with small dash pot
+pistons working in cylinders. Into them the air is readily admitted by
+a small India-rubber valve, but the passage out again is controlled at
+pleasure.--_The Engineer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TO DETECT ALKALIES IN NITRATE OF SILVER--Stolba recommends the salt
+to be dissolved in the smallest quantity of water, and to add to
+the filtered solution hydrofluosilicic acid, drop by drop. Should a
+turbidity appear an alkaline salt is present. But should the liquid
+remain limpid, an equal volume of alcohol is to be added, which will
+cause a precipitate in case the slightest trace of an alkali be present.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POWER HAMMERS WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.
+
+[Footnote: Paper read before the Institution of Mechanical
+Engineers.--_Engineering_.]
+
+By DANIEL LONGWORTH, of London.
+
+
+The movable-fulcrum power hammer was designed by the writer about five
+and a half years ago, to meet a want in the market for a power hammer
+which, while under the complete control of only one workman, could
+produce blows of varying forces without alteration in the rapidity with
+which they were given. It was also necessary that the vibration and
+shock of the hammer head should not be transmitted to the driving
+mechanism, and that the latter should be free from noise and liability
+to derangement. The various uses to which the movable fulcrum hammers
+have been put, and their success in working[1]--as well as the
+importance of the general subject which includes them, namely, the
+substitution of stored power for human effort--form the author's excuse
+for now occupying the time of the meeting.
+
+[Footnote 1: The hammers have been for some years used by A. Bamlett, of
+Thirsk; the American Tool Company, of Antwerp; Messrs. W.&T. Avery, of
+Birmingham; Pullar & Sons, of Perth; Salter & Co., of West Bromwich;
+Vernon Hope & Co., of Wednesbury, etc.; and also for stamps by Messrs.
+Collins & Co., of Birmingham, etc.]
+
+Until these hammers were introduced, no satisfactory method had been
+devised for altering the force of the blow. The plan generally adopted
+was to have either a tightening pulley acting on the driving belt, a
+friction driving clutch, or a simple brake on the driving pulley, put in
+action by the hand or foot of the workman. Heavy blows were produced
+by simply increasing the number of blows per minute (and therefore the
+velocity), and light blows by diminishing it--a plan which was quite
+contrary to the true requirements of the case. To prevent the shock
+of the hammer head being communicated to the driving gear, an elastic
+connection was usually formed between them, consisting of a steel spring
+or a cushion of compressed air. With the steel spring, the variation
+which could be given in the thickness of the work under the hammer was
+very limited, owing to the risk of breaking the spring; but with the
+compressed air or pneumatic connection the work might vary considerably
+in thickness, say from 0 to 8 in. with a hammer weighing 400lb. The
+pneumatic hammers had a crank, with a connecting rod or a slotted
+crossbar on the piston-rod, a piston and a cylinder which formed the
+hammer-head. The piston-rod was packed with a cup leather, or with
+ordinary packing, the latter required to be adjusted with the greatest
+nicety, otherwise the piston struck the hammer before lifting it, or
+else the force of the blow was considerably diminished. As the piston
+moved with the same velocity during its upward and downward strokes,
+and, in the latter, had to overtake and outrun the hammer falling under
+the action of gravity, the air was not compressed sufficiently to give
+a sharp blow at ordinary working speeds, and a much heavier hammer was
+required than if the velocity of the piston had been accelerated to a
+greater degree.
+
+As it is impossible in the limits of this paper to describe all the
+forms in which the movable fulcrum hammers have been arranged, two types
+only will be selected taken from actual work; namely, a small planishing
+hammer, and a medium-sized forging hammer.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: To the makers, Messrs. J. Scott Rawlings & Co, of
+Birmingham, the author is indebted for the working drawings of these
+hammers.]
+
+The small planishing hammer, Figs. 1 to 3, next page, is used for
+copper, tin, electro, and iron plate, for scythes, and other thin work,
+for which it is sufficient to adjust the force of the blow once for all
+by hand, according to the thickness and quality of the material before
+commencing to hammer it. The hammer weighs 15 lb., and has a stroke
+variable from 21/2 in. to 91/2 in., and makes 250 blows per minute. The
+driving shaft, A, is fitted with fast and loose belt pulleys, the belt
+fork being connected to the pedal, P, which when pressed down by the
+foot of the workman, slides the driving belt on to the fast pulley and
+starts the hammer; when the foot is taken off the pedal, the weight on
+the latter moves the belt quickly on to the loose pulley, and the hammer
+is stopped. The flywheel on the shaft, A, is weighted on one side,
+so that it causes the hammer to stop at the top of its stroke after
+working; thus enabling the material to be placed on the anvil before
+starting the hammer. The movable fulcrum, B, consists of a stud, free to
+slide in a slot, C, in the framing, and held in position by a nut and
+toothed washer. On the fulcrum is mounted the socket, D, through which
+passes freely a round bar or rocking lever, E, attached at one end to
+the main piston, F, of the hammer, G, and having at the other extremity
+a long slide, H, mounted upon it. This slide is carried on the
+crank-pin, I, fastened to the disk, J, attached to the driving shaft, A.
+The crank-pin, in revolving, reciprocates the rocking lever, E, and
+main piston, F, and through the medium of the pneumatic connection, the
+hammer, G. The slide, H, in revolving with the crank-pin, also moves
+backward and forward along the rocking lever, approaching the fulcrum,
+B, during the down-stroke of the hammer, and receding from it during
+the up-stroke. By this means the velocity of the hammer is considerably
+accelerated in its downward stroke, causing a sharp blow to be given
+while it is gently raised during its upward stroke.
+
+To alter the force of the blow, the hammer, G, is made to rise and fall
+through a greater or less distance, as may be required, from the fixed
+anvil block, K, after the manner of the smith giving heavy or light
+blows on his anvil. It is evident that this special alteration of the
+stroke could not be obtained by altering the throw of a simple crank and
+connecting rod; but by placing the slot, C, parallel with the direction
+of the rocking lever, E, when the latter is in its lowest position, with
+the hammer resting on the anvil, and with the crank at the top of its
+stroke, this lowest position of the rocking lever and hammer is made
+constant, no matter what position the fulcrum, B, may have in the slot,
+C. To obtain a short stroke, and consequently a light blow, the fulcrum
+is moved in the slot toward the hammer, G; and to produce a long stroke
+and heavy blow the fulcrum is moved in the opposite direction.
+
+Fig. 3 gives the details of the pneumatic connection between the main
+piston and the hammer, in which packing and packing glands are dispensed
+with. The hammer, G, is of cast steel, bored out to fit the main piston,
+F, the latter being also bored out to receive an internal piston, L. A
+pin, M, passing freely through slots in the main piston, F, connects
+rigidly the internal piston, L, with the hammer, G. When the main piston
+is raised by the rocking lever, the air in the space, X, between the
+main and internal pistons, is compressed, and forms an elastic medium
+for lifting the hammer; when the main piston is moved down, the air in
+the space, Y, is compressed in its turn, and the hammer forced down to
+give the blow. Two holes drilled in the side of the hammer renew the air
+automatically in the spaces, X and Y, at each blow of the hammer.
+
+Figs. 4 to 6, on the next page, represent the medium size forging
+hammer, for making forgings in dies, swaging and tilting bars, and
+plating edged tools, etc.
+
+The hammer weighs 1 cwt., has a stroke variable from 4 in. to 141/2 in.,
+and gives 200 blows per minute; the compressed air space between the
+main piston and the hammer is sufficiently long to admit forgings up to
+3 in. thick under the hammer.
+
+To make forgings economically, it is necessary to bring them into the
+desired form by a few heavy blows, while the material is still in a
+highly plastic condition, and then to finish them by a succession of
+lighter blows. The heavy blows should be given at a slower rate than the
+lighter ones, to allow time for turning the work in the dies or on the
+anvil, and so to avoid the risk of spoiling it. In forging with the
+steam hammer the workman requires an assistant, who, with the lever
+of the valve motion in hand, obeys his directions as to starting and
+stopping, heavy or light blows, slow or quick blows, etc; the quickest
+speed attainable depending on the speed of the arm of the assistant.
+In the movable-fulcrum forging hammer the operations of starting and
+stopping, and the giving of heavy or light blows, are under the complete
+control of one foot of the workman, who requires therefore no assistant;
+and by properly proportioning the diameter of the driving pulley and
+size of belt to the hammer, the heavy blows are given at a slower rate
+than the light ones, owing to the greater resistance which they offer to
+the driving belt.
+
+In this hammer the pneumatic connection, the arrangements for the
+starting, stopping, and holding up of the hammer, as well as those for
+communicating the motion of the crank-pin to the hammer by means of
+a rocking lever and movable fulcrum, are similar to those in the
+planishing hammer, differing only in the details, which provide double
+guides and bearings for the principal working parts.
+
+[Illustration: LONGWORTH'S POWER HAMMER WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.]
+
+The movable fulcrum, B, Figs. 4 and 5, consists of two adjustable steel
+pins, attached to the fulcrum lever, Q, and turned conical where they
+fit in the socket, D. The fulcrum lever is pivoted on a pin, R, fixed in
+the framing of the machine, and is connected at its lower extremity
+to the nut, S, in gear with the regulating screw, T. The to-and-fro
+movement of the fulcrum lever, Q, by which heavy or light blows are
+given by the hammer, is placed under the control of the foot of the
+workman, in the following manner: U is a double-ended forked lever,
+pivoted in the center, and having one end embracing the starting pedal,
+P, and the other end the small belt which connects the fast pulley
+on the driving shaft, A, with the loose pulley, V, or the reversing
+pulleys, W and X. These are respectivly connected with the bevel wheels,
+W_{1}, and X_{1}, gearing into and placed at opposite sides of the bevel
+wheel, Z, on the regulating screw in connection with the fulcrum lever.
+When the workman places his foot on the pedal, P, to start the hammer,
+he finds his foot within the fork of the lever, U; and by slightly
+turning his foot round on his heel he can readily move the forked
+lever to right or left, so shifting the small belt on to either of the
+reversing pulleys, W or X, and causing the regulating screw, T, to
+revolve in either direction. The fulcrum lever is thus caused to move
+forward or backward, to give light or heavy blows. By moving the forked
+lever into mid position, the small belt is shifted into its usual place
+on the loose pulley, V, and the fulcrum remains at rest. To fix the
+lightest and heaviest blow required for each kind of work, adjustable
+stops are provided, and are mounted on a rod, Y, connected to an arm of
+the forked lever. When the nut of the regulating screw comes in contact
+with either of the stops, the forked lever is forced into mid position,
+in spite of the pressure of the foot of the workman, and thus further
+movement of the fulcrum lever, in the direction which it was taking,
+is prevented. The movable fulcrum can also be adjusted by hand to any
+required blow, when the hammer is stopped, by means of a handle in
+connection with the regulating screw.
+
+In conclusion the author wishes to direct attention to the fact, that in
+many of our largest manufactories, particularly in the midland counties,
+foot and hand labor for forging and stamping is still employed to an
+enormous extent. Hundreds of "Olivers," with hammers up to 60 lb. in
+weight, are laboriously put in motion by the foot of the workman, at a
+speed averaging fifty blows per minute; while large numbers of stamps,
+worked by hand and foot, and weighing up to 120 lb., are also employed.
+The low first cost of the foot hammers and stamps, combined with the
+system of piece work, and the desire of manufacturers to keep their
+methods of working secret, have no doubt much to do with the small
+amount of progress that has been made; although in a few cases
+competition, particularly with the United States of America, has forced
+the manufacturer to throw the Oliver and hand-stamp aside, and to employ
+steam power hammers and stamps. The writer believes that in connection
+with forging and stamping processes there is still a wide and profitable
+field for the ingenuity and capital of engineers, who choose to
+occupy themselves with this minor, but not the less useful, branch of
+mechanics.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACES APPLIED TO THE PUDDLING OF IRON.
+
+
+Since the year 1872, the large iron works at Ougree, near Liege, have
+applied the Bicheroux system of furnaces to heating, and, since the
+year 1877, to puddling. The results that have been obtained in this
+last-named application are so satisfactory that it appears to us to be
+of interest to speak of the matter in some detail.
+
+The apparatus, which is shown in the opposite page, consists of three
+distinct parts: (1) a gas generator; (2) a mixing chamber into which
+the gases and air are drawn by the natural draught, and wherein the
+combustion of the gases begins; and (3) a furnace, or laboratory (not
+represented in the figure), wherein the combustion is nearly finished,
+and wherein take place the different reactions of puddling. These three
+parts are given dimensions that vary according to the composition of the
+different coals, and they may be made to use any sort of coal, even
+the fine and schistose kinds which would not be suitable for ordinary
+puddling. The gases and the air necessary for the combustion of these
+being brought together at different temperatures, and being drawn into
+the mixing chamber through the same chimney, it will be seen that the
+dimensions of the flues that conduct them should vary with the kind of
+coal used; and the manner in which the gases are brought together is not
+a matter of indifference.
+
+[Illustration: THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACE.
+
+Vertical Section, and Horizontal Section through MNOPQR]
+
+The gas generator consists of a hopper, A, into which drops, through
+small apertures a, the coal piled up on the platform, D. These apertures
+are closed with coal or bricks. The bottom of the generator is formed of
+a small standing grate. The coal, on falling upon a mass in a state of
+ignition, distills and becomes transformed into coke, which gradually
+slides down over a grate to produce afterward, through its own
+combustion, a distillation of the coal following it. But as these are
+features found in all generators we will not dwell upon them.
+
+The gases that are produced flow through a long horizontal flue, B, into
+a vertical conduit, E, into which there debouches at the upper part a
+series of small orifices, F, that conduct the air that has been heated.
+The gases are inflamed, and traverse the furnace c (not shown in the
+cut), from whence they go to the chimney. Before the air is allowed to
+reach the intervening chamber it is made to pass into the sole of the
+furnace and into the walls of the chamber, so that to the advantage of
+having the air heated there is joined the additional one of having those
+portions of the furnace cooled that cannot be heated with impunity.
+
+The incompletely burned gases that escape from the furnace are utilized
+in heating the boilers of the establishment. The dimensions given these
+furnaces vary greatly according to the charge to be used. All the
+results at Ougree have been obtained with 400 kilogramme charges,
+and the dimensions of the gas generators have been calculated for
+Six-Bonniers coal, which does not yield over 20 per cent. of gas.
+
+The advantages of this system, which permits of expediting all the
+operations of puddling, are as follows:
+
+1. A notable economy in fuel, both as regards quantity and quality.
+
+2. Economy resulting from diminution in the waste of metal, with a
+consequent improvement in the quality of the products obtained.
+
+3. Diminution in cost of repairs.
+
+4. Less rapid wear in the grates.
+
+5. Improvement in the conditions of the work of puddling.
+
+As regards the first of these advantages, it may be stated that the
+puddling of ordinary Ougree forge iron, which required with other
+furnaces 900 to 1,000 kilogrammes of coal, is now performed with less
+than 600 kilogrammes per ton of the iron produced. The puddling of fine
+grained iron which required 1,300 to 1,500 kilogrammes of coal is now
+done with 800. So much for quantity; as for quality the system presents
+also a very marked advantage in that it requires no rolling coal--the
+operation of the furnace being just as regular with fine coal, even that
+sifted through screens of 0.02 meter.
+
+The second class of advantages naturally results from the almost
+complete prevention of access of cold air. The saving in wastage amounts
+to 3 or 4 per cent., that is to say, 100 kilogrammes of iron produced is
+accompanied by a loss of only 9 to 10 kilogrammes, instead of 13 to 15
+as ordinarily reckoned.
+
+The diminution in the cost of repairs is due to the fact that the
+furnace doors, of which there are two, permit of easy access to all
+parts of the sole; moreover, the coal never coming in contact with the
+fire-bridges, the latter last much longer than those in other styles of
+furnaces, and can be used for several weeks without the necessity of
+the least repair. The reduced wear of the grates results from the low
+temperature that can be used in the furnace, and the quantity of clinker
+that can be left therein without interfering with its operation, thus
+permitting of having the grates always black. These latter in no wise
+change, and after five months of work the square bars still preserve
+their sharpness of edges.
+
+As for the improvements in the conditions of the work of puddling, it
+may be stated that with a uniform price per 100 kilogrammes for all the
+furnaces, the laborers working at the gas furnaces can earn 25 to 30 per
+cent. more than those working at ordinary furnaces.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GESSNER'S CONTINUOUS CLOTH-PRESSING MACHINE.
+
+
+It is well known that there are several serious drawbacks in the usual
+plan of pressing woolen or worsted cloths and felts with press plates,
+press papers, and presses. Three objections of great weight may be
+mentioned, and events in Leeds give emphasis to a fourth. The three
+objections are--the labor required in setting or folding the cloth,
+the expense of the press papers, and the time required. The fourth
+objection, about which a dispute has occurred between the press-setters
+and the master finishers in Leeds, refers to the inapplicability of the
+common system to long lengths. The men object to these on account of
+the great labor involved in shifting the heavy mass of cloth and press
+plates to and from the presses. A minor drawback of this system is
+that it involves the presence of a fold up the middle of the piece. On
+account of these drawbacks it has long been understood to be desirable
+to expedite the process, and also to dispense with the press papers.
+This is the main purpose of the machine we now illustrate in section, in
+which the pressing is done continuously by what may be termed a species
+of ironing. The machine consists of a central hollow cylinder, C,
+three-quarters of the circumference of which is covered by the hollow
+boxes, M, heated by steam through the pipes shown, and which are
+mounted upon the levers, BB', whose fulcra are at bb. By means of the
+hand-wheel, T, and worm-wheel, n, which closes or opens the levers, BB',
+the pressure of the boxes upon the central roller may be adjusted at
+will, the spring-bolt, F, allowing a certain amount of yield. The faces
+of the press-boxes, MM, are covered by a curved sheet of German silver
+attached to the point, Y. This sheet takes the place of the press papers
+in the ordinary process. The course of the cloth through the machine is
+as follows, and is shown by the arrows: It is placed on the bottom board
+in front, and in its travel it passes over the rails, O, after which it
+is operated on by the brush, Z, leaving which it is conveyed over the
+rails, V and I, the rollers, K and P, and thence between the pressing
+roller, C, and the German silver press plate covering the heated boxes,
+M. Leaving these the piece passes over the roller, P, and is cuttled
+down in the bottom board by the cuttling motion, F, or a rolling-up
+motion may be applied. The maker states that arrangements for brushing
+and steaming may also be attached, so that in one passage through the
+machine a piece may be pressed, brushed, and steamed. The speed of the
+cylinder may be adjusted according to the quality or requirements of
+the goods that are under treatment. At the time of our visit, says the
+_Textile Manufacturer_, printed woolen pieces were being pressed at the
+rate of about four yards a minute, but higher speeds are often obtained.
+Messrs. Taylor, Wordsworth & Co., who have erected many of these
+machines in Leeds, Bradford, and Batley, inform us that they find they
+are adapted for the pressing of a wide variety of cloths, from Bradford
+goods and thin serges to the heavy pieces of Dewsbury and Batley. The
+inventor, Ernst Gessner, of Aue, Saxony, adopts an ingenious expedient
+for pressing goods with thick lists. He provides an arrangement for
+moving the cylinder endwise, according to the different widths of
+the pieces to be treated. One list is left outside at the end of the
+cylinder, and the other at the opposite end of the pressing boxes. The
+machine we saw was 80 in. wide on the roller, and it was one the design
+and construction of which undoubtedly do credit to Mr. Gessner.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVEMENTS IN WOOLEN CARDING ENGINES.
+
+
+Mr. Bolette, who has made a name for himself in connection with strap
+dividers, has experimented in another direction on the carding engine,
+and as his ideas contain some points of novelty we herewith give the
+necessary illustrations, so that our readers can judge for themselves as
+to the merit of these inventions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Fig. 1 represents the feeding arrangement. Here the wool is delivered by
+the feed rollers, A A, in the usual manner. The longer fibers are then
+taken off by a comb, B, and brought forward to the stripper, E, which
+transfers them to the roller, H, and thence to the cylinder. The shorter
+fibers which are not seized by the comb fall down, but as they drop
+they meet a blast of air created by a fan, which throws the lighter and
+cleaner parts in a kind of spray upon the roller, L, whence they pass on
+to the cylinder, while the dirt and other heavier parts fall downwards
+into a box, and are by this means kept off the cylinder. It is evident
+that in this arrangement it is not intended to keep the long and the
+short fibers separate, but to utilize them all in the formation of
+the yarn. The arrangement shown in Fig. 2 refers to the delivery end.
+Instead of the sliver being wound upon the roller in the usual way, it
+runs upon a sheet of linen, P1, as in the case of carding for felt, with
+a to-and-fro motion in the direction of the axis of the rollers. In this
+way one or more layers of the fleece can be placed on the sheet, which
+in that case passes backwards and forwards from roller S to R, and _vice
+versa_. It is, in fact, the bat arrangement used for felt, only with
+this difference, that the bat is at once rolled up instead of going
+through the bat frame. In the manufacture of felt it is of course of
+importance to have many very thin layers of fleece superposed over
+each other in order to equalize it, and if the same is applied to the
+manufacture of cloth it will no doubt give satisfactory results, but may
+be rather costly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NOVELTIES IN RING SPINDLES.
+
+
+One of the drawbacks of ring spinning is the uneven pull of the
+traveler, which is the more difficult to counteract as it is exerted
+in jerks at irregular intervals. It is argued that with spindles and
+bearings as usually made the spindle is supported firmly in its bearing,
+and cannot give in case of such a lateral pull when exerted through the
+yarn by the traveler, and the consequence is either a breakage of the
+yarn or an uneven thread. Impressed with this idea, and in order to
+remedy this defect, an eminent Swiss firm has hit upon the notion of
+driving the spindle by friction, and to make it more or less loose in
+the bearings, so that in case of an extra pull by the traveler the
+spindle can give way a little, and thus prevent the breakage of the
+yarn. This idea has been carried out in four different ways, and as this
+seems to be an entirely new departure in ring spinning, we give the
+illustrations of their construction in detail.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.]
+
+Fig. 1 represents Bourcart's recent arrangement of attaching the thread
+guide to the spindle rail and the adjustable spindle. The spindle is
+held by the sleeve, g, which latter is screwed into the spindle rail, S,
+this being moved by the pinion, a; the collar is elongated upwards in a
+cuplike form, c, the better to hold the oil, and keep it from flying;
+d is the wharf, which has attached to it the sleeve, m, and which is
+situated loosely in the space between the spindle and the footstep, e.
+Above the wharf the spindle is hexagonal in shape, and to this part is
+attached the friction plate, a. Between the latter and the upper surface
+of the wharf a cloth or felt washer is inserted, to act as a brake. The
+footstep, e, is filled with oil, in which run the foot of the spindle
+and the sleeve m, the latter turning upon a steel ring situated on the
+bottom of the footstep. As, thus, the foot of the spindle is quite free,
+the upper part of the spindle can give sideways in the direction of any
+sudden pull, and the foot of the spindle can follow this motion in the
+opposite direction, the collar forming the fulcrum for the spindle. By
+this alteration of the vertical position of the spindle into an inclined
+one (though ever so trifling), the contact of the friction plate, a, and
+the wharf is interrupted, and thus the speed of the spindle reduced.
+This will cause less yarn to be wound on, and the pull thus to be
+neutralized; but as the wharf keeps turning at the same speed, its
+centrifugal force will act again upon the friction plate, and thus bring
+the spindle back to its vertical position as soon as the extra drag has
+been removed.
+
+In Fig. 2 the footstep, e, has the foot of the spindle more closely
+fitting at the bottom, but the upper part of the step opens out
+gradually, and forms a conical cavity of a little larger diameter than
+the spindle, so that the latter has a considerable play sideways. The
+wharf carries in its lower part the sleeve, g, which runs upon a steel
+ring as above. The upper surface of the wharf is arched, and upon this
+is fitted the correspondingly arched friction plate, a, which latter
+is attached to the spindle by a screw. The position of the spindle is
+maintained by the collar, m. This collar is loose in the spindle rail,
+and only held by the spring, m'. If now, a lateral drag is exerted upon
+the upper part of the spindle, the collar car follows the direction of
+this drag, and the spindle thus be brought out of the vertical position,
+the friction plate slipping at the same time. The force of the spring
+conjointly with the centrifugal force will then bring back the spindle
+into its normal position as soon as the drag is again even.
+
+Fig. 3 shows a spindle with a very long conical oil vessel, B, resting
+upon a disk, e", in cup, e', with a cover, e"'. The wharf, d, is here
+situated high up the spindle, has the same sleeve as in the preceding
+case, and runs round the bush, g, upon the ring, z. The friction plate
+resting upon the wharf is joined to the collar, a, running out into a
+cup shape, which is fixed to the spindle, which here has a hexagonal
+form. In this case the collar gives with the spindle, which latter
+has the necessary play in the long footstep; and as the collar and
+friction-plate are one, it is brought back to its normal place by
+centrifugal force.
+
+A peculiar arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. Here the ring and traveler,
+f, are placed as usual, but the spindle carries at the same time an
+inverted flier, t. The spindle turns loosely in the footstep, e, the
+oil chamber being carried up to the middle of its height. The wharf
+is placed in the same position as in the previous case, having also
+a sleeve running in the oil chamber, c, upon a steel ring, z. The
+friction-plate a, on the top of the wharf carries the flier, and on its
+upper surface is in contact with the inverted cup, a, which is attached
+to the spindle by a pin or screw. In order to limit at will the lateral
+motion of the spindle there is attached to the latter, between the
+footstep and the collar, a split ring, i, which can be closed more
+or less by a small set screw. The spindle is thus only held in the
+perpendicular position by its own velocity, which will facilitate a
+high degree of speed, through the entire absence of all friction in the
+bearings, this vertical position being assisted by the friction motion
+whenever the spindle has been drawn on one side. Although the notion of
+mounting spindles so that they can yield in order to center themselves
+is not new, it is evident that considerable ingenuity has been brought
+to bear upon the arrangement of the spindles we have described, but we
+are not in a position to say to what extent practice has in this case
+coincided with theory.--_Textile Manufacturer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTO-ENGRAVING ON ZINC OR COPPER.
+
+By LEON VIDAL.
+
+
+This process is similar in many respects to the one which was some
+time ago communicated to the Photographic Society of France by M.
+Stronbinsky, of St. Petersburg, but in a much improved and complete
+form. An account of it was given by M. Gobert, at the meeting of the
+same society, on the 2d December, 1882. The following are the details,
+as demonstrated by me at the meeting of the 9th of May last:
+
+Sheets of zinc or of copper of a convenient size are carefully planished
+and polished with powdered pumice stone. The sensitive mixture is
+composed of:
+
+  The whites of four fresh eggs beaten
+  to a froth......................... 100    parts
+  Pure bichromate of ammonia.........   2.50   "
+  Water..............................  50      "
+
+After this mixture has been carefully filtered through a paper filter, a
+few drops of ammonia are added. It will keep good for some time if well
+corked and preserved from exposure to the light. Even two months after
+being prepared I have found it to be still good; but too large a
+quantity should not be prepared at a time, as it does not improve with
+keeping.
+
+I find that the dry albumen of commerce will answer as well as the
+fresh. In that case I employ the following formula:
+
+  Dry albumen from eggs.............. 15 to 20    parts
+  Water..............................      100      "
+  Ammonia bichromate.................        2.50   "
+
+Always add some drops of ammonia, and keep this mixture in a well corked
+bottle and in a dark place.
+
+To coat the metal plate, place it on a turning table, to which it is
+made fast at the center by a pneumatic holder; to assure the perfect
+adhesion of this holder, it is as well to wet the circular elastic ring
+of the holder before applying it to the metallic surface. When this is
+done, the table may be made to rotate quickly without fear of detaching
+the plate by the rapidity of the movement. The plate is placed in a
+perfectly horizontal position, where no dust can settle on it; the
+mixture is then poured on it, and distributed by means of a triangular
+piece of soft paper, so as to cover equally all the parts of the plate.
+Care should be taken not to flow too much liquid over the plate, and
+when the latter is everywhere coated, the excess is poured off into a
+different vessel from that which contains the filtered mixture, or else
+into a filter resting on that vessel. The turning table should now be
+inverted so that the sensitive surface may be downwards, and it is made
+to rotate at first slowly, afterwards more rapidly, so as to make the
+film, which should be very thin, quite smooth and even. The whole
+operation should be carried out in a subdued light, as too strong a
+light would render insoluble the film of bichromated albumen.
+
+When the film is equalized the plate must be detached from the turning
+table and placed on a cast iron or tin plate heated to not more than 40 deg.
+or 50 deg. C. A gentle heat is quite sufficient to dry the albumen quickly;
+a greater heat would spoil it, as it would produce coagulation. So soon
+as the film is dry, which will be seen by the iridescent aspect it
+assumes, the plate is allowed to cool to the ordinary temperature,
+and is then at once exposed either beneath a positive, or beneath an
+original drawing the lines of which have been drawn in opaque ink, so as
+to completely prevent the luminous rays from passing through them; the
+light should only penetrate through the white or transparent ground of
+the drawing.
+
+I say a _positive_ because I wish to obtain an engraved plate; if I
+wanted to have a plate for typographic printing, I should have to take a
+_negative_. After exposure the plate must be at once developed, which is
+effected by dissolving in water those parts of the bichromated gelatine
+which have been protected from the action of light by the dark spaces
+of the cliche; these parts remain soluble, while the others have been
+rendered completely insoluble. If the plate were dipped in clear water
+it would be difficult to observe the picture coming out, especially on
+copper. To overcome this difficulty the water must be tinged with some
+aniline color; aniline red or violet, which are soluble in water,
+answers the purpose very well. Enough of the dye must be dissolved in
+the water to give it a tolerably deep color. So soon as the plate is
+plunged into this liquid the albumen not acted on by light is dissolved,
+while the insoluble parts are colored by absorbing the dye, so that the
+metal is exposed in the lines against a red or violet ground, according
+to the color of the dye used.
+
+When the drawing comes out quite perfect, and a complete copy of the
+original, the plate with the image on it is allowed to dry either of its
+own accord, or by submitting it to a gentle heat. So soon as it is dry
+it is etched, and this is done by means of a solution of perchloride
+of iron in alcohol. Both alcohol and iron perchloride will coagulate
+albumen; their action, therefore, on the image will not be injurious,
+since they will harden the remaining albumen still further. But to get
+the full benefit of this, the alcohol and the iron perchloride must
+both be free from water; it is therefore advisable to use the salt in
+crystals which have been thoroughly dried, and the alcohol of a strength
+of 95 deg.
+
+The following is the formula:
+
+  Perchloride of iron, well dried     50 gr.
+  Alcohol at 95 deg.                     100 "
+
+This solution must be carefully filtered so as to get rid of any deposit
+which may form, and must be preserved in a well-corked bottle, when it
+will keep for a long time. The plate is first coated with a varnish of
+bitumen of Judea on the edges (if those parts are not already covered
+with albumen) and on the back, so that the etching liquid can only act
+on the lines to be engraved. It is then placed, with the side to be
+engraved downwards, in a porcelain basin, into which a sufficient
+quantity of the solution of perchloride of iron is poured, and the
+liquid is kept stirred so as to renew the portion which touches the
+plate; but care must be taken not to touch with the brush the parts
+where there is albumen remaining. The length of time that the etching
+must be continued depends on the depth required to be given to
+the engraving; generally a quarter of an hour will be found to be
+sufficient. Should it be thought desirable to extend the action over
+half an hour, the lines will be found to have been very deeply engraved.
+When the etching is considered to have been pushed far enough, the plate
+must be withdrawn from the solution, and washed in plenty of water;
+it must then be forcibly rubbed with a cloth so as to remove all the
+albumen, and after it has been polished with a little pumice, the
+engraving is complete.
+
+It will be seen that this process may be used with advantage instead of
+that of photo-engraving with bitumen, in cases where it is not advisable
+to use acids. One of my friends, Mr. Fisch, suggests the plan--which
+seems to deserve a careful investigation--of combining this process
+with that where bitumen is employed; it would be done somewhat in the
+following way. The plate of metal would be first coated evenly with
+bitumen of Judea on the turning table, and when the bitumen is quite
+dry, it should be again coated with albumen in the manner as described
+above. In full sunlight the exposure need not exceed a minute in length;
+then the plate would be laid in colored water, dried, and immersed in
+spirits of turpentine. The latter will dissolve the bitumen in all
+the parts where it has been exposed by the removal of the albumen not
+rendered insoluble by the action of light. But it remains to be seen
+whether the albumen will not be undermined in this method; therefore,
+before recommending the process, it ought to be thoroughly studied. The
+metal is now exposed in all the parts that have to be etched, while
+all the other parts are protected by a layer of bitumen coated with
+coagulated albumen. Hence we may employ as mordant water acidulated with
+3, 4, or 5 per cent. of nitric acid, according as it is required to have
+the plate etched with greater or less vigor.
+
+By following the directions above given, any one wishing to adopt the
+process cannot fail of obtaining good results, One of its greatest
+advantages is that it is within the reach of every one engaged in
+printing operations.--_Photo News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MERIDIAN LINE.
+
+[Footnote: From Proceedings of the Association of County Surveyors of
+Ohio, Columbus, January, 1882.]
+
+
+The following process has been used by the undersigned for many years.
+The true meridian can thus be found within one minute of arc:
+
+_Directions_.--Nail a slat to the north side of an upper window--the
+higher the better. Let it be 25 feet from the ground or more. Let it
+project 3 feet. Kear the end suspend a plumb-bob, and have it swing in a
+bucket of water. A lamp set in the window will render the upper part of
+the string visible. Place a small table or stand about 20 feet south of
+the plumb-bob, and on its south edge stick the small blade of a pocket
+knife; place the eye close to the blade, and move the stand so as to
+bring the blade, string, and polar star into line. Place the table so
+that the star shall be seen very near the slat in the window. Let this
+be done half an hour before the greatest elongation of the star. Within
+four or five minutes after the first alignment the star will have moved
+to the east or west of the string. Slip the table or the knife a little
+to one side, and align carefully as before. After a few alignments the
+star will move along the string--down, if the elongation is west; up, if
+east. On the first of June the eastern elongation occurs about half-past
+two in the morning, and as daylight comes on shortly after the
+observation is completed, I prefer that time of year. The time of
+meridian passage or of the elongation can be found in almost any work on
+surveying. Of course the observer should choose a calm night.
+
+In the morning the transit can be ranged with the knife blade and
+string, and the proper angle turned off to the left, if the elongation
+is east; to the right, if west.
+
+Instead of turning off the angle, as above described, I measure 200 or
+300 feet northtward, in the direction of the string, and compute the
+offset in feet and inches, set a stake in the ground, and drive a tack
+in the usual way.
+
+Suppose the distance is 250 feet and the angle 1 deg. 40', then the offset
+will be 7,271 feet, or 7 feet 31/4 inches. A minute of arc at the distance
+of 250 feet is seven-eighths of an inch; and this is the most accurate
+way, for the vernier will not mark so small a space accurately.
+
+
+ANGLE OF ELONGATION.
+
+This should be computed by the surveyor for each observation. The
+distance between the star and the pole is continually diminishing, and
+on January 1, 1882, was 1 deg. 18' 48".
+
+There is a slight annual variation in the distance. July 1, 1882, it
+will be 1 deg. 19' 20". If from this latter quantity the observer will
+subtract 16" for 1883, and the same quantity for each succeeding year
+for the next four or five years, no error so great as one-quarter of a
+minute will be made in the position of the meridian as determined in the
+summer months. If winter observations are made, the distance in January
+should be used. The formula for computing the angle of elongation is
+easily made by any one understanding spherical trigonometry, and is
+this:
+
+   R x sin. Polar dist.
+  --------------------- = sin. of angle of elongation.
+        cos. lat.
+
+As an example, suppose the time is July, 1882, and the latitude 40 deg.
+Then the computation being made, the angle will be found to be 1 deg. 43'
+34". A difference of six minutes in the latitude will make less than
+10" difference in the angle, as one can see by trial. Any good State
+or county map will give the latitude to within one or two miles--or
+minutes.
+
+The facts being as here stated, the absurdity of the Ohio law,
+concerning the establishment of county meridians, becomes apparent. The
+longitude has nothing at all to do With the meridian; and a difference
+of _six miles_ in latitude makes no appreciable error in the meridian
+established as here suggested, whereas the statute requires the latitude
+within _one half a second_, which is _fifty feet_. There are some other
+things, besides the ways of Providence, which may be said to be "past
+finding out." It is not probable that a surveyor would err so much as
+_three_ miles in his latitude, but should he do so, then the error in
+his meridian line, resulting from the mistake, will be _five seconds_,
+and a line _one mile_ long, run on a course 5" out of the way, will vary
+but _an inch and a half_ from the true position. Surveyors well know
+that no such accuracy is attainable. R. W. McFARLAND,
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRO-MANIA.
+
+By W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS.
+
+
+A history of electricity, in order to be complete, must include two
+distinct and very different subjects: the history of electrical science,
+and a history of electrical exaggerations and delusions. The progress of
+the first has been followed by a crop of the second from the time when
+Kleist, Muschenbroek, and Cuneus endeavored to bottle the supposed
+fluid, and in the course of these attempts stumbled upon the "Leyden
+jar."
+
+Dr. Lieberkuhn, of Berlin, describes the startling results which he
+obtained, or imagined, "when a nail or a piece of brass wire is put into
+a small apothecary's phial and electrified." He says that "if, while it
+is electrifying, I put my finger or a piece of gold which I hold in my
+hand to the nail, I receive a shock which stuns my arms and shoulders."
+At about the same date (the middle of the last century), Muschenbroek
+stated, in a letter to Reaumur, that, on taking a shock from a thin
+glass bowl, "he felt himself struck in his arms, shoulders, and breast,
+so that he lost his breath, and was two days before he recovered from
+the effects of the blow and the terror" and that he "would not take a
+second shock for the kingdom of France." From the description Of the
+apparatus, it is evident that this dreadful shock was no stronger than
+many of us have taken scores of times for fun, and have given to
+our school-follows when we became the proud possessors of our first
+electrical machine.
+
+Conjurers, mountebanks, itinerant quacks, and other adventurers operated
+throughout Europe, and were found at every country fair and _fete_
+displaying the wonders of the invisible agent by giving shocks and
+professing to cure all imaginable ailments.
+
+Then came the discoveries of Galvani and Volta, followed by the
+demonstrations of Galvani's nephew Aldini, whereby dead animals were
+made to display the movements of life, not only by the electricity of
+the Voltaic pile, but, as Aldini especially showed, by a transfer of
+this mysterious agency from one animal to another.
+
+According to his experiments (that seem to be forgotten by modern
+electricians) the galvanometer of the period, a prepared frog, could be
+made to kick by connecting its nerve and muscle with muscle and nerve of
+a recently killed ox, with, or without metallic intervention.
+
+Thus arose the dogma which still survives in the advertisements of
+electrical quacks, that "electricity is life," and the possibility of
+reviving the dead was believed by many. Executed criminals were in
+active demand; their bodies were expeditiously transferred from the
+gallows or scaffold to the operating table, and their dead limbs were
+made to struggle and plunge, their eyeballs to roll, and their features
+to perpetrate the most horrible contortions by connecting nerves with
+one pole, and muscles with the opposite pole of a battery.
+
+The heart was made to beat, and many men of eminence supposed that if
+this could be combined with artificial respiration, and kept up for
+awhile, the victim of the hangman might be restored, provided the neck
+was not broken. Curious tales were loudly whispered concerning gentle
+hangings and strange doings at Dr. Brookes's, in Leicester Square, and
+at the Hunterian Museum, in Windmill Street, now flourishing as "The
+Cafe de l'Etoile." When a child, I lived about midway between these
+celebrated schools of practical anatomy, and well remember the tales of
+horror that were recounted concerning them. When Bishop and Williams (no
+relation to the writer) were hanged for burking, i.e., murdering people
+in order to provide "subjects" for dissection, their bodies were sent to
+Windmill Street, and the popular notion was that, being old and faithful
+servants of the doctors, they were galvanized to life, and again set up
+in their old business.
+
+It is amusing to read some of the treatises on medical galvanism that
+were published at about this period, and contrast their positive
+statements of cures effected and results anticipated with the position
+now attained by electricity as a curative agent.
+
+Then came the brilliant discoveries of Faraday, Ampere, etc.,
+demonstrating the relations between electricity and magnetism, and
+immediately following them a multitude of patents for electro-motors,
+and wild dreams of superseding steam-engines by magneto-electric
+machinery.
+
+The following, which I copy from the _Penny Mechanic_, of June 10, 1837,
+is curious, and very instructive to those who think of investing in any
+of the electric power companies of to-day: "Mr. Thomas Davenport, a
+Vermont blacksmith, has discovered a mode of applying magnetic and
+electro-magnetic power, which we have good ground for believing will be
+of immense importance to the world." This announcement is followed by
+reference to Professor Silliman's _American Journal of Science and the
+Arts_, for April, 1837, and extracts from American papers, of which the
+following is a specimen: "1. We saw a small cylindrical battery, about
+nine inches in length, three or four in diameter, produce a magnetic
+power of about 300 lb., and which, therefore, we could not move with
+our utmost strength. 2. We saw a small wheel, five-and-a-half inches in
+diameter, performing more than 600 revolutions in a minute, and lift a
+weight of 24 lb. one foot per minute, from the power of a battery of
+still smaller dimensions. 3. We saw a model of a locomotive engine
+traveling on a circular railroad with immense velocity, and rapidly
+ascending an inclined plane of far greater elevation than any hitherto
+ascended by steam-power. And these and various other experiments which
+we saw, convinced us of the truth of the opinion expressed by Professors
+Silliman, Renwick, and others, that the power of machinery may be
+increased from this source beyond any assignable limit. It is computed
+by these learned men that a circular galvanic battery about three feet
+in diameter, with magnets of a proportionable surface, would produce at
+least a hundred horse-power; and therefore that two such batteries would
+be sufficient to propel ships of the largest class across the Atlantic.
+The only materials required to generate and continue this power for
+such a voyage would be a few thin sheets of copper and zinc, and a few
+gallons of mineral water."
+
+The Faure accumulator is but a very weak affair compared with this, Sir
+William Thomson notwithstanding. To render the date of the above fully
+appreciable, I may note that three months later the magazine from which
+it is quoted was illustrated with a picture of the London and Birmingham
+Railway Station displaying a first-class passenger with a box seat on
+the roof of the carriage, and followed by an account of the trip to
+Boxmoor, the first installment of the London and North-Western Railway.
+It tells us that, "the time of starting having arrived, the doors of
+the carriages are closed, and, by the assistance of the conductors, the
+train is moved on a short distance toward the first bridge, where it
+is met by an engine, which conducts it up the inclined plane as far as
+Chalk Farm. Between the canal and this spot stands the station-house for
+the engines; here, also, are fixed the engines which are to be employed
+in drawing the carriages up the inclined plane from Euston Square, by
+a rope upwards of a mile in length, the cost of which was upwards of
+L400." After describing the next change of engines, in the same matter
+of course way as the changing of stage-coach horses, the narrative
+proceeds to say that "entering the tunnel from broad daylight to perfect
+darkness has an exceedingly novel effect."
+
+I make these parallel quotations for the benefit of those who imagine
+that electricity is making such vastly greater strides than other
+sources of power. I well remember making this journey to Boxmoor, and
+four or five years later traveling on a circular electro-magnetic
+railway. Comparing that electric railway with those now exhibiting,
+and comparing the Boxmoor trip with the present work of the London and
+North-Western Railway, I have no hesitation in affirming that the rate
+of progress in electro-locomotion during the last forty years has been
+far smaller than that of steam.
+
+The leading fallacy which is urging the electro-maniacs of the present
+time to their ruinous investments is the idea that electro-motors
+are novelties, and that electric-lighting is in its infancy; while
+gas-lighting is regarded as an old, or mature middle-aged business,
+and therefore we are to expect a marvelous growth of the infant and no
+further progress of the adult.
+
+These excited speculators do not appear to be aware of the fact that
+electric-lighting is older than gas-lighting; that Sir Humphry Davy
+exhibited the electric light in Albemarle Street, while London was still
+dimly lighted by oil-lamps, and long before gas-lighting was attempted
+anywhere. The lamp used by Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, at
+the beginning of the present century, was an arrangement of two
+carbon pencils, between which was formed the "electric arc" by the
+intensely-vivid incandescence and combustion of the particles of carbon
+passing between the solid carbon electrodes. The light exhibited by Davy
+was incomparably more brilliant than anything that has been lately shown
+either in London, or Paris, or at Sydenham. His arc was _four inches
+in length_, the carbon pencils were four inches apart, and a broad,
+dazzling arch of light bridged the whole space between. The modern arc
+lights are but pygmies, mere specks, compared with this; a leap of 1/3
+or 1/4 inch constituting their maximum achievement.
+
+Comparing the actual progress of gas and electric lighting, the gas has
+achieved by far the greater strides; and this is the case even when we
+compare very recent progress.
+
+The improvements connected with gas-making have been steadily
+progressive; scarcely a year has passed from the date of Murdoch's
+efforts to the present time, without some or many decided steps having
+been made. The progress of electric-lighting has been a series of
+spasmodic leaps, backward as well as forward.
+
+As an example of stepping backward, I may refer to what the newspapers
+have described as the "discoveries" of Mr. Edison, or the use of an
+incandescent wire, or stick, or sheet of platinum, or platino-iridium;
+or a thread of carbon, of which the "Swan" and other modern lights are
+rival modifications.
+
+As far back as 1846 I was engaged in making apparatus and experiments
+for the purpose of turning to practical account "King's patent electric
+light," the actual inventor of which was a young American, named Starr,
+who died in 1847, when about 25 years of age, a victim of overwork
+and disappointment in his efforts to perfect this invention and a
+magneto-electric machine, intended to supply the power in accordance
+with some of the "latest improvements" of 1881 and 1882.
+
+I had a share in this venture, and was very enthusiastic until after I
+had become practically acquainted with the subject. We had no difficulty
+in obtaining a splendid and perfectly steady light, better than any that
+are shown at the Crystal Palace.
+
+We used platinum, and alloys of platinum and iridium, abandoned them as
+Edison did more than thirty years later, and then tried a multitude of
+forms of carbon, including that which constitutes the last "discovery"
+of Mr. Edison, viz., burnt cane. Starr tried this on theoretical
+grounds, because cane being coated with silica, he predicted that by
+charring it we should obtain a more compact stick or thread, as the
+fusion of the silica would hold the carbon particles together. He
+finally abandoned this and all the rest in favor of the hard deposit of
+carbon which lines the inside of gas-retorts, some specimens of which we
+found to be so hard that we required a lapidary's wheel to cut them into
+the thin sticks.
+
+Our final wick was a piece of this of square section, and about 1/8 of
+an inch across each way. It was mounted between two forceps--one holding
+each end, and thus leaving a clear half-inch between. The forceps were
+soldered to platinum wires, one of which passed upward through the top
+of the barometer tube, expanded into a lamp glass at its upper part.
+This wire was sealed to the glass as it passed through. The lower wire
+passed down the middle of the tube.
+
+The tube was filled with mercury and inverted over a cup of mercury.
+Being 30 inches long up to the bottom of the expanded portion, or lamp
+globe, the mercury fell below this and left a Torricellian vacuum there.
+One pole of the battery, or dynamo-machine, was connected with the
+mercury in the cup, and the other with the upper wire. The stick of
+carbon glowed brilliantly, and with perfect steadiness.
+
+I subsequently exhibited this apparatus in the Town-hall of Birmingham,
+and many times at the Midland Institute. The only scientific difficulty
+connected with this arrangement was that due to a slight volatilization
+of the carbon, and its deposition as a brown film upon the lamp glass;
+but this difficulty is not insuperable.--_Knowledge_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ACTION OF MAGNETS UPON THE VOLTAIC ARC.
+
+
+The action of magnets upon the voltaic arc has been known for a long
+time past. Davy even succeeded in influencing the latter powerfully
+enough in this way to divide it, and since his time Messrs. Grove and
+Quet have studied the effect under different conditions. In 1859, I
+myself undertook numerous researches on this subject, and experimented
+on the induction spark of the Ruhmkorff coil, the results of these
+researches having been published in the last two editions of my notes on
+the Ruhmkorff apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+These researches were summed up in the journal _La Lumiere Electrique_
+for June 15, 1879. Recently, Mr. Pilleux has addressed to us some new
+experiments on the same subject, made on the voltaic arc produced by a
+De Meritens alternating current machine. Naturally, he has found the
+same phenomena that I had made known; but he thinks that these new
+researches are worthy of interest by reason of the nature of the arc in
+which he experimented, and which, according to him, is of a different
+nature from all those on which, up to the present time, experiments have
+been made. Such a distinction as this, however, merits a discussion.
+
+With the induction spark, magnets have an action only on the aureola
+which accompanies the line of fire of the static discharge; and this
+aureola, being only a sort of sheath of heated air containing many
+particles of metal derived from the rheophores, represents exactly the
+voltaic arc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+Moreover, although the induced currents developed in the bobbin are
+alternately of opposite direction, the galvanometer shows that the
+currents that traverse the break are of the same direction, and that
+these are direct ones. The reversed currents are, then, arrested during
+their passage; and, in order to collect them, it becomes necessary to
+considerably diminish the gaseous pressure of the aeriform conductor
+interposed in the discharge; to increase its conductivity; or to open to
+the current a very resistant metallic derivation. By this latter means,
+I have succeeded in isolating, one from the other, in two different
+circuits, the direct induced currents and the reversed induced ones.
+As only direct currents can, in air at a normal pressure, traverse
+the break through which the induction spark passes, the aureola that
+surrounds it may be considered as being exactly in the same conditions
+as a voltaic arc, and, consequently, as representing an extensible
+conductor traversed by a current flowing in a definite direction. Such
+a conductor is consequently susceptible of being influenced by all the
+external reactions that can be exerted upon a current; only, by reason
+of its mobility, the conductor may possibly give way to the action
+exerted upon the current traversing it, and undergo deformations that
+are in relation with the laws of Ampere. It is in this manner that I
+have explained the different forms that the aureola of the induction
+spark assumes when it is submitted to the action of a magnet in the
+direction of its axial line, or in that of its equatorial line, or
+perpendicular to these latter, or upon the magnetic poles themselves.
+
+Experiments of a very definite kind have not yet been made as to the
+nature of the arc produced by induced currents developed in alternating
+current machines; but, from the experiments made with electric candles,
+we are forced to admit that the current reacts as if it were alternately
+reversed through the arc, since the carbons are used up to an equal
+degree; and, moreover, Mr. Pilleux's experiments show that effects
+analogous to those of induction coils are produced by the reaction of
+magnets upon the arc. There is, then, here a doubtful point that it
+would be interesting to clear up; and we believe that it is consequently
+proper to introduce in this place Mr. Pilleux's note:
+
+"Having at my disposal," says he, "a powerful vertical voltaic arc of 12
+centimeters in length, kept up by alternately reversed currents, and one
+of the most powerful permanent magnets that Mr. De Meritens employs for
+magneto-electric machines, I have been enabled to make the following
+experiments:
+
+"1. When I caused one of the poles of my magnet to slowly approach the
+voltaic arc, I ascertained that, at a distance of 10 centimeters, the
+arc became flattened so as to assume the appearance of those gas jets
+called 'butterfly.' The plane of the 'butterfly' was parallel with the
+pole that I presented, or, in other words, with the section of the
+magnet. At the same time, the arc began to emit a strident noise, which
+became deafening when the pole of the magnet was brought to within a
+distance of about 2 millimeters. At this moment, the butterfly form
+produced by the arc was _greatly spread out, and reduced to the
+thickness of a sheet of paper_; and then it burst with violence, and
+projected to a distance a great number of particles of incandescent
+carbon.
+
+"2. The magnet employed being a horseshoe one, when I directed it
+laterally so as to present successively, now the north and then the
+south pole to the arc, the 'butterfly' pivoted upon itself so as not to
+present the same surface to each pole of the magnet."
+
+By referring to the accompanying figure, which we extract from our note
+on the Ruhmkorff apparatus, it will be seen that the aureola which
+developed as a circular film from right to left at D, on the north pole
+of the magnet, N.S. (Fig. 1), projected itself in an opposite direction
+at C, upon the south pole, S, of the same magnet; but, between the two
+poles, these two contrary actions being obliged to unite, they gave rise
+in doing so to a very characteristic helicoid spiral whose direction
+depended upon that of the current of discharge through the aureola,
+or upon the polarity of the magnetic poles. On the contrary, when the
+discharge took place in the direction of the equatorial line, as in Fig.
+2, the circular film developed itself in the plane of the neutral line
+above or below the line of discharge, according to the direction of the
+current and the magnetic polarity of the magnet.
+
+There is, then, between Mr. Pilleux's experiments and my own so great an
+analogy that we might draw the deduction therefrom that induced currents
+in alternating machines have, like those of the Ruhmkorff coil, a
+definite direction, which would be that of currents having the greatest
+tension, that is to say, that of direct currents. This hypothesis seems
+to us the more plausible in that Mr. J. Van Malderem has demonstrated
+that the attraction of solenoids with the currents, not straight,
+of magneto-electric machines is almost as great as that of the same
+solenoids with straight currents; and it is very likely that the
+difference which may then exist should be so much the less in proportion
+as the induced currents have more tension. We might, then, perhaps
+explain the different effects of the wear of the carbons serving as
+rheophores, according as the currents are continuous or alternating, by
+the different calorific effects produced on these carbons, and by the
+effects of electric conveyance which are a consequence of the passage of
+the current through the arc.
+
+We know that with continuous currents the positive carbon possesses a
+much higher temperature than the negative, and that its wear is about
+twice greater than that of the latter. But such greater wear of the
+positive carbon is especially due to the fact that combustion is greater
+on it than on the negative, and also to the fact that the carbonaceous
+particles carried along by the current to the positive pole are
+deposited in part upon the other pole. Supposing that these polarities
+of the carbons were being constantly alternately reversed, the effects
+might be symmetrical from all quarters, although the only current
+traversing the break were of the same direction; for, admitting that the
+reverse currents could not traverse the break, they would exist none the
+less for all that, and they might give rise (as has been demonstrated
+by Mr. Gaugain with regard to the discharges of the induction spark
+intercepted by the insulating plate of a condenser) to return discharges
+through the generator, which would then have, in the metallic part of
+the circuit, the same direction as the direct currents succeeding,
+although they had momentarily brought about opposite polarities in the
+electrodes. What might make us suppose such an interpretation of the
+phenomenon to have its _raison d'etre_, is that with the induced
+currents of the Ruhmkorff coil, it is not the positive pole that is
+the hottest, but rather the negative; from whence we might draw the
+deduction that it is not so much the direction of the current that
+determines the calorific effect in the electrodes, as the conditions of
+such current with respect to the generator. I should not be
+surprised, then, if, in the arc formed by the alternating currents of
+magneto-electric machines, there should pass only one current of the
+same direction, and which would be the one formed by the superposition
+of direct currents, and if the reverse currents should cause return
+discharges in the midst of the generating bobbins at the moment the
+direct currents were generated.--_Th. Du Moncel_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VOLCKMAR'S SECONDARY BATTERIES.
+
+
+The inventive genius of the country is now directed to these important
+accessories of electric enterprise, and no wonder, for as far as can at
+present be seen, the secret of electric motion lies in these secondary
+batteries. Among other contributions of this kind is the following, by
+Ernest Volckmar, electrician, Paris:
+
+The object of this invention is to render unnecessary the use in
+secondary batteries of a porous pot which creates useless resistance
+to the electric current, and to store in an apparatus of comparatively
+small weight and bulk considerable electric force. To this end two
+reticulated or perforated plates of lead of similar proportions are
+prepared, and their interstices are filled with granules or filaments of
+lead, by preference chemically pure. These plates are then submitted to
+pressure, and placed together, with strips of nonconducting material
+interposed between them, in a suitable vessel containing a bath of
+acidulated water. The plates being connected with wires from an electric
+generator are brought for a while under the action of the current, to
+peroxidize and reduce the whole of the finely divided lead exposed to
+the acidulated water. The secondary battery is then complete. It will be
+understood that any number of these pairs of plates may be combined to
+form a secondary battery, their number being determined by the amount
+of storage required. The perforated plates of lead may be prepared by
+drilling, casting, or in other convenient manner, but the apertures, of
+whatever form, should be placed as closely together as possible, and
+the finely divided lead to be peroxidized is pressed into the cells or
+cavities so as to fill their interiors only.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY, AND THE
+MINERALS OCCURRING THEREIN.
+
+By NELSON H. DARTON.
+
+
+There will be many persons in the city of New York and its suburbs who
+will not have the time or facilities for leaving town during the summer,
+to spend a part of their time enjoying the country, but would have
+sufficient time to take occasional recreation for short periods. I have
+sought by this paper to show a pleasurable, and at the same time very
+instructive use for the time of this latter class, and that is in
+mineralogy. In the surrounding parts of New York are many mineralogical
+localities, known to no others than a few professional mineralogists,
+etc., and from which an excellent assortment of minerals may be
+obtained, which would well grace a cabinet and afford considerable
+instruction and entertainment to their owner and friends, besides acting
+as an incentive to a further study of this and the other sciences. These
+localities which I will discuss are all within an hour's ride from New
+York, and the expenses inside of a half dollar, and generally very much
+less. I could detail many other places further off, but will reserve
+that for another paper.
+
+The course which I will pursue in my explanations I have purposely made
+very simple, avoiding--or when using, explaining--all technical terms.
+The apparatus and tests noticed are of the most rudimentary style
+consistent with that which is necessary to attain the simple purpose of
+distinguishment, and altogether I have prepared this paper for those
+having at the present time little or no knowledge or practice in
+mineralogy, while those having it can be led perhaps by the details of
+the localities noticed. Another reason why I have written so in detail
+of this last subject is, because the experiences of most amateur
+mineralogists are generally so very discouraging in their endeavors to
+find the minerals, and there is everything in giving a good start
+to properly fix the interest on the subject. The reason of these
+discouragements is simple, and generally because they do not know the
+portion of the locality, say, for instance, a certain township, in which
+the minerals occur. And if they do succeed in finding this, it is seldom
+that the portion in which the mineral occurs, which is generally some
+small inconspicuous vein or fissure, is found; and even in this it
+is generally difficult to recognize and isolate the mineral from the
+extraneous matter holding it. As an instance of this I might cite thus:
+Dana, in his text book on mineralogy, will mention the locality for
+a certain species, as Bergen Hill--say for this instance, dogtooth
+calespar. When we consider that Bergen Hill, in the limited sense of the
+expression, is ten miles long and fully one mile wide, and as the rock
+outcrops nearly all over it, and it is also covered with quarries,
+cuttings, etc., it may be seen that this direction is rather indefinite.
+To the professional mineralogist it is but an index, however, and he
+may consult the authority it is quoted from--the _American Journal of
+Science_, etc.--and thus find the part referred to, or by consulting
+other mineralogists who happen to know. Again, the person having found
+by inquiry that the part referred to is the Pennsylvania Railroad, and
+as this is fully a mile long and interspersed with various prominent
+looking, but veins of a mineral of little value, at any rate not the one
+in question, they are few who could suppose that it occurred in that.
+Apparently a vein of it would not be noticed at all from the surrounding
+rock of gravelly earth, but there it is, and in a vein of chlorite. This
+is so throughout the long and more or less complete stated lists of
+mineralogical localities. Thus I will, in describing the mineral, after
+explaining the conditions under which it occurs, give almost the
+exact spot where I have found the same mineral myself, and have left
+sufficiently fine specimens to carry away, and thus no time will be lost
+in going over fruitless ground, and further, this paper is written up to
+the date given at its end, insuring a necessary presence of them.
+
+In order that one not familiar with mineral specimens should not carry
+off from the various localities a variety of worthless stones, etc.,
+which are frequently more or less attractive to an inexperienced eye,
+the following hints may be salutary.
+
+There are the varieties of three minerals, which are very commonly met
+with in greater or less abundance in mineralogical trips: they are of
+calcite, steatite, and quartz. They occur in so many modifications of
+form, color, and condition that one might speedily form a cabinet of
+these, if they were taken when met with, and imagine it to be of great
+value. The first of these is calcite. It occurs as marble, limestone;
+calcspar, dogtooth spar, nail head spar, stalactites, and a number of
+other forms, which are only valuable when occurring in perfect crystals
+or uniquely set upon the rock holding it. The calcspar is extremely
+abundant at Bergen Hill, where it might be mistaken for many of the
+other minerals which I describe as occurring there, and even in
+preference to them, to one's great chagrin upon arriving home and
+testing it, to find that it is nothing but calcite. In order to avoid
+this and distinguish this mineral on the field, it should be tested with
+a single drop of acid, which on coming in contact with it bubbles up or
+effervesces like soda water, seidlitz powder, etc., while it does not do
+so with any of the minerals occurring in the same locality. This acid
+is prepared for use as follows: about twenty drops of muriatic acid are
+procured from a druggist in a half-ounce bottle, which is then filled up
+with water and kept tightly corked. It is applied by taking a drop out
+on a wisp of broom or a small minim dropper, which may be obtained at
+the druggist's also. I do not say that in every case this mineral should
+be rejected, because it is frequently very beautiful and worthy of place
+in a cabinet, but should be kept only under the conditions mentioned
+further on in this paper, under the head of "Calcite in Weehawken
+Tunnel."
+
+The next mineral abundant in so many forms is quartz, and is not so
+readily distinguished as calcite. It is found of every color, shape,
+etc., possible, and that which is found in any of the localities I am
+about to describe, with the exception of fine crystals on Staten Island,
+are of no value and may be rejected, unless answering in detail to the
+description given under Staten Island. The method of distinguishing the
+quartz is by its hardness, which is generally so great that it cannot be
+scratched by the point of a knife, or at least with great difficulty,
+and a fragment of it will scratch glass readily; thus it is
+distinguished from the other minerals occurring in the localities
+discussed in this paper.
+
+The other minerals so common are the varieties of steatite. This is
+especially so at Bergen Hill and Staten Island. They occur in amorphous
+masses generally, and may be distinguished by being so soft as to be
+readily cut by the finger nail. I will detail further upon the soapstone
+forms in discussing the localities on Staten Island, and the chloritic
+form under the head of "Weehawken Tunnel." The surest method of avoiding
+these and recognizing the others by their appearance, which is generally
+the only guide used by a professional mineralogist, is to copy off the
+lists of the various minerals I describe, and, by visiting the American
+Museum of Natural History on any week day except Mondays and Tuesdays,
+one may see and become familiar with the minerals they are going
+in quest of, besides others in the cases. This method is much more
+satisfactory than printed descriptions, and saves the labor of many of
+the distinguishing manipulations I am about to describe, besides saving
+the trouble of bringing inferior specimens of the minerals home.
+
+In going forth on a trip one should be provided with a mineralogical
+hammer, or one answering its purpose, and a cold chisel with which to
+detach or trim the minerals from adhering rocks, the bottle of acid
+before referred to, and a three cornered file for testing hardness,
+as explained further on. As I noticed before, the better plan of
+distinguishing a mineral is by being familiar with its appearance, but
+as this is generally impracticable, I will detail the modes used in
+lieu of this to be applied on bringing the minerals home. These
+distinguishments depend on difference in specific gravity, hardness,
+solubility in hot acids, and the action of high heat. I will explain the
+application of each one separately, commencing with--
+
+_The Specific Gravity_.--In ascertaining the specific gravity the
+following apparatus is necessary: a small pair of hand scales with a set
+of weights, from one grain to one ounce. These can be procured from the
+apparatus maker, the scales for about fifty cents, and the weights for
+not much over the same amount. The scales are prepared for this work by
+cutting two small holes in one of the scale pans, near together, with
+a pointed piece of metal, and tying a piece of silk thread about eight
+inches long into these. In a loop at the end of this thread the mineral
+to be examined is suspended. It should be a pure representative of the
+mineral it is taken from, should weigh about from one hundred grains to
+an ounce, and be quite dry and free from dirt. If the piece of mineral
+obtained is very large, this sized portion may be often taken from it
+without injury; but it will not do to mar the beauty of a mineral to
+ascertain its specific gravity, and it is generally only applicable
+when a small piece is at hand. With more weights, however, a piece of a
+quarter pound weight may be taken if necessary. The mineral is tied into
+the loop and weighed, the weight being set down in the note book, either
+in grains or decimal parts of an ounce. Call this result A. It is then
+weighed in some water held in a vessel containing about a quart, taking
+care while weighing it that it is entirely immersed, but at the same
+time does not touch either the sides or bottom. Both weighings should
+be accurate to a grain. This result we call B. The specific gravity is
+found by subtracting B from A, and dividing A by the remainder. For
+instance, if the mineral weighed eight hundred grains when weighed in
+the air, and in the water six hundred, giving us the equation: 800
+/ (800 - 600) = sp. gr., or 4, which is the specific gravity of
+the mineral. If the mineral whose specific gravity is sought is an
+incrustation on a rock, or a mixture of a number of minerals, or would
+break to pieces in the water, the specific gravity is by this method of
+course unattainable, and other data must be used.
+
+_The Comparative Hardness_.--The next characteristic of the mineral to
+be ascertained is the comparative hardness. In mineralogy there is a
+scale fixed for comparison, from 1 to 10, 10 being the hardest, the
+diamond, and Number 1 the soft soapstone. These and the intermediate
+minerals fixed upon the scale are generally inaccessible to those who
+may use the contents of this paper, and I will give some more familiar
+materials for comparison. 8, 9, and 10 are the topaz, sapphire, and
+diamond respectively, and as these and minerals of similar hardness will
+probably not be found in any of the localities of which I make mention,
+we need not become accustomed to them for the present. 7 is of
+sufficient hardness to scratch glass, and is also not to be cut with the
+file before mentioned, which is used for these determinations. 6 is
+of the hardness of ordinary French glass. 5 is about the hardness of
+horse-shoe or similar iron; 4 of the brown stone (sandstone) of which
+the fronts of many city buildings, etc., are built; 3 of marble; 2 of
+alabaster; and 1 as French chalk, or so soft as to be readily cut with
+the finger nail. The method of using and applying these comparisons is
+by having the above matters at hand, and compare them by the relative
+ease with which they can be cut by running the edge of the file over
+their surface. One will soon become familiar with the scale, and it
+may of course then be discarded. As it is one of the most important
+characteristics of some of the minerals, it should be carefully
+executed, and the result carefully considered. It is of course
+inapplicable under those conditions with minerals that are in very small
+crystals or in a fibrous condition.
+
+_Action of Hot Acids_.--This very important test is never, like the
+above, applicable upon the field, but applied when home is reached.
+From the body of the mineral as pure and clean as possible a portion is
+chipped, about the size of a small pea; this is wrapped in a piece of
+stiff wrapping paper, and after placing it in contact with a solid body,
+crushed finally by a blow from the hammer. A pinch of the powder so
+obtained is taken up on the point of a penknife, and transferred into
+a test tube. Two or more of these should be provided, about six inches
+long. They may be obtained in the apparatus shop for a trifle. Some
+hydrochloric, or, as it is generally called, muriatic acid, is poured
+upon it to the depth of about three quarters of an inch; the tube is
+then placed in some boiling water heated over a lamp in a tinned or
+other vessel, and allowed to boil for from ten to fifteen minutes;
+the tube is then removed and its contents allowed to cool, and then
+examined. If the powder has all disappeared, we term the mineral
+"soluble;" if more or less is dissolved, "partly soluble;" if none,
+"insoluble;" and if the contents of the tube are of a solid transparent
+mass like jelly, "gelatinous;" while if transparent gelatinous flakes
+are left, it is so termed. As this method of distinguishment is always
+applicable, it is very important, and its detail and result should be
+carefully noticed. Care should be taken that only a small portion of
+the mineral is used, and also but little acid; the action should be
+observed, and is frequently a characteristic, in the case with calcspar,
+which effervesces while dissolving. The acid used is hydrochloric at
+first, and then, if the mineral cannot he recognized, the same treatment
+may be repeated using nitric acid. Both of these acids should be at hand
+and two ounces are generally sufficient.
+
+_Action of Heat_.--This is, perhaps, the most important characteristic,
+and, when taken with the preceding data, will identify any of the
+minerals found in any one locality, which I will describe, from each
+other. The heat is applied to the mineral by means of a candle and
+blowpipe. A thick wax candle answers well, and an ordinary japanned tin
+blowpipe, costing twenty cents, will serve the purpose. The substance
+to be examined is held on a loop of platinum wire about one inch to the
+left and just below the top of the wick, which is bent toward it. Here
+it is steadily held, as is shown in Fig. 1, and the flame of the candle
+bent over upon it, and the heat intensified by blowing a steady and
+strong current of air across it by means of the blowpipe held in the
+mouth and supported by the right hand, whose elbow is resting upon the
+table. The current of air is difficult to keep up by one unaccustomed to
+the blowpipe, the skill of using which is readily obtained; it consists
+in breathing through the nostrils, while the air is forced out by
+pressure on the air held by the inflated cheeks, and not from the lungs.
+This can be practiced while not using the blow-pipe, and may readily
+be accomplished by one's keeping his cheeks distended with air and
+breathing at the same time.
+
+This heat is steadily applied until the splinter of mineral has been
+kept at a high red heat for a sufficient length of time to convince one
+of what it may do, as fuse or not, or on the edges. The first two
+are evident, as when it fuses it runs into a globule; the last, by
+inspecting it before and after the heating with a magnifying glass;
+sometimes it froths up when heated, and is then said to "intumesce;" or,
+if it flies to fragments, "decrepitates." Upon the first it is further
+heated; but in the latter case, a new splinter of mineral must be broken
+off from the mass and heated upon the wire very cautiously until quite
+hot, when it may then be readily heated further without fear of loss.
+For holding the splinter of mineral, which should well represent the
+mass and be quite small, is a three-inch length of platinum wire of the
+thickness of a cambric-needle; this may be bought for about ten cents at
+the apparatus shop. The ends should be looped, as is shown in Fig. 2,
+and the mineral placed in the loop.
+
+Sometimes a mineral has to be fused with borax, as I mention further
+on in my tables. This is done by heating the wire-loop to redness, and
+plunging it into some borax; what adheres is fused upon it by heating.
+Some more is accumulated in the same manner, until the loop is filled
+with a fair-sized globule. A small quantity of the mineral, which had
+been crushed as for the acid test, is caused to adhere to it while it is
+molten, and then the heat of the blast directed upon it for some time
+until either the small fragments of mineral dissolve, or positively
+refuse to do so. After cooling, the aspect of the globule is noticed as
+to color, transparency, etc. Care must be taken that too large an amount
+of the mineral is not taken, a very minute amount being sufficient.
+
+I trust by the use of these distinguishing reactions one will be able
+to recognize by the tables to be given the name of the mineral in hand,
+especially as they are from certain parts, where all the minerals
+occurring therein are known to us; and I have worded the characteristics
+so that they will serve to isolate from all that possibly could be found
+in that locality.
+
+The first general locality is Bergen Hill, New Jersey. This comprises
+the range of bluffs of trap rock commencing at Bergen Point and running
+up behind Jersey City and Hoboken, etc., to the part opposite about
+Thirtieth Street, New York, where it comes close to the river, and from
+there along the river to the north for a long distance, known as the
+Palisades. It is about a mile wide on an average, and from a few feet to
+about two hundred feet in height. The mineralogical localities in and
+upon it are at the following parts, commencing at the south: First
+Pennsylvania Railroad cuts where the mining operations are just about
+completed; then the Erie Tunnel, in which the specimens that first made
+Bergen Hill noted as a mineralogical locality, and whose equals have not
+since been procured, were found, but which is now inaccessible to the
+general public. Further north is the Morris and Essex Tunnel, in which
+many fine specimens were secured, and is also inaccessible; and last,
+but far from being least, is the Ontario Tunnel at Weehawken; and, as
+it is the only practicable part besides the Pennsylvania Railroad and a
+number of surface outcrops which I will mention, I will commence with
+that.
+
+_The Weehawken Tunnel_--This tunnel is now being cut through the
+trap-rock for the New York, Ontario, and Western Railroad, and will
+be completed in a few months, but will, probably, be available as a
+mineralogical locality for a year to come. It is located about half a
+mile south of the Weehawken Ferry from Forty-second Street, New York
+city, and the place where to climb upon the hill to get to the shafts
+leading to it is made prominent by the large body of light-colored rock
+on the dump, a few rods north of where the east entrance is to be. The
+western end is in the village of New Durham, on the New Jersey Northern
+Railroad, and recognized by the immense earth excavations. A pass is
+necessary to gain admittance down the shafts, and this can be procured
+from the office of the company, between the third and fourth shafts to
+the tunnel, in the grocery and provision store just to the north of
+the tramway connecting the shafts on the surface. As it will not be
+necessary to go down in any of the shafts besides the first and second
+in order to fulfill the objects of this paper, no difficulty need be
+encountered in procuring the pass if this is stated.
+
+These two shafts are about eight hundred feet apart and one hundred and
+seventy feet deep. A platform elevator is the mode of access to the
+tunneled portion below, and a free shower-bath is included in the
+descent; consequently, a rubber-coat and water tight boots are
+necessary. A pair of overalls should be worn if one is to engage in
+any active exploration below; candles should also be provided, as the
+electric lights, at the face of the headings, give but little light, and
+remind one very forcibly of a dim flash light with a foliaged tree in
+front of it. The electric wires for supplying these arrangements run
+along the north side of the tunnel for those on the east headings, and
+on the south side for the west. They are excellent things to keep clear
+of, as they have sufficient current passing through them to knock one
+down; thus their position can be readily ascertained.
+
+_Modes of Occurrence of the Minerals_.--In general, the greater number
+of the specimens which are to be found in the tunnel occur in veins
+generally perpendicular, and with other minerals of little or no value,
+as calcite, chlorite, and imperfect crystals of the same mineral. A
+few occur in nodules inclosed in the solid body of rock, and in which
+condition they are seldom of value. The greater abundance are in the
+veins of the dark-green soft chlorite, and some few in horizontal beds.
+The minerals are found in the first condition by examining all the veins
+running from floor to ceiling of the tunnel. The ores of calcite first
+mentioned are very conspicuous, they being white in the dense black
+rock. They may be chipped from, as there are about thirty or forty of
+them exposed in each shaft, and the character of the minerals examined
+to see if anything but calcite is in it. This is ascertained by a drop
+of acid, as explained before, and by the descriptions given further on.
+The veins of chlorite are not so conspicuous, being of a dark-green
+color; but by probing along the walls with a stick or hammer, they may
+be recognized by their softness, or by its dull glistening appearance.
+They are comparatively few, but from an inch to three feet wide; and
+minerals are found by digging it out with a stick or a three-foot drill,
+to be had at the headings. Where the most minerals occur in the chlorite
+is when plenty of veins of calcite are in its vicinity, and its edges
+near the trap are dry and crumbly. It is here where the minerals are
+found in this crumbly chlorite, and generally in geodes--that is, the
+faces of the minerals all point inward, formerly a spherical mass--rough
+and uncouth on the outside, and from half an inch to nearly a foot in
+diameter. These are valuable finds, and well worth digging for. The beds
+of minerals generally are of but one species, and will be mentioned
+under the head of the minerals occurring in them. Besides, in the tunnel
+there are generally more or less perfect minerals upon the main dump
+over the edge of the bluff toward the river. Here many specimens that
+have escaped the eyes of the miners may be found among the loose rock,
+being constantly strewn out by the incline of the bed; in fact, this is
+the only place in which quite a number of the incident minerals may be
+found; but I will not linger longer on this, as I shall refer to it
+under the minerals individually.
+
+The minerals occurring at the tunnel are as follows, with their
+descriptions and locations in the order of their greatest abundance:
+
+_Calcite_.--This mineral occurs in great abundance in and about the
+tunnel, and from all the shafts. There are two forms occurring there,
+the most abundant of which is the rhombohedral, after Fig. 3. It can
+generally be obtained, however, in excellent crystals, which, although
+perfect in form, are opaque, but often large and beautiful. It is always
+packed with a thousand or its multiple of other crystals into veins of a
+few inches thick; and crystals are obtained by carefully breaking with
+edge of the cold chisel these masses down to the fundamental form shown.
+As the masses are never secured by the miners, they can always be picked
+from the piles of _debris_ around the shafts and the dumps, and afford
+some little instruction as to the manner in which a mineral is built up
+by crystallization, and may be subdivided by cleavage to a crystal of
+the same shape exactly, but infinitesimally small. A crystal to be worth
+preserving should be about an inch in diameter, and as transparent as is
+attainable.
+
+Another form of calcite which is to be sparingly found is what is called
+dogtooth spar, having the form shown in Fig. 4. They occur in clear
+wine-yellow-colored crystals, from a quarter to half an inch in length;
+they occur in the chlorite in geodes of variable sizes, but generally
+two and a half inches in diameter, and which, when carefully broken in
+half, showed beautiful grottoes of these crystals. The few of these that
+I have found were in the four-foot vein of chlorite down the Shaft No.
+1, to the west of the shaft about one hundred and fifty feet, and on
+the south wall; it may be readily found by probing for it, and then the
+geodes by digging in. There need be no difficulty in finding this vein
+if these conditions are carefully considered, or if one of the miners
+be asked as to the soft vein. Both these forms of calcite may be
+distinguished from the other minerals by first effervescing on coming
+in contact with the acids; second, by glowing with an intense (almost
+unbearably so) light when heated with the blowpipe, but not fusing.
+Their specific gravity is 2.6, or near it, and hardness about 3, or
+equal to ordinary unpolished white marble.
+
+_Natrolite_.--The finest specimens of this mineral that have ever been
+found in Bergen Hill were taken from a bed of it in this tunnel, having
+in its original form, before it was cut out by the tunnel passing
+through, over one hundred square feet, and from one-half to two and a
+half and even three inches in thickness; it was in all possible shapes
+and forms--all extremely rare and beautiful. A large part of one end
+of this bed still remains, and, by careful cutting, fine masses may be
+obtained. This bed may be readily found; it is nearly horizontal, and in
+its center about four feet from the floor of the tunnel, and about half
+an inch thick. It is down Shaft No. 2, on the north wall, and commences
+about eighty feet from the shaft. It is cut into in some places, but
+there is plenty more left, and can be obtained by cutting the rock
+above it and easing it out by means of the blade of a knife or similar
+instrument. This natrolite is a grouping of very small but perfect
+crystals, having the forms shown in Fig. 5; they are from a quarter to
+an inch long, and, if not perfectly transparent, are of a pure white
+color; they may be readily recognized by their form, and occurring in
+this bed. Its hardness, which is seldom to be ascertained owing to the
+delicacy of the crystals, is about 5, and the specific gravity 2.2.
+This is readily found, but is no distinction; its reaction before the
+blowpipe, however, is characteristic, it readily fusing to a transparent
+globule, clear and glassy, and by forming a jelly when heated with
+acids. The bed holding the upright crystals is also natrolite in
+confused matted masses. This mineral has also been found in other parts
+of the shaft, but only in small druses. There is a prospect at present
+that another bed will be uncovered soon, and some more fine specimens to
+be easily obtained.
+
+_Pectolite_, or as it is termed by the miners, "silky spar."--This
+mineral is quite abundant and in fine masses, not of the great beauty
+and size of those taken from the Erie Tunnel, but still of great
+uniqueness. The mineral is recognized by its peculiar appearance, as
+is shown in Fig. 6, where it may be seen that it is in groups of
+fine delicate fibers about an inch long, diverging from a point into
+fan-shaped groups. The fibers are very tightly packed together, as are
+also the groups; they are very tough individually, and have a hardness
+of 4, and a specific gravity of about 2.5. It gelatinizes on boiling
+with acid, and a fragment may be readily fused in the blowpipe flame,
+yielding a transparent globule. The appearance is the most striking
+characteristic, and at once distinguishes this mineral from any of the
+others occurring in this locality. Considerable quantities of pectolite
+may generally be found on the dump, but also in Shaft No. 1, and
+especially No. 2. The veins of it are difficult to distinguish from the
+calcite, as they are almost identical in color, and many of the calcite
+veins are partly of pectolite--in fact, every third or fourth vein will
+contain more or less of it. There is, however, a very fine vein of
+pectolite about twenty-five feet further east from the natrolite bed; it
+runs from the floor to ceiling, and is about two inches in thickness;
+some specimens of which I took from these were unusually unique in both
+size and appearance. It makes a very handsome specimen for the cabinet,
+and should be carefully trimmed to show the characteristics of the
+mineral.
+
+_Datholite_.--This mineral has been found very frequently in the tunnel,
+it occurring in pockets in the softer trap near the chlorite, and also
+in the latter, generally at a depth of one hundred and fifty feet from
+the surface, and consequently near the ceiling of the tunnel. All that
+has been found of any great beauty has been in the western end of the
+Shaft No. 1 and the eastern of Shaft No. 2, where the trap is quite
+soft; here it is found nearly every day in greater or less quantity, and
+from this some may generally be found on the dump, or, in the vein
+of chlorite which I mentioned as a locality for the dogtooth spar,
+considerable may be obtained in it and on its western edge near the
+ceiling. A ladder about thirteen feet long is used for attending the
+lights, and may generally be borrowed, and access to the remainder
+of this pocket thus gained. Datholite is also very characteristic in
+appearance, and can only be confounded with some forms of calcite
+occurring near it. It occurs in small glassy, nearly globular crystals;
+they are generally not over three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and
+generally pure and perfectly transparent, having a hardness of a little
+over 5, and specific gravity of 3; as it generally occurs as a druse
+upon the trap, or an apopholite, calcite, etc., this is seldom
+attainable, however, and we have a very distinctive characteristic in
+another test: this is the blowpipe, under which it at first intumesces
+and then fuses to a transparent globule, and the flame, after playing
+upon it, is of a deep green color. Nitric acid must be used to boil it
+up with, and with it it may be readily gelatinized. This last test will
+seldom be necessary, however, and may be dispensed with if the hardness
+and blowpipe reactions may be ascertained.
+
+_Apopholite_.--This beautiful mineral has been found in fair abundance
+at times in Shafts No. 1 and 2 in pockets, and seldom in place, most of
+it being taken from the loose stone at the mouth of the shaft, and it
+may generally be found on the dump. It is readily mistaken for calcite
+by the miners and those unskilled in mineralogy, but a drop of acid will
+quickly show the difference. The sizes of the crystals are very various,
+from an eighth of an inch long or thick, to, in one case, an inch and
+a half. The colors have been varied from white to nearly all tints,
+including pink, purple, blue, and green; the white variety is, however,
+the most abundant, and makes a handsome cabinet specimen. The crystals
+are generally packed together in a mass, but are frequently set apart as
+heavy druses of crystals having the form shown in Fig. 7. Sometimes,
+as in the former grouping, the crystals are without the pyramidal
+terminations, and are then right square prisms. The fracture being at
+perfect right angles, distinguishes it from calcite. Its hardness is
+generally fully 5, the specific gravity between 2.4 and 2.5; it is
+difficult to fuse before the blowpipe, but is finally fused into an
+opaque globule. Upon heating with nitric acid it partly dissolves, and
+the remainder becomes flaky and gelatinous. Apopholite, although quite
+rare, now may be bought from the men, or at least one of the engineers
+of Shaft No. 2's elevator, and generally at low terms.
+
+_Phrenite_.--This mineral is quite abundant in Shafts No. 1 and 2, in
+very small masses, incrustations, and even in small crystals. It
+occurs embedded in or incrusting the trap, and also with calcite and
+apopholite. The only sure place to find it is at the southwest side of
+an opening through the pile of drift rock under the trestle work of the
+tramway, between shaft No. 1 and the dump, and within a few feet of a
+number of wooden vats sunk into the ground seen just before descending
+the hills and near the edge. Here on a number of blocks of trap it may
+be found, a greenish white incrustation about as thick as a knife blade;
+it also may be found on the main dump, and is sometimes found in plates
+one-eighth of an inch thick, of a darker green color, upon calcite. Its
+easiest distinguishment from the other minerals of this locality, with
+which it might be confounded, is its great hardness of from 6 to 7.
+It is very fragile and brittle, however, and is never perfectly
+transparent, but quite opaque; its specific gravity is 2.9, and it is
+readily fused before the blowpipe after intumescing. It partly dissolves
+in acid without gelatinizing, leaving a flaky residue; it is a beautiful
+mineral when in masses or crystals of a dark green color, but the best
+place in the vicinity to secure specimens of this kind is, as I will
+detail hereafter, at Paterson, N. J.
+
+_Iron and Copper Pyrites_.--Both of these common but frequently
+beautiful minerals occur in the tunnel and adjacent rocks in great
+abundance. The crystals are generally about one-fourth of an inch in
+diameter, and groups of these may be frequently obtained on the dump in
+the shafts, especially No. 1 and 2, and where the rock is being cleared
+away for the eastern entrance to the tunnel. They resemble each other
+very much; the iron pyrites, however, is in cubical forms and having the
+great hardness of from 6 to 7, while the copper pyrites, less abundant
+and in forms having triangles for bases, but having sometimes other
+forms and a hardness of but 3 to 4. Both are similar in aspect to a
+piece of brass, and cannot be mistaken for any other mineral. The form
+of the copper pyrites is shown in Fig. 8; the iron is, as before noted,
+in cubes, more or less modified.
+
+_Stilbite_.--Small quantities of this beautiful mineral have been found
+in Shaft No. 2, in a small bed of but a few square feet in area, but
+quite thick and appearing much like natrolite. This bed was about one
+hundred feet east from Shaft No. 2, and in the center of the heading
+when it was at that point. It has been encountered since in small
+quantities, and it would do well to look out for it in the fresh
+tunneled portion after the date appended to this paper. It generally
+occurs in the form shown in Fig. 9, grouped very similarly to natrolite,
+and being right upon the rock or a thin bed of itself. The crystals are
+generally half an inch long, but often less. The modifications of the
+above form, which are frequent in this species, strike one forcibly of
+the resemblance they bear to a broad stone spear head on a diminutive
+scale, with a blunted edge; their hardness is about 4, specific gravity
+2.2, the color generally a pearly white or grayish. After a long
+boiling with nitric acid it gelatinizes, but it foams up and fuses to a
+transparent glass before the blowpipe. A little stilbite may often be
+found on the dumps.
+
+_Laumonite_ occurs in very small quantities on calcite or apopholite,
+and can hardly be expected to be found on the trip; but as it might be
+found, I will detail some of its characteristics. Hardness 4, specific
+gravity 2.3; it generally occurs in small crystals, but more frequently
+in a crumbly, chalky mass, which it becomes upon exposure to the air.
+The crystals are generally transparent and frequently tinged yellow in
+color. It gelatinizes by boiling with acid, and after intumescing before
+the blowpipe, fuses to a frothy mass. To keep this mineral when in
+crystals from crumbling upon exposure it may be dipped in a thin mastic
+varnish or in a gum-arabic solution.
+
+_Heulandite_.--This rare mineral has been found under the same
+conditions as laumonite in Shaft No. 2, but it is seldom to be met with,
+and then in small crystals. It is of a pure white color, sometimes
+transparent. It intumesces and readily fuses before the blowpipe, and
+dissolves in acid without gelatinizing. Hardness 4, specific gravity
+2.2.
+
+The few other minerals occurring in the tunnel are so extremly rare as
+not to be met with by any other than an expert, and it is impossible
+to detail the localities, as they generally occur as minute druses or
+incrustations upon other minerals with which they may be confounded, and
+have been removed as soon as discovered. The minerals referred to are
+analcime, chabazite, Thompsonite, and finally, the mineral which I first
+found in this formation, Hayesine, which is extremely rare, and of which
+I only obtained sufficient to cover a square inch. The particulars in
+regard to its locality, etc., maybe found in the _American Journal of
+Sciences_ for June, page 458. I will now sum up the characteristics of
+these several minerals of this locality in the table:
+
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+   Name.  |  H. |Sp.|Action of        |Action of        |Color.|Appearance.
+          |     |Gr.|Blowpipe.        |hot acid.        |      |
+----------+-----+---+-----------------+-----------------+------+---------------
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Calcite   |  3  |2.6|Infusible,       |Soluble with     |White |Like Fig.
+          |     |   |but glows        |effervescence    |      |3 and 4.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Natrolite |  5  |2.2|Readily fused    |Forms a jelly    |  do. |Like Fig 5.
+          |     |   |to clear globule |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Pectolite |  4  |2.5|      do.        |  do.  do.       |  do. |Divergent
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |fibers, Fig. 6.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Datholite |  5  |3.0|Intumesces, fused|Forms a jelly    |Color-|Small, nearly
+          |     |   |to clear globule,|                 |less  |spherical, etc.
+          |     |   |gives green flame|                 |white |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Apopholite|  5  |2.5|Difficult, fused |Partly soluble   |Tinted|Like Fig. 7.
+          |     |   |to opaque globule|in nitric acid   |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Phrenite  |  6  |2.9|Intomesces, fused|Partly soluble   |Green-|In tables and
+          |to 7 |   |to clear globule |in nitric acid,  |ish   |incrustations.
+          |     |   |                 |leaving flakes   |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Iron      |  6  |5.0|Burns and yields |                 |Brass |Cubical.
+pyrites   |to 7 |   |a black globule, |                 |      |
+          |     |   |decrepitates     |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Copper    |  3  |4.2|    do.     do.  |                 |  do. |Tetrahedronal.
+pyrites   |to 4 |   |                 |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Stilbite  |  4  |2.2|Intumesces and   |Difficult; jelly |White |Like Fig. 8.
+          |     |   |fuses readily    |on long boiling  |      |
+          |     |   |                 |with nitric acid.|      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Laumonite |  4  |2.3|Intumesces and   |Readily          |  do. |Generally
+          |to 0 |   |fuses to frothy  |gelatinizes      |      |chalky.
+          |     |   |mass             |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Heulandite|  4  |2.2|Intumesces and   |Soluble, no      |  do. |In right
+          |     |   |readily fuses    |jelly            |      |rhomboidal
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |prisms.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+_To Distinguish the Minerals together the one from the other_.--Calcite
+by effervescing on placing a drop of acid upon it. Natrolite resembles
+stilbite, but may be distinguished by gelatinizing readily with
+hydrochloric acid and by not intumescing when heated before the
+blowpipe; from the other minerals by the form of the crystals and their
+setting, also the locality in the tunnel in which it was found.
+
+Pectolite sometimes resembles some of the others, but may be readily
+distinguished by its _tough_ long fibers, not brittle like natrolite.
+Datholite may generally be distinguished by the form of its crystals and
+their glassy appearance, with great hardness, and by tingeing the flame
+from the blowpipe of a true green color. Apopholite is distinguished
+from calcite, as noticed under that species, and from the others by its
+form, difficult fusibility, and part solubility.
+
+Phrenite is characterized by its hardness, greenish color, occurrence,
+and action of acid. Iron pyrites is always known by its brassy metallic
+aspect and great hardness. Copper pyrites, by its aspect from the other
+minerals, and from iron pyrites by its inferior hardness and less
+gravity.
+
+Stilbite is characterized by its form, difficult gelatinizing, and
+intumescence before the blowpipe; from natrolite as mentioned under that
+species.
+
+Laumonite is known by its generally chalky appearance and a probable
+failure in finding it.
+
+Heulandite is distinguished from stilbite by its crystals and perfect
+solubility; from apopholite by form of crystals.
+
+In the next part of this paper I will commence with Staten Island.
+
+July 1, 1882. (_To be continued_.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANTISEPTICS.
+
+
+The author has endeavored to ascertain what agents are able to destroy
+the spores of bacilli, how they behave toward the microphytes most
+easily destroyed, such as the moulds, ferments, and micrococci, and if
+they suffice at least to arrest the development of these organisms in
+liquids favorable to their multiplication. His results with phenol,
+thymol, and salicylic acid have been unfavorable. Sulphurous acid
+and zinc chloride also failed to destroy all the germs of infection.
+Chlorine, bromine, and mercuric chloride gave the best results;
+solutions of mercuric chloride, nitrate, or sulphate diluted to 1 part
+in 1,000 destroy spores in ten minutes.--_R. Koch_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTALLIZATION AND ITS EFFECTS UPON IRON.
+
+By N.B. WOOD, Member of the Civil Engineers' Club, of Cleveland.
+
+[Footnote: Read January 10th. 1882.]
+
+
+The question has been asked, "What is the chemically scientific
+definition of crystallization?" Now as the study of crystallization and
+its effect upon matter, physically as well as chemically, will be of
+interest, considering the subject matter for discussion, I shall not
+only endeavor to answer the question, as I understand it, but try to
+treat it somewhat technologically.
+
+Having this object in view, I have prepared or brought about the
+conditions necessary to the formation of a few crystals of various
+chemical substances, which for various reasons, such as lack of time and
+bad weather, are not as perfect as could be desired, but will perhaps
+subserve the purpose for which they were designed. I think you will
+agree with me that they are beautiful, if they are imperfect, and I can
+assure you that the pleasure of watching their formation fully repays
+one for the trouble, if for no other reason than the mere gratification
+of the senses. From the earliest times and by all races of men, the
+crystal has been admired and imitated, or improved by cutting and
+polishing into faces of various substances. I have also procured
+specimens of steel and iron which show the effect of crystallization,
+which was produced (perhaps) under known conditions, so that the
+conclusions which we arrive at from their study will have a fair chance
+of being logical, at least, and perhaps of some practical value.
+
+When we examine inanimate nature we find two grand divisions of matter,
+_fluid_ and _solid_. These two divisions may be subdivided into, the
+former gaseous and liquid, the latter amorphous and crystalline; but
+whether one or the other of these divisions be considered, their
+ultimate and common division will be the ATOM. By the atom we understand
+that portion of matter which admits of no further division, which,
+though as inconceivable for minuteness as space is for extent, has still
+definite weight, form, and volume; which under favorable circumstances,
+has that power or force called cohesion, the intensity of which
+constitutes strength of material, which every engineer is supposed to
+understand, but which lies far beyond the powers of the human mind for
+comprehension or analysis. When we apply a magnet to a mass of iron
+filings, we observe the particles arrange themselves in regular order,
+having considerable strength in one direction, and very little or none
+in any other. Now, although we understand very little about the force
+which holds these particles in position, we do know that it is actual
+force applied from without and maintained at the expense of some of the
+known sources of force. But the force or power or property of cohesion
+seems to be a quality stored within the atom itself, in many cases
+similar to magnetism, having powerful attraction in some directions
+and very little or none in others. A crystal of mica, for instance, or
+gypsum may be divided to any degree of thinness, but is very difficult
+to even break. This property of crystals is termed cleavage. Cohesion
+and crystallization are affected variously by various circumstances,
+such as heat or its absence, motion or its absence, etc. In fact, almost
+every phenomenon of nature within the range of ordinary temperatures
+has effects which may be favorable to the crystallization of some
+substances, and at the same time unfavorable to others; so it will be
+seen that it is impossible to lay down any rule for it except for named
+substances, like substances requiring like conditions, to bring its
+atoms into that state of equilibrium where crystallization can occur.
+If we examine crystals carefully we find, not only that nature has here
+provided geometric forms of marvelous beauty and exactness, with faces
+of polish and quoins of acuteness equal to the work of the most skillful
+lapidist, "but that in whatever manner or under whatever circumstances a
+crystal may have been formed, whether in the laboratory of the chemist
+or the workshop of nature, in the bodies of animals or the tissues of
+plants, up in the sky or in the depths of the earth, whether so rapidly
+that we may literally see its growth, or by the slow aggregation of its
+molecules during perhaps thousands of years, we always find that the
+arrangement of the faces is subject to fixed and definite laws." We find
+also that a crystal is always finished and has its form as perfectly
+developed when it is the minutest point discernible by the microscope as
+when it has attained its ultimate growth. I might add parenthetically
+that crystals are sometimes of immense size, one at Milan of quartz
+being 3 feet 3 inches long and 5 feet 6 inches in circumference, and is
+estimated to weigh over 800 pounds; and a gigantic beryl at Grafton, N.
+H., is over 4 feet in length and 32 inches in diameter, and weighs not
+less than 5,000 pounds; but the most perfect specimens are of small
+size, as some accident is sure to overtake the larger ones before they
+acquire their growth, to interfere with their symmetry or transparency.
+This you will see abundantly illustrated by the examples which I have
+prepared, as also the constancy of the angles of like faces. Chemically
+speaking, the crystal is always a perfect chemical body, and can never
+be a mechanical mixture. This fact has been of great value to the
+science of chemistry in developing the atomic theory, which has
+demonstrated that a body can only exist chemically combined when a
+definite number of atoms of each element is present, and that there is
+no certainty of such proportions existing except in the crystal. I
+hold before you a crystal of common alum. Its chemical symbol would be
+Al_{2}O_{3},3SO_{3}+KO,SO_{3}+24H_{2}O. If we knew its weight and wished
+to know its ultimate component parts, we could calculate them more
+readily than we could acquire that knowledge by any other means. But the
+elements of this quantity of uncrystallized alum could not be computed.
+Then we may define crystallization to be the operation of nature wherein
+the chemical atoms or molecules of a substance have sufficient polarized
+force to arrange themselves about a central attracting point in definite
+geometrical forms.
+
+Fresenius defines it thus: "_Every operation, or process, whereby bodies
+are made to pass from the fluid to the solid state, and to assume_
+certain fixed, _mathematically definable, regular forms_." It would be
+folly for me to attempt to criticise Fresenius, but I give you both
+definitions, and you can take your choice. The definition of Fresenius,
+however, will not suit our present purpose, because the crystallization
+of wrought iron occurs, or seems to, _after_ the iron has acquired a
+_solid state_.
+
+Iron, as you all know, is known to the arts in three forms: cast or
+crude, steel, and wrought or malleable. Cast iron varies much in
+chemical composition, being a mixture of iron and carbon chiefly, as
+constant factors, with which silicium in small quantities (from 1 to
+5 per cent.), phosphorus, sulphur, and sometimes manganese (e.g.
+spiegeleisen) and various other elements are combined. All of these have
+some effect upon the crystalline structure of the mass, but whatever
+crystallization takes place occurs at the moment of solidification, or
+between that and a red heat, and varies much, according to the time
+occupied in cooling, as to its composition. My own experience leads me
+to think that a cast iron having about 3 per cent. of carbon, a small
+per centage of phosphorus, say about 1/2 of 1 per cent., and very small
+quantities of silicium, the less the better, and traces of manganese
+(the two latter substances _slagging_ out almost entirely during the
+process of remelting for casting), makes a metal best adapted to the
+general use of the founder. Such proportions will make a soft, even
+grained, dark gray iron, whose crystals are small and bright, and whose
+fracture will be uneven and sharp to the touch. The phosphorus in this
+instance gives the metal liquidity at a low temperature, but does not
+seem to influence the crystallization to any appreciable extent. The two
+elements to be avoided by the founder are silicium and sulphur. These
+give to iron a peculiar crystalline appearance easily recognized by
+an experienced person. Silicium seems to obliterate the sparkling
+brilliancy of the crystalline faces of good iron, and replace them with
+very fine dull ones only discernible with a lens, and the iron breaks
+more like stoneware than metal, while sulphur in appreciable quantities
+gives a striated crystalline texture similar to chilled iron, and very
+brittle. Phosphorus in very large quantities acts similarly. The form of
+the crystal in cast iron is the octahedron, so that right angles with
+sharp corners should be avoided as much as possible in castings, as the
+most likely position for a crystal to take would be with its faces along
+the line of the angle. Steel, to be of any value as such, _must_ be made
+of the purest material. Phosphorus and sulphur _must_ not exist, except
+in the most minute quantities, or the metal is worthless. If either of
+these substances be present in a bar of steel, its structure will
+be coarse, crystalline and weak. The reason of this is unknown, but
+probably their presence reduces the power of cohesion; and, that being
+reduced, gives the molecules of steel greater freedom to arrange
+themselves in conformity with their polarity, and this in its turn again
+weakens the mass by the tendency of the crystals to cleavage in certain
+directions. Carbon is a constant element in steel, as it is in cast
+iron, but is frequently replaced by chromium, titanium, etc., or is said
+to be, though it is not quite clear to me how it can be so if steel is
+a chemical compound. However this may be, we know that a piece of good
+soft steel breaks with a fine crystalline fracture, and the same piece
+hardened when broken shows either an amorphous structure or one very
+finely crystalline, which would indicate that the crystals had been
+broken up by the action of heat, and that they had not had sufficient
+time to return to their original position on account of the sudden
+cooling. The tendency of the molecules of steel after hardening to
+assume their natural position when cold seems to be very great, for we
+have often seen large pieces of steel burst asunder after hardening,
+though lying untouched, and sometimes with such force as to hurl the
+fragments to some distance. If a piece of steel be subjected to a bright
+yellow or white heat its nature is entirely changed, and the workman
+says it is burnt. Though this is not actually a fact, it does well
+enough to express that condition of the metal. Steel cannot be burnt
+unless some portion of it has been oxidized. The carbon would of course
+be attacked first, its affinity for oxygen being greatest; but we find
+nothing wanting in a piece of burnt steel. It can, by careful heating,
+hammering and hardening, be returned to its former excellence. Then what
+change has taken place? I should say that two modifications have been
+made, one physical, the other chemical. The change chemically is that
+of a chemical compound to a mixture of carbon and iron, so that in a
+chemical sense it resembles cast iron. The change physically is that of
+crystallization, being due partly to chemical change and partly to the
+effect of heat. I have procured a specimen of steel showing beautifully
+the effect of overheating. The specimen is labeled No. 1, and is a piece
+of Park Brothers' steel (one of the best brands made in America). It has
+been heated at one end to proper heat for hardening, and at the other is
+what is technically called "burnt." It has been broken at intervals
+of about 11/2 inches, showing the transition from amorphous or proper
+hardening to highly crystalline or "burnt." Malleable or wrought iron
+is or should be pure iron. Of course in practice it is seldom such, but
+generally nearly so, being usually 98, 99, or even more per cent. It is
+exceedingly prone to crystallization, the purer varieties being as much
+subject to it as others, except those contaminated with phosphorus,
+which affects it similarly with steel, and makes it very weak to cross
+and tensile strains. I have never estimated the quantity present in any
+except one specimen, a bar of 11/2 round, which literally fell to pieces
+when dropped across a block of iron. It had 1.32 per cent. of phosphorus
+and was very crystalline, though the crystals were not very large. Iron
+which has been, when first made, quite fibrous, when subjected to a
+series of shocks for a greater or less period, according to their
+intensity, when subjected to intense currents of electricity, or when
+subjected to high temperatures, or has by mechanical force been pushed
+together, or, as it is called, upset, becomes extremely crystalline.
+Under all of these circumstances it is subjected to one physical
+phenomenon, that of motion. It would seem that if a bar of iron were
+struck, the blow would shake the whole mass, and consequently the
+relative position of the particles remain unchanged, but this is not the
+case. When the blow is struck it takes an appreciable length of time for
+the effect to be communicated to the other end so as to be heard, if the
+distance is great. This shows that a small force is communicated from
+particle to particle independently along the whole mass, and that each
+atom actually moves independently of its neighbor. Then, if there be
+any attraction at the time tending to arrange it differently, it will
+conform to it. So much for theory with regard to this important matter.
+It looks well on paper, but do the facts of the case correspond? If
+practically demonstrated and systematically executed, experiments fail
+to corroborate the theory, and if, furthermore, we find there is no
+necessity for the theory, we naturally conclude that it is all wrong,
+or, at least, imperfectly understood. Now there is one other quality
+imparted to iron by successive shocks, which, I think, is independent
+of crystallization, and this quality is hardness and consequent
+brittleness. One noticeable feature about this also is, that as
+"absolute cohesion" or tensile strength diminishes, "relative cohesion"
+or strength to resist crushing increases. Specimens Nos. 2, 3, and 4 are
+pieces of Swedish iron, probably from the celebrated mines of Dannemora.
+Nos. 2 and 3 are parts of the same bolt, which, after some months' use
+on a "heading machine" in a bolt and nut works, where it was subjected
+to numerous and violent shocks, (perhaps 50,000 or 60,000 per day),
+it broke short off, as you see in No 2, showing a highly crystalline
+fracture. To test whether this structure continued through the bolt, I
+had it nicked by a blacksmith's cold chisel and broken. The specimen
+shows that it is still stronger at that point than at the point where
+it is actually broken, but the resulting fracture shows the same
+crystalline appearance. I next had specimen No. 4 cut from a fresh
+bar of iron which had never been used for anything. It also shows a
+crystalline fracture, indicating that this peculiarity had existed in
+the iron of both from the beginning.
+
+I next took specimen No. 3 and subjected it to a careful annealing,
+taking perhaps two hours in the operation. Although it is a 1-1/8 bolt
+and has V threads cut upon it we were unable to break it, although bent
+cold through an arc of 90 deg., and probably would have doubled upon itself
+if we had had the means to have forced it. Now what does this show? Have
+the crystals been obliterated by the process of annealing, or has only
+their cleavage been destroyed, so that when they break, instead of
+showing brilliant, sparkling faces, they are drawn into a fibrous
+looking mass? The latter seems to be the most plausible theory, to which
+I admit objections may be raised. For my own part, I am inclined to the
+belief that the crystal exists in all iron which is finished above a
+bright red heat, and that between that and black heat they are formed
+and have whatever characteristics circumstances may confer upon them,
+modified by the action of agencies heretofore mentioned.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific
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+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
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+       *       *       *       *       *
+
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+PATENTS.
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+In connection with the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. MUNN & Co. are
+Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 35 years'
+experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world. Patents
+are obtained on the best terms.
+
+A special notice is made in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of all Inventions
+patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the
+Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is
+directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction
+often easily effected.
+
+Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain, free
+of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing to MUNN
+& Co.
+
+We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, Caveats.
+Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured, with hints for procuring
+advances on inventions. Address
+
+MUNN & CO., 261 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+
+Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D. C.
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+344, August 5, 1882, by Various
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 344,
+August 5, 1882, by Various
+
+Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the
+copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing
+this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook.
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+*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!*****
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+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 344, August 5, 1882
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August, 2005 [EBook #8717]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on August 3, 2003]
+
+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUP. NO. 344 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland,
+Charles Franks and the DP Team
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 344
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, August 5, 1882
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 344.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--The Panama Canal. By
+     MANUEL EISSLER. I.--Historical notes.--Spanish Discoveries
+     in Central America.--Early explorations.--Nicaragua
+     projects.--Panama railway, etc.
+
+     Improved Averaging Machine.
+
+     Compound Beam Engine. 4 figures.--Borsig's improved
+     compound beam engine.
+
+     Power Hammers with Movable Fulcrum.--By DANIEL
+     LONGWORTH. 5 figures.
+
+     The Bicheroux System of Furnaces Applied to the Puddling of
+     Iron. 2 figures.
+
+     Gessner's Continuous Cloth Pressing Machine. 3 figures.
+
+     Novelties in Ring Spindles. 4 figures.
+
+     Improvements in Woolen Carding Engines.
+
+II.  NATURAL HISTORY.--Metamorphosis of the Deer's
+     Antlers.--Annual changes. 9 figures.
+
+     Monkeys. By A.R. WALLACE.--Comparison of skeletons of man,
+     orang outang, and chimpanzee.--Other anatomical resemblances
+     and diversities.--The different kinds of monkeys and the
+     countries they inhabit.--American monkeys.--Lemurs.
+     --Distribution, affinities, and zoological rank of monkeys.
+
+     Silk Producing Bombyces and other Lepidoptera reared in
+     1881. By ALFRED WAILLY, Member Lauriat de la Societe
+     d'Acclimatation de France.--An extended and important
+     European, Asiatic, and American silk worms, and other
+     silk producers.
+
+III. MINERALOGY, METALLURGY, ETC.--The Mineralogical
+     Localities In and Around New York City and the Minerals
+     Occurring Therein.--By NELSON H. DARTON.--Chances for
+     collecting within one hour's ride of New York.--Methods
+     of collecting and testing.--Localities on Bergen
+     Hill.--The Weehawken Tunnel.--Minerals and modes of
+     occurrence.--Calcite.--Natrolite.--Pectolite.--Datholite.
+     --Apopholite.--Phrenite.--Iron and copper pyrites.
+     --Stilbite.--Laumonite.--Heulandite.
+
+     Antiseptics.
+
+     Crystallization and its Effects Upon Iron. By N.B. WOOD.--
+     Beauty of Crystals.--Nature of cohesion.--Cleavage.--Growth
+     of crystals.--Some large crystals.--Cast iron.--Influence
+     of phosphorus and sulphur.--Nature of steel.--Burnt
+     steel.--Effect of annealing.
+
+IV.  ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--The Cathedral of Burgos, Spain.
+     --Full page illustration from photograph.
+
+     Description of Burgos Cathedral.
+
+     Photo-Engraving on Zinc and Copper. By LEON VIDAL.
+
+     Meridian Line.--A surveyor's method of finding the true
+     meridian.--By R.W. MCFARLAND.
+
+V.   ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electro Mania. By W. MATTIEU
+     WILLIAMS.--Example of electrical exaggeration and
+     delusion.--Early scientific attempts at electro-motors,
+     electric lamps, etc.
+
+     Action of Magnets Upon the Voltaic Arc. By TH. DU
+     MONCEL. 2 figures.
+
+     Volckmar's Secondary Batteries.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+METAMORPHOSIS OF THE DEER'S ANTLERS.
+
+
+Every year in March the deer loses its antlers, and fresh ones
+immediately begin to grow, which exceed in size those that have just
+been lost. Few persons probably have been able to watch and observe the
+habits of the animal after it has lost its antlers. It will, therefore,
+be of interest to examine the accompanying drawings, by Mr. L. Beckmann,
+one of them showing a deer while shedding its antlers, and the other
+as the animal appears after losing them. In the first illustration the
+animal has just lost one of its antlers, and fright and pain cause it
+to throw its head upward and become disturbed and uneasy. The remaining
+antler draws down one side of the head and is very inconvenient for the
+animal. The remaining antler becomes soon detached from its base,
+and the deer turns--as if ashamed of having lost its ornament and
+weapon--lowers its head, and sorrowfully moves to the adjoining thicket,
+where it hides. A friend once observed a deer losing its antlers, but
+the circumstances were somewhat different. The animal was jumping over a
+ditch, and as soon as it touched the further bank it jumped high in the
+air, arched its back, bent its head to one side in the manner of an
+animal that has been wounded, and then sadly approached the nearest
+thicket, in the same manner as the artist has represented in the
+accompanying picture. Both antlers dropped off and fell into the ditch.
+
+[Illustration: METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--FIRST STAGE.]
+
+Strong antlers are generally found together, but weak ones are lost at
+intervals of two or three days. A few days after this loss the stumps
+upon which the antlers rested are covered with a skin, which grows
+upward very rapidly, and under which the fresh antlers are formed, so
+that by the end of July the bucks have new and strong antlers, from
+which they remove the fine hairy covering by rubbing them against young
+trees. It is peculiar that the huntsman, who knows everything in regard
+to deer, and has seventy-two signs by which he can tell whether a male
+or female deer passes through the woods, does not know at what age the
+deer gets its first antlers and how the antlers indicate the age of the
+animal. Prof. Altum, in Eberswalde, has given some valuable information
+in regard to the relation between the age of the deer and the forms of
+their antlers, but in some respects he has not expressed himself very
+clearly, and I think that my observations given in addition to his may
+be of importance. When the animal is a year old--that is, in June--the
+burrs of the antlers begin to form, and in July the animal has two
+protuberances of the size of walnuts, from which the first branches of
+the antlers rise; these branches having the length of a finger only, or
+being even shorter, as shown at 1, in diagram, on p. 5481. After the
+second year more branches are formed, which are considerably longer and
+much rougher at the lower ends than the first. The third pair of antlers
+is different from its predecessors, inasmuch as it has "roses," that is,
+annular ridges around the bases of the horn, which latter are now bent
+in the shape of a crescent. Either the antler has a single branch (Fig.
+3, _a_), or besides the point it has another short end, which is a most
+rare shape, and is known as a "fork" (Fig. 3, _b_), or it has two forks
+(Fig. 3, _c_). In the following year the antlers take the form shown
+in Fig. 4, and then follows the antler shown in Fig. 5, _a_, which
+generally has "forks" in place of points, and is known as forked antler
+in contradistinction to the point antler shown in Fig. 5, _b_, which
+retains the shape of the antler, Fig. 4, but has additional or
+intermediate prongs or branches. The huntsmen designate the antlers by
+the number of ends or points on the two antlers. For instance, Fig. 4 is
+a six-ender; Fig. 5 shows an eight-ender, etc.; and antlers have been
+known to have as many as twenty-two ends. If the two antlers do not
+have the same number of ends the number of ends on the larger antler
+is multiplied by two and the word "odd" is placed before the word
+designating the number of ends. For instance, if one antler has
+three ends and the other four, the antler would be termed an "odd"
+eight-ender. The sixth antler shown in Fig. 6 is a ten-ender, and
+appears in two different forms, either with a fork at the upper end, as
+shown in Fig. 6, _a_, or with a crown, as shown in Fig. 6, _b_. In Fig.
+7 an antler is shown which the animal carries from its seventh year
+until the month of March of its eighth year. From that time on the
+crowns only increase and change. The increase in the number of points is
+not always as regular as I have described it, for in years when food
+is scarce and poor the antlers are weak and small, and when food is
+plentiful and rich the antlers grow exceedingly large, and sometimes
+skip an entire year's growth.--_Karl Brandt, in Leipziger lllustrirte
+Zeitung_.
+
+[Illustration: METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--SECOND STAGE.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MONKEYS.
+
+By ALFRED R. WALLACE.
+
+
+If the skeleton of an orang-outang and a chimpanzee be compared with
+that of a man, there will be found to be the most wonderful resemblance,
+together with a very marked diversity. Bone for bone, throughout the
+whole structure, will be found to agree in general form, position, and
+function, the only absolute differences being that the orang has nine
+wrist bones, whereas man and the chimpanzee have but eight; and the
+chimpanzee has thirteen pairs of ribs, whereas the orang, like man, has
+but twelve. With these two exceptions, the differences are those of
+shape, proportion, and direction only, though the resulting differences
+in the external form and motions are very considerable. The greatest of
+these are, that the feet of the anthropoid or man-like apes, as well as
+those of all monkeys, are formed like hands, with large opposable thumbs
+fitted to grasp the branches of trees, but unsuitable for erect walking,
+while the hands have weak, small thumbs, but very long and powerful
+fingers, forming a hook, rather than a hand, adapted for climbing up
+trees and suspending the whole weight from horizontal branches. The
+almost complete identity of the skeleton, however, and the close
+similarity of the muscles and of all the internal organs, have produced
+that striking and ludicrous resemblance to man, which every one
+recognizes in these higher apes, and, in a less degree, in the whole
+monkey tribe; the face and features, the motions, attitudes, and
+gestures being often a strange caricature of humanity. Let us, then,
+examine a little more closely in what the resemblance consists, and how
+far, and to what extent, these animals really differ from us.
+
+Besides the face, which is often wonderfully human--although the absence
+of any protuberant nose gives it often a curiously infantile aspect,
+monkeys, and especially apes, resemble us most closely in the hand and
+arm. The hand has well-formed fingers, with nails, and the skin of the
+palm is lined and furrowed like our own. The thumb is, however, smaller
+and weaker than ours, and is not so much used in taking hold of
+anything. The monkey's hand is, therefore, not so well adapted as that
+of man for a variety of purposes, and cannot be applied with such
+precision in holding small objects, while it is unsuitable for
+performing delicate operations, such as tying a knot or writing with a
+pen. A monkey does not take hold of a nut with its forefinger and thumb,
+as we do, but grasps it between the fingers and the palm in a clumsy
+way, just as a baby does before it has acquired the proper use of
+its hand. Two groups of monkeys--one in Africa and one in South
+America--have no thumbs on their hands, and yet they do not seem to be
+in any respect inferior to other kinds which possess it. In most of the
+American monkeys the thumb bends in the same direction as the fingers,
+and in none is it so perfectly opposed to the fingers as our thumbs are;
+and all these circumstances show that the hand of the monkey is, both
+structurally and functionally, a very different and very inferior organ
+to that of man, since it is not applied to similar purposes, nor is it
+capable of being so applied.
+
+When we look at the feet of monkeys we find a still greater difference,
+for these have much larger and more opposable thumbs, and are therefore
+more like our hands; and this is the case with all monkeys, so that even
+those which have no thumbs on their hands, or have them small and weak
+and parallel to the fingers, have always large and well-formed thumbs on
+their feet. It was on account of this peculiarity that the great French
+naturalist Cuvier named the whole group of monkeys Quadrumana, or
+four-handed animals, because, besides the two hands on their fore-limbs,
+they have also two hands in place of feet on their hind-limbs. Modern
+naturalists have given up the use of this term, because they say that
+the hind extremities of all monkeys are really feet, only these feet
+are shaped like hands; but this is a point of anatomy, or rather of
+nomenclature, which we need not here discuss.
+
+Let us, however, before going further, inquire into the purpose and
+use of this peculiarity, and we shall then see that it is simply an
+adaptation to the mode of life of the animals which possess it. Monkeys,
+as a rule, live in trees, and are especially abundant in the great
+tropical forests. They feed chiefly upon fruits, and occasionally eat
+insects and birds'-eggs, as well as young birds, all of which they find
+in the trees; and, as they have no occasion to come down to the ground,
+they travel from tree to tree by jumping or swinging, and thus pass the
+greater part of their lives entirely among the leafy branches of lofty
+trees. For such a mode of existence, they require to be able to move
+with perfect ease upon large or small branches, and to climb up rapidly
+from one bough to another. As they use their hands for gathering fruit
+and catching insects or birds, they require some means of holding on
+with their feet, otherwise they would be liable to continual falls, and
+they are able to do this by means of their long finger-like toes and
+large opposable thumbs, which grasp a branch almost as securely as a
+bird grasps its perch. The true hands, on the contrary, are used chiefly
+to climb with, and to swing the whole weight of the body from one branch
+or one tree to another, and for this purpose the fingers are very long
+and strong, and in many species they are further strengthened by being
+partially joined together, as if the skin of our fingers grew together
+as far as the knuckles. This shows that the separate action of the
+fingers, which is so important to us, is little required by monkeys,
+whose hand is really an organ for climbing and seizing food, while their
+foot is required to support them firmly in any position on the branches
+of trees, and for this purpose it has become modified into a large and
+powerful grasping hand.
+
+Another striking difference between monkeys and men is that the former
+never walk with ease in an erect posture, but always use their arms in
+climbing or in walking on all-fours like most quadrupeds. The monkeys
+that we see in the streets dressed up and walking erect, only do so
+after much drilling and teaching, just as dogs may be taught to walk in
+the same way; and the posture is almost as unnatural to the one animal
+as it is to the other. The largest and most man-like of the apes--the
+gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang-outang--also walk usually on all-fours;
+but in these the arms are so long and the legs so short that the body
+appears half erect when walking; and they have the habit of resting on
+the knuckles of the hands, not on the palms like the smaller monkeys,
+whose arms and legs are more nearly of an equal length, which tends
+still further to give them a semi-erect position. Still they are never
+known to walk of their own accord on their hind legs only, though they
+can do so for short distances, and the story of their using a stick and
+walking erect by its help in the wild state is not true. Monkeys, then,
+are both four-handed and four-footed beasts; they possess four hands
+formed very much like our hands, and capable of picking up or holding
+any small object in the same manner; but they are also four-footed,
+because they use all four limbs for the purpose of walking, running, or
+climbing; and, being adapted to this double purpose, the hands want the
+delicacy of touch and the freedom as well as the precision of movement
+which ours possess. Man alone is so constructed that he walks erect with
+perfect ease, and has his hands free for any use to which he wishes
+to apply them; and this is the great and essential bodily distinction
+between monkeys and men.
+
+We will now give some account of the different kinds of monkeys and the
+countries they inhabit.
+
+
+THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MONKEYS AND THE COUNTRIES THEY INHABIT.
+
+Monkeys are usually divided into three kinds--apes, monkeys, and
+baboons; but these do not include the American monkeys, which are really
+more different from all those of the Old World than any of the
+latter are from each other. Naturalists, therefore, divide the whole
+monkey-tribe into two great families, inhabiting the Old and the New
+World respectively; and, if we learn to remember the kind of differences
+by which these several groups are distinguished, we shall be able
+to understand something of the classification of animals, and the
+difference between important and unimportant characters.
+
+Taking first the Old World groups, they may be thus defined: apes have
+no tails; monkeys have tails, which are usually long; while baboons have
+short tails, and their faces, instead of being round and with a man-like
+expression as in apes and monkeys, are long and more dog-like. These
+differences are, however, by no means constant, and it is often
+difficult to tell whether an animal should be classed as an ape, a
+monkey, or a baboon. The Gibraltar ape, for example, though it has no
+tail, is really a monkey, because it has callosities, or hard pads of
+bare skin on which it sits, and cheek pouches in which it can stow away
+food; the latter character being always absent in the true apes, while
+both are present in most monkeys and baboons. All these animals,
+however, from the largest ape to the smallest monkey, have the same
+number of teeth as we have, and they are arranged in a similar manner,
+although the tusks or canine teeth of the males are often large, like
+those of a dog.
+
+The American monkeys, on the other hand, with the exception of the
+marmosets, have four additional grinding teeth (one in each jaw on
+either side), and none of them have callosities, or cheek pouches. They
+never have prominent snouts like the baboons; their nostrils are placed
+wide apart and open sideways on the face; the tail, though sometimes
+short, is never quite absent; and the thumb bends the same way as the
+fingers, is generally very short and weak, and is often quite wanting.
+We thus see that these American monkeys differ in a great number of
+characters from those of the Eastern hemisphere; and they have this
+further peculiarity, that many of them have prehensile or grasping
+tails, which are never found in the monkeys of any other country.
+This curious organ serves the purpose of a fifth hand. It has so much
+muscular power that the animal can hang by it easily with the tip curled
+round a branch, while it can also be used to pick up small objects with
+almost as much ease and exactness as an elephant's trunk. In those
+species which have it most perfectly formed it is very long and
+powerful, and the end has the underside covered with bare skin, exactly
+resembling that of the finger or palm of the hand and apparently equally
+sensitive. One of the common kinds of monkeys that accompany street
+organ-players has a prehensile tail, but not of the most perfect kind;
+since in this species the tail is entirely clad with hair to the tip,
+and seems to be used chiefly to steady the animal when sitting on a
+branch by being twisted round another branch near it. The statement is
+often erroneously made that all American monkeys have prehensile tails;
+but the fact is that rather less than half the known kinds have them
+so, the remainder having this organ either short and bushy, or long
+and slender, but entirely without any power of grasping. All
+prehensile-tailed monkeys are American, but all American monkeys are not
+prehensile-tailed.
+
+By remembering these characters it is easy, with a little observation,
+to tell whether any strange monkey comes from America or from the Old
+World. If it has bare seat-pads, or if when eating it fills its mouth
+till its cheeks swell out like little bags, we may be sure it comes from
+some part of Africa or Asia; while if it can curl up the end of its tail
+so as to take hold of anything, it is certainly American. As all the
+tailed monkeys of the Old World have seat-pads (or ischial callosities
+as they are called in scientific language), and as all the American
+monkeys have tails, but no seat-pads, this is the most constant external
+character by which to distinguish them; and having done so we can look
+for the other peculiarities of the American monkeys, especially the
+distance apart of the nostrils and their lateral position.
+
+The whole monkey-tribe is especially tropical, only a few kinds being
+found in the warmer parts of the temperate zone. One inhabits the Rock
+of Gibraltar, and there is one very like it in Japan, and these are the
+two monkeys which live furthest from the equator. In the tropics they
+become very abundant and increase in numbers and variety as we approach
+the equator, where the climate is hot, moist, and equable, and where
+flowers, fruits, and insects are to be found throughout the year. Africa
+has about 55 different kinds, Asia and its islands about 60, while
+America has 114, or almost exactly the same as Asia and Africa together.
+Australia and its islands have no monkeys, nor has the great and
+luxuriant island of New Guinea, whose magnificent forests seem so well
+adapted for them. We will now give a short account of the different
+kinds of monkeys inhabiting each of the tropical continents.
+
+Africa possesses two of the great man-like apes--the gorilla and the
+chimpanzee, the former being the largest ape known, and the one which,
+on the whole, perhaps most resembles man, though its countenance is less
+human than that of the chimpanzee. Both are found in West Africa, near
+the equator, but they also inhabit the interior wherever there are great
+forests; and Dr. Schweinfurth states that the chimpanzee inhabits the
+country about the sources of the Shari River in 28 deg. E. long. and 4 deg. N.
+lat.
+
+The long-tailed monkeys of Africa are very numerous and varied. One
+group has no cheek pouches and no thumb on the hand, and many of these
+have long soft fur of varied colors. The most numerous group are the
+Guenons, rather small long-tailed monkeys, very active and lively,
+and often having their faces curiously marked with white or black, or
+ornamented with whiskers or other tufts of hair; and they all have large
+cheek pouches and good sized thumbs. Many of them are called green
+monkeys, from the greenish yellow tint of their fur, and most of them
+are well formed, pleasing animals. They are found only in tropical
+Africa.
+
+The baboons are larger but less numerous. They resemble dogs in the
+general form and the length of the face or snout, but they have hands
+with well-developed thumbs on both the fore and hind limbs; and this,
+with something in the expression of the face and their habit of sitting
+up and using their hands in a very human fashion, at once shows that
+they belong to the monkey tribe. Many of them are very ugly, and in
+their wild state they are the fiercest and most dangerous of monkeys.
+Some have the tail very long, others of medium length, while it is
+sometimes reduced to a mere stump, and all have large cheek pouches and
+bare seat pads. They are found all over Africa, from Egypt to the Cape
+of Good Hope; while one species, called the hamadryas, extends from
+Abyssinia across the Red Sea into Arabia, and is the only baboon found
+out of Africa. This species was known to the ancients, and it is often
+represented in Egyptian sculptures, while mummies of it have been found
+in the catacombs. The largest and most remarkable of all the baboons
+is the mandrill of West Africa, whose swollen and hog-like face is
+ornamented with stripes of vivid blue and scarlet. This animal has a
+tail scarcely two inches long, while in size and strength it is not much
+inferior to the gorilla. The large baboons go in bands, and are said to
+be a match for any other animals in the African forests, and even to
+attack and drive away the elephants from the districts they inhabit.
+
+Turning now to Asia, we have first one of the best known of the large
+man-like apes--the orang-outang, found only in the two large islands,
+Borneo and Sumatra. The name is Malay, signifying "man of the woods,"
+and it should be pronounced orang-ootan, the accent being on the first
+syllable of both words. It is a very curious circumstance that, whereas
+the gorilla and chimpanzee are both black, like the negroes of the same
+country, the orang-outang is red or reddish brown, closely resembling
+the color of the Malays and Dyaks who live in the Bornean forests.
+Though very large and powerful, it is a harmless creature, feeding on
+fruit, and never attacking any other animal except in self-defense. A
+full-grown male orang-outang is rather more than four feet high, but
+with a body as large as that of a stout man, and with enormously long
+and powerful arms.
+
+Another group of true apes inhabit Asia and the larger Asiatic islands,
+and are in some respects the most remarkable of the whole family. These
+are the Gibbons, or long-armed apes, which are generally of small size
+and of a gentle disposition, but possessing the most wonderful agility.
+In these creatures the arms are as long as the body and legs together,
+and are so powerful that a gibbon will hang for hours suspended from
+a branch, or swing to and fro and then throw itself a great distance
+through the air. The arms, in fact, completely take the place of the
+legs for traveling. Instead of jumping from bough to bough and running
+on the branches, like other apes and monkeys, the gibbons move along
+while hanging suspended in the air, stretching their arms from bough to
+bough, and thus going hand over hand as a very active sailor will climb
+along a rope. The strength of their arms is, however, so prodigious,
+and their hold so sure, that they often loose one hand before they have
+caught a bough with the other, thus seeming almost to fly through the
+air by a series of swinging leaps; and they travel among the network of
+interlacing boughs a hundred feet above the earth with as much ease and
+certainty as we walk or run upon level ground, and with even greater
+speed. These little animals scarcely ever come down to the ground of
+their own accord; but when obliged to do so they run along almost erect,
+with their long arms swinging round and round, as if trying to find some
+tree or other object to climb upon. They are the only apes who naturally
+walk without using their hands as well as their feet; but this does not
+make them more like men, for it is evident that the attitude is not an
+easy one, and is only adopted because the arms are habitually used to
+swing by, and are therefore naturally held upward, instead of downward,
+as they must be when walking on them.
+
+The tailed monkeys of Asia consist of two groups, the first of which
+have no cheek pouches, but always have very long tails, They are
+true forest monkeys, very active and of a shy disposition. The most
+remarkable of these is the long-nosed monkey of Borneo, which is very
+large, of a pale brown color, and distinguished by possessing a long,
+pointed, fleshy nose, totally unlike that of all other monkeys. Another
+interesting species is the black and white entellus monkey of India,
+called the "Hanuman," by the Hindoos, and considered sacred by them.
+These animals are petted and fed, and at some of the temples numbers
+of them come every day for the food which the priests, as well as the
+people, provide for them.
+
+The next group of Eastern monkeys are the Macaques, which are more like
+baboons, and often run upon the ground. They are more bold and vicious
+than the others. All have cheek pouches, and though some have long
+tails, in others the tail is short, or reduced to a mere stump. In some
+few this stump is so very short that there appears to be no tail, as in
+the magot of North Africa and Gibraltar, and in an allied species that
+inhabits Japan.
+
+
+AMERICAN MONKEYS.
+
+The monkeys which inhabit America form three very distinct groups:
+1st, the Sapajous, which have prehensile or grasping tails; 2nd, the
+Sagouins, which have ordinary tails, either long or short; and, 3rd, the
+Marmosets, very small creatures, with sharp claws, long tails which are
+not prehensile, and a smaller number of teeth than all other American
+monkeys. Each of these three groups contain several sub-groups, or
+_genera_, which often differ remarkably from each other, and from all
+the monkeys of the Old World.
+
+We will begin with the howling monkeys, which are the largest found in
+America, and are celebrated for the loud voice of the males. Often in
+the great forests of the Amazon or Oronooko a tremendous noise is heard
+in the night or early morning, as if a great assemblage of wild beasts
+were all roaring and screaming together. The noise may be heard for
+miles, and it is louder and more piercing than that of any other
+animals, yet it is all produced by a single male howler, sitting on the
+branches of some lofty tree. They are enabled to make this extraordinary
+noise by means of an organ that is possessed by no other animal. The
+lower jaw is unusually deep, and this makes room for a hollow bony
+vessel about the size of a large walnut, situated under the root of the
+tongue, and having an opening into the windpipe by which the animal
+can force air into it. This increases the power of its voice, acting
+something like the hollow case of a violin, and producing those
+marvelous rolling and reverberating sounds which caused the celebrated
+traveler Waterton to declare that they were such as might have had their
+origin in the infernal regions. The howlers are large and stout bodied
+monkeys, with bearded faces, and very strong and powerfully grasping
+tails. They inhabit the wildest forests; they are very shy, and are
+seldom taken captive, though they are less active than many other
+American monkeys.
+
+Next come the spider monkeys, so called from their slender bodies and
+enormously long limbs and tail. In these monkeys the tail is so long,
+strong, and perfect, that it completely takes the place of a fifth hand.
+By twisting the end of it round a branch the animal can swing freely in
+the air with complete safety; and this gives them a wonderful power of
+climbing end passing from tree to tree, because the distance they can
+stretch is that of the tail, body, and arm added together, and these are
+all unusually long. They can also swing themselves through the air for
+great distances, and are thus able to pass rapidly from tree to tree
+without ever descending to the ground, just like the gibbons in the
+Malayan forests. Although capable of feats of wonderful agility, the
+spider monkeys are usually slow and deliberate in their motions, and
+have a timid, melancholy expression, very different from that of most
+monkeys. Their hands are very long, but have only four fingers, being
+adapted for hanging on to branches rather than for getting hold of small
+objects. It is said that when they have to cross a river the trees on
+the opposite banks of which do not approach near enough for a leap,
+several of them form a chain, one hanging by its tail from a lofty
+overhanging branch and seizing hold of the tail of the one below it,
+then gradually swinging themselves backward and forward till the lower
+one is able to seize hold of a branch on the opposite side. He then
+climbs up the tree, and, when sufficiently high, the first one lets go,
+and the swing either carries him across to a bough on the opposite side
+or he climbs up over his companions.
+
+Closely allied to the last are the woolly monkeys, which have an equally
+well developed prehensile tail, but better proportioned limbs, and a
+thick woolly fur of a uniform gray or brownish color. They have well
+formed fingers and thumbs, both on the hands and feet, and are rather
+deliberate in their motions, and exceedingly tame and affectionate in
+captivity. They are great eaters, and are usually very fat. They are
+found only in the far interior of the Amazon valley, and, having a
+delicate constitution, seldom live long in Europe. These monkeys are not
+so fond of swinging themselves about by their tails as are the spider
+monkeys, and offer more opportunities of observing how completely this
+organ takes the place of a fifth hand. When walking about a house, or on
+the deck of a ship, the partially curled tail is carried in a horizontal
+position on the ground, and the moment it touches anything it twists
+round it and brings it forward, when, if eatable, it is at once
+appropriated; and when fastened up the animal will obtain any food that
+may be out of reach of its hands with the greatest facility, picking up
+small bits of biscuit, nuts, etc., much as an elephant does with the tip
+of his trunk.
+
+We now come to a group of monkeys whose prehensile tail is of a less
+perfect character, since it is covered with hair to the tip, and is of
+no use to pick up objects. It can, however, curl round a branch, and
+serves to steady the animal while sitting or feeding, but is never used
+to hang and swing by in the manner so common with the spider monkeys and
+their allies. These are rather small-sized animals, with round heads and
+with moderately long tails. They are very active and intelligent, their
+limbs are not so long as in the preceding group, and though they have
+five fingers on each hand and foot, the hands have weak and hardly
+opposable thumbs. Some species of these monkeys are often carried about
+by itinerant organ men, and are taught to walk erect and perform many
+amusing tricks. They form the genus _Cebus_ of naturalists.
+
+The remainder of the American monkeys have non-prehensile tails, like
+those of the monkeys of the Eastern hemisphere; but they consist of
+several distinct groups, and differ very much in appearance and habits.
+First we have the Sakis, which have a bushy tail and usually very long
+and thick hair, something like that of a bear. Sometimes the tail is
+very short, appearing like a rounded tuft of hair; many of the species
+have fine bushy whiskers, which meet under the chin, and appear as if
+they had been dressed and trimmed by a barber, and the head is often
+covered with thick curly hair, looking like a wig. Others, again, have
+the face quite red, and one has the head nearly bald, a most remarkable
+peculiarity among monkeys. This latter species was met with by Mr. Bates
+on the Upper Amazon, and he describes the face as being of a vivid
+scarlet, the body clothed from neck to tail with very long, straight,
+and shining white hair, while the head was nearly bald, owing to the
+very short crop of thin gray hairs. As a finish to their striking
+physiognomy these monkeys have bushy whiskers of a sandy color meeting
+under the chin, and yellowish gray eyes. The color of the face is so
+vivid that it looks as if covered with a thick coat of bright scarlet
+paint. These creatures are very delicate, and have never reached Europe
+alive, although several of the allied forms have lived some time in our
+Zoological Gardens.
+
+An allied group consists of the elegant squirrel monkeys, with long,
+straight, hairy tails, and often adorned with pretty variegated colors.
+They are usually small animals; some have the face marked with black and
+white, others have curious whiskers, and their nails are rather sharp
+and claw like. They have large round heads, and their fur is more glossy
+and smooth than in most other American monkeys, so that they more
+resemble some of the smaller monkeys of Africa. These little creatures
+are very active, running about the trees like squirrels, and feeding
+largely on insects as well as on fruit.
+
+Closely allied to these are the small group of night monkeys, which have
+large eyes, and a round face surrounded by a kind of ruff of whitish
+fur, so as to give it an owl like appearance, whence they are sometimes
+called owl-faced monkeys. They are covered with soft gray fur, like that
+of a rabbit, and sleep all day long concealed in hollow trees. The
+face is also marked with white patches and stripes, giving it a rather
+carnivorous or cat like aspect, which, perhaps, serves as a protection,
+by causing the defenseless creature to be taken for an arboreal tiger
+cat or some such beast of prey.
+
+This finishes the series of such of the American monkeys as have a
+larger number of teeth than those of the Old World. But there is another
+group, the Marmosets, which have the same number of teeth as Eastern
+monkeys, but differently distributed in the jaws, a premolar being
+substituted for a molar tooth. In other particulars they resemble the
+rest of the American monkeys. They are very small and delicate creatures
+some having the body only seven inches long. The thumb of the hands
+is[1] not opposable, and instead of nails they have sharp compressed
+claws. These diminutive monkeys have long, non-prehensile tails, and
+they have a silky fur often of varied and beautiful colors. Some are
+striped with gray and white, or are of rich brown or golden brown tints,
+varied by having the head or shoulders white or black, while in many
+there are crests, frills, manes, or long ear tufts, adding greatly to
+their variety and beauty. These little animals are timid and restless;
+their motions are more like those of a squirrel than a monkey. Their
+sharp claws enable them to run quickly along the branches, but they
+seldom leap from bough to bough like the larger monkeys. They live on
+fruits and insects, but are much afraid of wasps, which they are said to
+recognize even in a picture.
+
+[Transcribers note 1: Changed from '... it not opposable', ...]
+
+This completes our sketch of the American monkeys, and we see that,
+although they possess no such remarkable forms as the gorilla or the
+baboons, yet they exhibit a wonderful diversity of external characters,
+considering that all seem equally adapted to a purely arboreal life.
+In the howlers we have a specially developed voice organ, which is
+altogether peculiar; in the spider monkeys we find the adaptation to
+active motion among the topmost branches of the forest trees carried to
+an extreme point of development; while the singular nocturnal monkeys,
+the active squirrel monkeys, and the exquisite little marmosets, show
+how distinct are the forms under which the same general type, may be
+exhibited, and in how many varied ways existence may be sustained under
+almost identical conditions.
+
+
+LEMURS.
+
+In the general term, monkeys, considered as equivalent to the order
+Primates, or the Quadrumana of naturalists, we have to include another
+sub-type, that of the Lemurs. These animals are of a lower grade than
+the true monkeys, from which they differ in so many points of structure
+that they are considered to form a distinct sub-order, or, by some
+naturalists, even a separate order. They have usually a much larger head
+and more pointed muzzle than monkeys; they vary considerably in the
+number, form, and arrangement of the teeth; their thumbs are always well
+developed, but their fingers vary much in size and length; their tails
+are usually long, but several species have no tail whatever, and they
+are clothed with a more or less woolly fur, often prettily variegated
+with white and black. They inhabit the deep forests of Africa,
+Madagascar, and Southern Asia, and are more sluggish in their movements
+than true monkeys, most of them being of nocturnal and crepuscular
+habits. They feed largely on insects, eating also fruits and the eggs or
+young of birds.
+
+The most curious species are--the slow lemurs of South India, small
+tailless nocturnal animals, somewhat resembling sloths in appearance,
+and almost as deliberate in their movements, except when in the act of
+seizing their insect prey; the Tarsier, or specter lemur, of the Malay
+islands, a small, long tailed nocturnal lemur, remarkable for the
+curious development of the hind feet, which have two of the toes very
+short, and with sharp claws, while the others have nails, the third toe
+being exceedingly long and slender, though the thumb is very large,
+giving the feet a very irregular and _outre_ appearance; and, lastly,
+the Aye-aye, of Madagascar, the most remarkable of all. This animal has
+very large ears and a squirrel like tail, with long spreading hair.
+It has large curved incisor teeth, which add to its squirrel like
+appearance, and caused the early naturalists to class it among the
+rodents. But its most remarkable character is found in its fore feet
+or hands, the fingers of which are all very long and armed with sharp
+curved claws, but one of them, the second, is wonderfully slender,
+being not half the thickness of the others. This curious combination of
+characters shows that the aye-aye is a very specialized form--that is,
+one whose organization has been slowly modified to fit it for a peculiar
+mode of life. From information received from its native country, and
+from a profound study of its organization, Professor Owen believes
+that it is adapted for the one purpose of feeding on small wood-boring
+insects. Its large feet and sharp claws enable it to cling firmly to the
+branches of trees in almost any position; by means of its large delicate
+ears it listens for the sound of the insect gnawing within the branch,
+and is thus able to fix its exact position; with its powerful curved
+gnawing teeth it rapidly cuts away the bark and wood till it exposes the
+burrow of the insect, most probably the soft larva of some beetle, and
+then comes into play the extraordinary long wire-like finger, which
+enters the small cylindrical burrow, and with the sharp bent claw hooks
+out the grub. Here we have a most complex adaptation of different parts
+and organs, all converging to one special end, that end being the same
+as is reached by a group of birds, the woodpeckers, in a different way;
+and it is a most interesting fact that, although woodpeckers abound in
+all the great continents, and are especially common in the tropical
+forests of Asia, Africa, and America, they are quite absent from
+Madagascar. We may, therefore, consider that the aye-aye really occupies
+the same place in nature in the forests of this tropical island, as do
+the woodpeckers in other parts of the world.
+
+
+DISTRIBUTION, AFFINITIES, AND ZOOLOGICAL RANK OF MONKEYS.
+
+Having thus sketched an outline of the monkey tribe as regards their
+more prominent external characters and habits, we must say a few words
+on their general relations as a distinct order of mammalia. No other
+group so extensive and so varied as this, is so exclusively tropical in
+its distribution, a circumstance no doubt due to the fact that monkeys
+depend so largely on fruit and insects for their subsistence. A very
+few species extend into the warmer parts of the temperate zones, their
+extreme limits in the northern hemisphere being Gibraltar, the Western
+Himalayas at 11,000 feet elevation, East Thibet, and Japan. In America
+they are found in Mexico, but do not appear to pass beyond the tropic.
+In the Southern hemisphere they are limited by the extent of the forests
+in South Brazil, which reach about 30 deg. south latitude. In the East,
+owing to their entire absence from Australia, they do not reach the
+tropic; but in Africa, some baboons range to the southern extremity of
+the continent.
+
+But this extreme restriction of the order to almost tropical lands is
+only recent. Directly we go back to the Pliocene period of geology,
+we find the remains of monkeys in France, and even in England. In the
+earlier Miocene, several kinds, some of large size, lived in France,
+Germany, and Greece, all more or less closely allied to living forms of
+Asia and Africa. About the same period monkeys of the South American
+type inhabited the United States. In the remote Eocene period the same
+temperate lands were inhabited by lemurs in the East, and by curious
+animals believed to be intermediate between lemurs and marmosets in the
+West. We know from a variety of other evidence that throughout these
+vast periods a mild and almost sub-tropical climate extended over all
+Central Europe and parts of North America, while one of a temperate
+character prevailed as far north as the Arctic circle. The monkey tribe
+then enjoyed a far greater range over the earth, and perhaps filled a
+more important place in nature than it does now. Its restriction to the
+comparatively narrow limits of the tropics is no doubt mainly due to the
+great alteration of climate which occurred at the close of the Tertiary
+period, but it may have been aided by the continuous development of
+varied forms of mammalian life better fitted for the contrasted seasons
+and deciduous vegetation of the north temperate regions. The more
+extensive area formerly inhabited by the monkey tribe, would have
+favored their development into a number of divergent forms, in distant
+regions, and adapted to distinct modes of life. As these retreated
+southward and became concentrated in a more limited area, such as were
+able to maintain themselves became mingled together as we now find them,
+the ancient and lowly marmosets and lemurs subsisting side by side with
+the more recent and more highly developed howlers and anthropoid apes.
+
+Throughout the long ages of the Tertiary period monkeys must have been
+very abundant and very varied, yet it is but rarely that their fossil
+remains are found. This, however, is not difficult to explain. The
+deposits in which mammalian remains most abound are those formed in
+lakes or in caverns. In the former the bodies of large numbers of
+terrestrial animals were annually deposited, owing to their having been
+caught by floods in the tributary streams, swallowed up in marginal bogs
+or quicksands, or drowned by the giving way of ice. Caverns were the
+haunts of hyenas, tigers, bears, and other beasts of prey, which dragged
+into them the bodies of their victims, and left many of their bones to
+become embedded in stalagmite or in the muddy deposit left by floods,
+while herbivorous animals were often carried into them by these floods,
+or by falling down the swallow-holes which often open into caverns from
+above. But, owing to their arboreal habits, monkeys were to a great
+extent freed from all these dangers. Whether devoured by beasts or birds
+of prey, or dying a natural death, their bones would usually be left on
+dry land, where they would slowly decay under atmospheric influences.
+Only under very exceptional circumstances would they become embedded
+in aqueous deposits; and instead of being surprised at their rarity
+we should rather wonder that so many have been discovered in a fossil
+state.
+
+Monkeys, as a whole, form a very isolated group, having no near
+relations to any other mammalia. This is undoubtedly an indication of
+great antiquity. The peculiar type which has since reached so high a
+development must have branched off the great mammalian stock at a very
+remote epoch, certainly far back in the Secondary period, since in the
+Eocene we find lemurs and lemurine monkeys already specialized. At this
+remoter period they were probably not separable from the insectivora,
+or (perhaps) from the ancestral marsupials. Even now we have one living
+form, the curious Galeopithecus or flying lemur, which has only recently
+been separated from the lemurs, with which it was formerly united, to be
+classed as one of the insectivora; and it is only among the Opossums and
+some other marsupials that we again find hand-like feet with opposable
+thumbs, which are such a curious and constant feature of the monkey
+tribe.
+
+This relationship to the lowest of the mammalian tribes seems
+inconsistent with the place usually accorded to these animals at the
+head of the entire mammalian series, and opens up the question whether
+this is a real superiority or whether it depends merely on the obvious
+relationship to ourselves. If we could suppose a being gifted with
+high intelligence, but with a form totally unlike that of man, to have
+visited the earth before man existed in order to study the various forms
+of animal life that were found there, we can hardly think he would have
+placed the monkey tribe so high as we do. He would observe that their
+whole organization was specially adapted to an arboreal life, and this
+specialization would be rather against their claiming the first rank
+among terrestrial creatures. Neither in size, nor strength, nor beauty,
+would they compare with many other forms, while in intelligence they
+would not surpass, even if they equaled, the horse or the beaver. The
+carnivora, as a whole, would certainly be held to surpass them in the
+exquisite perfection of their physical structure, while the flexible
+trunk of the elephant, combined with his vast strength and admirable
+sagacity, would probably gain for him the first rank in the animal
+creation.
+
+But if this would have been a true estimate, the mere fact that the ape
+is our nearest relation does not necessarily oblige us to come to any
+other conclusion. Man is undoubtedly the most perfect of all animals,
+but he is so solely in respect of characters in which he differs from
+all the monkey tribe--the easily erect posture, the perfect freedom
+of the hands from all part in locomotion, the large size and complete
+opposability of the thumb, and the well developed brain, which enables
+him fully to utilize these combined physical advantages. The monkeys
+have none of these; and without them the amount of resemblance they have
+to us is no advantage, and confers no rank. We are biased by the too
+exclusive consideration of the man-like apes. If these did not exist
+the remaining monkeys could not be thereby deteriorated as to their
+organization or lowered in their zoological position, but it is doubtful
+if we should then class them so high as we now do. We might then dwell
+more on their resemblances to lower types--to rodents, to insectivora,
+and to marsupials, and should hardly rank the hideous baboon above the
+graceful leopard or stately stag. The true conclusion appears to be,
+that the combination of external characters and internal structure which
+exists in the monkeys, is that which, when greatly improved, refined,
+and beautified, was best calculated to become the perfect instrument
+of the human intellect and to aid in the development of man's higher
+nature; while, on the other hand, in the rude, inharmonious, and
+undeveloped state which it has reached in the quadrumana, it is by no
+means worthy of the highest place, or can be held to exhibit the most
+perfect development of existing animal life.--_Contemporary Review_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS.]
+
+
+
+
+SILK-PRODUCING BOMBYCES AND OTHER LEPIDOPTERA REARED IN 1881.
+
+By ALFRED WAILLY, Membre Laureat de la Societe d'Acclimatation de
+France.
+
+
+By referring to my reports for the years 1879 and 1880, which appeared
+in the _Journal of the Society of Arts_, February 13 and March 5, 1880,
+February 25 and March 4, 1881, it will be seen that the bad weather
+prevented the successful rearing in the open air of most species of
+silk-producing larvae. In 1881, the weather was extremely favorable up
+to the end of July, but the incessant and heavy rains of the month of
+August and beginning of September, proved fatal to most of the larvae
+when they were in their last stages. However, in spite of my many
+difficulties, I had the satisfaction of seeing them to their last
+stage. Larvae of all the silk-producing bombyces were preserved in their
+different stages, and can be seen in the Bethnal-green Museum. In July,
+when the weather was magnificent, the little trees in my garden were
+literally covered with larvae of more species than I ever had before, and
+two or three more weeks of fair weather would have given me a good crop
+of cocoons, instead of which I only obtained a very small number. The
+sparrows, as usual, also destroyed a quantity of worms, in spite of wire
+or fish-netting placed over some of the trees.
+
+On the trees were to be seen--_Attacus cynthia_ (the Ailantus silkworm),
+the rearing of which was, as usual, most successful; _Samia cecropia_
+and _Samia gloveri_, from America; also hybrids of _Gloveri cecropia_
+and _Cecropia gloveri_; _Samia promethea_ and _Telea polyphemus_;
+_Attacus pernyi_, and a new hybrid, which I obtained this last season by
+the crossing of Pernyi with Royle. For the first time I reared _Actias
+selene_, from India, on a nut-tree in the garden, and _Attacus atlas_,
+on the ailantus. The _Selene_ larvae reached their fifth and last stage.
+The Atlas larvae only reached the third stage, and were destroyed by the
+heavy rains; only two remained on the tree till about the 8th or 9th of
+September, when they had to be removed. I shall now reproduce the notes
+I took on some of the various species I reared.
+
+_Actias Selene_.--With sixty cocoons I only obtained one pairing. The
+moths emerged from the beginning of March till the 13th of August,
+at intervals of some duration, or in batches of males or females. I
+obtained a pairing of Selene on the 30toh of June, 1881, and the worms
+commenced to hatch on the 13th of July. The larvae in first stage are of
+a fine brown-red, with a broad black band in the middle of the body. The
+second stage commenced on the 20th of July; larvae, of a lighter reddish
+color, without the black band; tubercles black. Third stage commenced on
+the 28th of July; larvae green; the first four tubercles yellow, with a
+black ring at the base; other tubercles, orange yellow. Fourth stage
+commenced on the 6th of August; larvae green; first four tubercles
+golden-yellow, the others orange-red. Fifth stage commenced on the 19th
+of August; first four tubercles yellow, with a black ring at the base;
+other tubercles yellow, slightly tinged with orange-red; lateral band
+brown and greenish yellow; head and forelegs dark-brown. As stated
+before, the larvae were reared on a nut-tree in the garden, till the last
+stage. Selene feeds on various trees--walnut, wild cherry, wild pear,
+etc. In Ceylon (at Kandy), it is found on the wild olive tree. As far as
+I am informed by correspondents in Ceylon, this species is not found--or
+is seldom found--on the coasts, but _Attacus atlas_ and Mylitta are
+commonly found there.
+
+_Attacus (antheroea) roylei_ (with sixty cocoons); three pairings only
+were obtained, and this species I found the most difficult to pair in
+captivity. Two moths emerged on the 5th of March, a male and a female,
+and a pairing was obtained; but the weather being then too cold, the ova
+were not fertile, the female moth, after laying about two hundred eggs,
+lived till the 22d of March, which is a very long time; this was owing
+to the low temperature. The moths emerged afterward from the 8th of
+April till the 25th of June. A pairing took place on the 2d of June, and
+another on the 6th of June.
+
+Roylei (the Himalaya oak silkworm) is very closely allied to Pernyi, the
+Chinese oak silkworm; the Roylei moths are of a lighter color, but the
+larvae of both species can hardly be distinguished from one another.
+The principal difference between the two species is in the cocoon. The
+Roylei cocoon is within a very large and tough envelope, while that of
+Pernyi has no outer envelope at all. The larvae of Roylei I reared did
+not thrive, and the small number I had only went to the fourth stage,
+owing to several causes. I bred them under glass, in a green-house. A
+certain number of the larvae were unable to cut the shell of the egg.
+
+Here are a few notes I find in my book: Ova of Roylei commenced to hatch
+on the 29th of June; second stage commenced on the 9th of July. The
+larvae in the first two stages seemed to me similar to those of Pernyi,
+as far as I could see. In second stage, the tubercles were of a
+brilliant orange-red; on anal segment, blue dot on each side. Third
+stage, four rows of orange-yellow tubercles, two blue dots on anal
+segment, brilliant gold metallic spots at the base of the tubercles on
+the back, and silver metallic spots at the base of the tubercles on the
+sides. No further notes taken.
+
+One of my correspondents in Vienna (Austria) obtained a remarkable
+success in the rearing of Roylei. From the twenty-five eggs he had
+twenty-three larvae hatched, which produced twenty-three fine cocoons.
+The same correspondent, with thirty-five eggs of _Samia gloveri_,
+obtained twenty cocoons. My other correspondents did not obtain any
+success in rearing these two species, as far as I know.
+
+_Hybrid Roylei-Pernyi_.--I have said that it is extremely difficult to
+obtain the pairing of Roylei moths in captivity. But the male Pernyi
+paired readily with the female Roylei. I obtained six such pairings, and
+a large quantity of fertile ova. The pairings of Roylei (female) with
+Pernyi (male) took place as follows: two on the 21st of May, one on the
+3d of June, two on the 4th of June, and one on the 6th.
+
+The larvae of this new hybrid, _Roylei-Pernyi_, contrary to what might
+have been expected, were much easier to rear than those of Roylei, and
+the cocoons obtained are far superior to those of Roylei, in size,
+weight, and richness of silk. The cocoon of my new hybrid has, like
+Roylei, an envelope, but there is no space between this envelope and the
+true cocoon inside. Therefore, this time, the crossing of two different
+species (but, it must be added, two very closely allied species) has
+produced a hybrid very superior, at least to one of the types, that of
+Roylei. The cocoons of the hybrid _Roylei-Pernyi_ seem to me larger and
+heavier than any Pernyi cocoons I have as yet seen.
+
+The larvae of this new hybrid have been successfully reared in France,
+in Germany, in Austria, and in the United States of North America. The
+cocoons obtained by Herr L. Huessman, one of my German correspondents,
+are remarkable for their size and beauty. The silk is silvery white.
+
+I have seventeen cocoons of this hybrid species, which number may be
+sufficient for its reproduction. But the question arises, "Will the
+moths obtained from these cocoons be susceptible of reproduction?"
+
+In my report on Lepidoptera for the year 1879, I stated, with respect to
+hybrids and degeneracy, that hybrids had been obtained by the crossing
+of _Attacus pernyi_ and _Attacus yama-mai_, but that, although the moths
+(some of which may be seen in the Bethnal-green Museum) are large and
+apparently perfect in every respect, yet these hybrids could not be
+reproduced. It must be stated that these two species differ essentially
+in one particular point. _Yama-mai_ hibernates in the _ovum_ state,
+while Pernyi hibernates in the _pupa_ state. The hybrids hibernated in
+the _pupa_ state. Roylei, as Pernyi, hibernates in the _pupa_ state.
+
+In the November number, 1881, of "The Entomologist," Mr. W.F. Kirby,
+of the British Museum, wrote an article having for its title,
+"Hermaphrodite-hybrid Sphingidae," in which, referring to hybrids of
+_Smerinthus ocellatus_ and _populi_, he says that hermaphroditism is the
+usual character of such hybrids.
+
+I extract the following passage from his article: "I was under the
+impression that hermaphroditism was the usual character of these
+hybrids; and it has suggested itself to my mind as a possibility, which
+I have not, at present, sufficient data either to prove or to disprove,
+that the sterility of hybrids in general (still a somewhat obscure
+subject) may perhaps be partly due to hybridism having a tendency to
+produce hermaphroditism."
+
+Now, will the moths of new hybrid Roylei pernyi (which I expect will
+emerge in May or June, 1882) have the same tendency to hermaphroditism
+as has been observed with the hybrids obtained by the crossing of
+_Smerinthus populi_ with _Sm. ocellatus_? I do not think that such will
+be the case with the moths of the hybrid Roylei-pernyi, on account of
+the close relationship of Roylei with Pernyi, but nothing certain can be
+known till the moths have emerged. Here are the few notes taken on the
+hybrid Roylei-pernyi: Ova commenced to hatch on the 12th of June; these
+were from the pairing which had taken place on the 21st of May. Larvae,
+black, with long white hairs. Second stage commenced on the 21st of
+June. Larva, of a beautiful green; tubercles orange-yellow; head dark
+brown. Third stage commenced on the 1st of July; fourth stage on the
+7th. Larva of same color in those stages; tubercles on the back,
+violet-blue or mauve; tubercles on the sides, blue. Fifth stage
+commenced on the 18th of July. Larva, with tubercles on back and sides,
+blue, or violet-blue. First cocoon commenced on the 10th of August. Want
+of time prevented me from taking fuller and more accurate notes.
+
+_Attacus Atlas_.--For the first time, as stated before, I attempted the
+rearing of a small number of Atlas larvae in the open air on the ailantus
+tree, but had to remove the last two remaining larvae in September; the
+others had all disappeared in consequence of the heavy and incessant
+rains. These larvae were from eggs sent to me by one of my German
+correspondents. The pairing of the moths had taken place on the 17th of
+July, and the eggs had commenced to hatch on the 4th of August.
+
+I had about eighty cocoons of another and larger race of Atlas imported
+from the Province of Kumaon, but only eight moths emerged at intervals
+from the 31st of July to the 30th of September. Not only did the moths
+emerge too late in the season, but there never was a chance of obtaining
+a pairing. In my report on Indian silkworms, published in the November
+number of the "Bulletin de la Societe d'Acclimatation," for the year
+1881, compiled from the work of Mr. J. Geoghegan, I reproduce the first
+appendix of Captain Thomas Hutton to Mr. Geoghegan's work, in which are
+given the names of all the Indian silkworms known by him up to the year
+1871.
+
+Of _Attacus atlas_, Captain Hutton says: "It is common at 5,500 feet at
+Mussoorie, and in the Dehra Doon; it is also found in some of the deep
+warm glens of the outer hills. It is also common at Almorah, where the
+larva feeds almost exclusively upon the 'Kilmorah' bush or _Berberis
+asiatica_; while at Mussoorie it will not touch that plant, but feeds
+exclusively upon the large milky leaves of _Falconeria insignis_.
+The worm is, perhaps, more easily reared than any other of the wild
+bombycidae."
+
+I will now quote from letters received from one of my correspondents in
+Ceylon, a gentleman of great experience and knowledge in sericulture.
+
+In a letter dated 24th August, 1881, my correspondent says: "The Atlas
+moth seems to be a near relation of the Cynthia, and would probably feed
+on the Ailantus. Here it feeds on the cinnamon and a great number of
+other trees of widely different species; but the tree on which I
+have kept it most successfully in a domestic state is the _Milnea
+roxburghiana_, a handsome tree, with dark-green ternate leaves, which
+keep fresh long after being detached from the tree. I do not think the
+cocoon can ever be reeled, as the thread usually breaks when it comes
+to the open end. I have tried to reel a great many Atlas cocoons, but
+always found the process too tedious and troublesome for practical use.
+
+"The Mylitta (Tusser) is a more hardy species than the Atlas, and I have
+had no difficulty in domesticating it. Here it feeds on the cashew-nut
+tree, on the so-called almond of this country (_Terminalia catappa_),
+which is a large tree entirely different from the European almond, and
+on many other trees. Most of the trees whose leaves turn red when about
+to fall seem to suit it, but it is not confined to these. In the case of
+the Atlas moth, I discovered one thing which may be well worth knowing,
+and that was, that with cocoons brought to the seaside after the larvae
+had been reared in the Central Provinces, in a temperature ten or twelve
+degrees colder, the moths emerged in from ten to twenty days after the
+formation of the cocoon. The duration of the _pupa_ stage in this, and
+probably in other species, therefore, depends upon the temperature in
+which the larvae have lived, as well as the degree of heat in which the
+cocoons are kept; and in transporting cocoons from India to Europe, I
+think it will be found that the moths are less liable to be prematurely
+forced out by the heat of the Red Sea when the larvae have been reared in
+a warm climate than when they have been reared in a cold one.
+
+"I do not agree with the opinion expressed in one of your reports, that
+the short duration of the larva stage, caused by a high temperature, has
+the effect of diminishing the size of the cocoons, because the Atlas
+and Tusser cocoons produced at the sea-level here are quite as large as
+those found in the Central Provinces at elevations of three thousand
+feet or more. According to the treatise on the "Silk Manufacture," in
+"Lardner's Cyclopedia," the Chinese are of opinion that one drachm
+of mulberry silkworms' eggs will produce 25 ounces of silk if the
+caterpillars attain maturity within twenty-five days; 20 ounces if the
+commencement of the cocoons be delayed until the twenty-eighth day; and
+only 10 ounces if it be delayed until between the thirtieth and fortieth
+day. If this is correct, a short-lived larva stage must, instead of
+causing small cocoons, produce just the contrary effect."
+
+In another letter, dated November 25, 1881, my correspondent says: "I am
+sorry that you have not had better success in the rearing of your
+larvae, but you should not despair. It is possible that the choice of an
+improper food-plant may have as much to do with failures as the coldness
+and dampness of the English climate. I lost many thousands of Atlas
+caterpillars before I found out the proper tree to keep them on in a
+domesticated state; and when I did attain partial success, I could
+not keep them for more than one generation, till I found the _Milnea
+roxburghiana_ to be their proper food plant. I do not know the proper
+food-plant of the Mylitta (Tusser), but I have succeeded very well with
+it, as it is a more hardy species than the Atlas. Though a Bombyx be
+polyphagous in a state of nature, yet I think most species have a tree
+proper to themselves, on which they are more at home than on any
+other plant. I should like, if you could find out from some your
+correspondents in India, on what species of tree Mylitta cocoons are
+found in the largest numbers, and what is about the greatest number
+found on a single tree. The Mylitta is common enough here, but there
+does not seem to be any kind of tree here on which the cocoons are to be
+found in greater numbers than twos and threes; and there must be some
+tree in India on which the cocoons are to be found in much greater
+plenty, because they could not otherwise be collected in sufficient
+quantity for manufacturing purposes. The Atlas is here found on twenty
+or more different kinds of trees, but a hundred or a hundred and fifty
+cocoons or larvae may be found on a single tree of _Milnea roxburghiana_,
+while they are to be found only singly, or in twos and threes, on any
+other tree that I know of. The Atlas and Mylitta seem to be respectively
+the Indian relations of the Cynthia and Pernyi. It is, therefore,
+probable that the Ailantus would be the most suitable European tree for
+the Atlas, and the oak for the Mylitta."
+
+_Attacus mylitta_ (_Antheraea paphia_).--I did not receive a single
+cocoon of this species for the season 1881. My stock consisted of seven
+cocoons, from the lot received from Calcutta at the end of February,
+1880. Five were female, and two male cocoons; one of the latter died,
+thus reducing the number to six. The moths emerged as follows: One
+female on the 21st of June, one female on the 26th, one female on the
+28th, one female on the 1st of July, and one male on the 3d of August;
+the latter emerging thirty-four days too late to be of any use for
+rearing purposes. The last female moth emerged, I think, about the end
+of September. These cocoons had hibernated twice, as has been the case
+with other Indian species. I had Indian cocoons which hibernated even
+three times.
+
+_Attacus cynthia_, from the province of Kumaon.--With the Atlas cocoons,
+a large quantity of Cynthia cocoons were collected in the province
+of Kumaon. Both species had, no doubt, fed on the same trees; as the
+Cynthia, like the Atlas cocoons, were all inclosed in leaves of the
+_Berberis vulgaris_, which shows that Cynthia is also a polyphagous
+species. It is already known that it feeds on several species of trees,
+besides the ailantus, such as the laburnum, lilac, cherry, and, I think,
+also on the castor-oil plant; the common barberry has, therefore, to be
+added to the above food plants.
+
+These Kumaon Cynthia cocoons were somewhat smaller and much darker in
+color than those of the acclimatized Cynthia reared on the ailantus. The
+moths of this wild Indian Cynthia were also of a richer color than those
+of the cultivated species in Europe.
+
+During the summer 1881, I saw cocoons of my own Cynthia race obtained
+from worms which had been reared on the laburnum tree. These cocoons
+were, as far as I can remember, of a yellowish or saffron color; which
+I had never seen before. This difference in the color of the cocoon was
+very likely produced by the change of food, although it has been stated,
+and I think it may be quite correct, that with many species of native
+lepidoptera the change of food-plants does not produce any difference of
+color in the insects obtained. With respect to the Cynthia worms reared
+on the laburnum instead of the ailantus, it may be that the moths, which
+will emerge from the yellow cocoons, will be similar to those obtained
+from cocoons spun by worms bred on the ailantus, and that the only
+difference will be in the color of the cocoons.
+
+The Kumaon Cynthia cocoons, as I found it to be the case with Indian
+species introduced for the first time into Europe, did not produce moths
+at the same time, nor as regularly as the acclimatized species. The
+moths emerged as follows: One female on the 22d of July; one female on
+the 25th; one male on the 3d August; one female on the 19th; one male on
+the 28th of August; one male on the 2d September; one female on the 3d.
+A pairing was obtained with the latter two. Two males emerged on the 4th
+of September; one male on the 6th; one male and one female on the 22d;
+one female on the 23d; and one female on the 25th of September. Five
+cocoons, which did not produce any moths, contain pupae, which are still
+in perfect condition; and the moths will no doubt emerge next summer
+(1882). As seen in my note, a pairing of this wild Indian Cynthia took
+place; this was from the evening of the 4th to the 5th of September. The
+eggs laid by the female moth were deposited in a most curious way, in
+smaller or larger quantities, but all forming perfect triangles. These
+eggs I gave to a florist who has been very successful in the rearing
+of silk-producing and other larvae; telling him to rear the Cynthia on
+lilacs grown in pots and placed in a hot-house, which was done. The
+worms, which hatched in a few days, as they were placed in a hot-house,
+thrived wonderfully well, and I might say they thrived too well, as they
+grew so fast and became so voracious that the growth of the lilac trees
+could not keep pace with the growth of the worms. These, at the fourth
+stage, became so large that the foliage was entirely devoured, and, of
+course, the consequence was that all the worms were starved. I only
+heard of the result of that experiment long after the death of the
+larvae; otherwise I should have suggested the use of another plant after
+the destruction of the foliage of the lilacs; the privet (_Ligustrum
+vulgare_) might have been tried, and success obtained with it.
+
+Of such species as _Attacus pyri_, of Central Europe, and _Attacus
+pernyi_, the North Chinese oak silkworm, which I have mentioned in my
+previous reports, and bred every season for several years, I shall only
+say that I never could rear Pyri in the open air in London, up to the
+formation of the cocoon. As to Pernyi, I had, in 1881, an immense
+quantity of splendid moths, from which I obtained the largest quantity
+of ova I ever had of this species. I had many thousands of fertile ova
+of Pernyi, which I was unable to distribute. Many schoolboys reared
+Pernyi worms, but with what success I do not yet know. The number of
+fertile ova obtained from Pyri moths was also more considerable than in
+former years, which was due partly to the good quality of the pupae, and
+partly to the very favorable weather in June, at the time the pairings
+of the moths took place.
+
+Leaving these, I now come to the North American species.
+
+_Telea polyphemus_.--As I have stated in former years, this is the best
+North American silkworm, producing a closed cocoon, somewhat smaller
+than that of Pernyi, but the silk seems as good as that of Pernyi.
+
+The cocoons of Polyphemus I had in 1881 were smaller and inferior in
+quality to those I had before. Those received in 1878 and 1879 were
+considerably finer and larger than those which were sent in 1880 and
+1881; besides, they were sent in much larger quantities. The cocoons
+received this year (1882) are finer than those of 1881, but yet they
+cannot be compared with those of 1878 and 1879.
+
+With about sixty cocoons of _Telea polyphemus_ I only obtained three
+pairings, which I attribute solely to the weakness of the moths, as
+the weather was all that could be desired for the pairings. The moths
+emerged from the 1st of June to the 20th of July. One male moth emerged
+on the 7th September. This latter was one from a small number of cocoons
+received from Alabama; the other cocoons of the same race had emerged at
+the same time as the cocoons from the Northern States. In the Northern
+States the species is single-brooded; in the Southern States it is
+double-brooded.
+
+The larvae of Polyphemus can be bred in the open air in England, almost
+as easily as those of Pernyi, and even Cynthia; they will pass through
+their five stages and spin their cocoons on the trees, unless the
+weather should be unexceptionally cold and wet, as was the case during
+the month of August, 1881, when the larvae had reached their full size;
+they were reared this year on the nut-tree, and some on the oak. The
+species is extremely polyphagous, and will feed well on oak, birch,
+chestnut, beech, willow, nut, etc.
+
+The moth of Polyphemus is very beautiful, and, as in some other species,
+varies in its shades of color. The larva is of a transparent green, of
+extreme beauty; the head is light brown; without any black dots, as in
+Pernyi; the spines are pink, and at the base of each of them there is a
+brilliant metallic spot. When the sun shines on them the larvae seem to
+be covered with diamonds. These metallic spots at the base of the spines
+are also seen on Pernyi, Yama mai, Mylitta, and other species of the
+genus Antheraea, all having a closed cocoon, but none of these have so
+many as Polyphemus.
+
+The cocoons of the species of the genus Actias are closed, but the larvae
+have not the metallic spots of the species of the genus Antheraea.
+
+_Samia Gloveri_.--Three North American silk-producing bombyces, very
+closely allied, have been mentioned in my previous reports; they are;
+_Samia ceanothi_, from California; _Samia gloveri_, from Utah and
+Arizona; and _Samia cecropia_, commonly found in most of the Northern
+States--the latter is the best and largest silk producer. Crossings of
+these species took places in 1880, and, as I stated before, the ova
+obtained from a long pairing between a Ceanothi female with a Gloveri
+male, were the only ones which were fertile. The Gloveri cocoons
+received in 1880 were of a very inferior quality, and produced moths
+from which no pairings could be obtained, although some crossings took
+place. In 1881, the Gloveri cocoons, on the contrary, produced fine,
+healthy moths; yet only five pairings could be obtained, with about one
+hundred cocoons. Besides these five pairings, a quantity of fertile
+ova were obtained by the crossings of _S. gloveri_ (female) with _S.
+cecropia_ (male), and Cecropia (female) with Gloveri (male). No success,
+so far as I know, was obtained with the rearing of the hybrid larvae; the
+rearings of the larvae of pure Gloveri were also, I think, a failure,
+only one correspondent having been successful; but some correspondents
+have not yet made the result of their experiments known to me. The larvae
+of _Samia cecropia, S. gloveri_, and _S. ceanothi_, are very much alike;
+and hardly any difference can be observed in the first two stages. In
+the third and fourth stages, the larvae of _S. cecropia_ and _S. gloveri_
+are also nearly alike; the principal difference between these two
+species and _S. cecropia_ being that the tubercles on the back are of a
+uniform color--orange-red, or yellow--while on Cecropia the first four
+dorsal tubercles are red, and the rest yellow. The tubercles on the
+sides are blue on the three species.
+
+The larvae of the hybrids _Gloveri-cecropia_ were, as far as I could
+observe, like those of Cecropia, but I noticed some with six red
+tubercles on the back instead of four, as on Cecropia. They were reared
+on plum, apple, and _Salix caprea_; in the open air.
+
+The larvae of _Samia gloveri_ were reared, during the first four stages
+on a wild plum-tree, then on _Salix, caprea_, and I reproduce the notes
+taken on this species, which I bred this year (1881) for the first time.
+
+Gloveri moths emerged from the 15th of May to the end of June; five
+pairings took place as follows: 1st, 4th, 9th, 24th, and 26th of June.
+First stage--larvae quite black. Second stage--larvae orange, with black
+spines. Third stage--dorsal spines, orange-red; spines on sides blue.
+Fourth stage--dorsal spines, orange or yellow, spines on the sides blue;
+body light blue on the back, and greenish yellow on the sides; head,
+green; legs, yellow. Fifth and sixth stage--larvae nearly the same;
+tubercles on the back yellow, the first four having a black ring at the
+base; side tubercles ivory-white, with a dark-blue base.
+
+The above-mentioned American species, like most other silk-producing
+bombyces, were bred in the open air; but besides these, I reared three
+other species of American bombyces in the house, under glass, and with
+the greatest success. These are: _Hyperchiria io_, a beautiful species
+mentioned in my report for the year 1879; _Orgyia leucostigma_, from ova
+received on December 29, 1880, from Madison, Wis., which hatched on the
+27th of May, 1881.
+
+The third American species reared under glass is the following very
+interesting bombyx: _Ceratocampa (Eacles) imperialis_. The pupae of
+this species are rough, and armed with small, sharp points at all the
+segments; the last segment having a thick, straight, and bifid tail. The
+moths, which measure from four to about six inches in expanse of wings,
+are bright yellow, with large patches and round spots of reddish-brown,
+with a purple gloss; besides these patches and round spots, the wings
+are covered with small dark dots. The male moth is much more blotched
+than the female, and although of a smaller size, is much more showy than
+the female.
+
+With twenty-four pupae of Imperialis I obtained nineteen moths from the
+21st of June to the 19th of July; five pupae died. Two pairings took
+place; the first from the evening of the 13th to the morning of the
+14th; the second from the evening of the 15th to the morning of the 16th
+of July.
+
+The ova, which are about the size of those of Yama-mai, Pernyi, or
+Mylitta, are rather flat and concave on one side, of an amber-yellow
+color and transparent, like those of sphingidae. When the larvae have
+absorbed the yellow liquid in the egg, and are fully developed; they can
+be seen through the shell of the egg, which is white or colorless when
+the larva has come out.
+
+The larvae of Imperialis, which have six stages, commenced to hatch on
+the 31st of July; the second stage commenced on the 7th of August; the
+third, on the 17th; the fourth, on the 29th of August; the fifth, on
+the 18th of September; and the sixth, on the 1st of October. The larvae
+commenced to pupate on 13th of October.
+
+The larvae of this curious species vary considerably in color. Some are
+of a yellowish color, others are brown and tawny, others are black or
+nearly black. My correspondent in Georgia, who bred this species the
+same season as I did, in 1881, had some of the larvae that were green. In
+all the stages the larvae have five conspicuous spines or horns; two on
+the third segment, two on the fourth, and one on the last segment but
+one; this is taking the head as the first segment with regard to the
+first four spines These spines are rough and covered with sharp points
+all round, and their extremities are fork-like. In the first three
+stages they are horny; in the last three stages these spines are fleshy,
+and much shorter in proportion than they are in the first three
+stages. The color of the spines in the last three stages is coral-red,
+yellowish, or black. In the fifth and sixth stages the spine on the last
+segment but one is very short.
+
+Here are a few and short notes from my book:
+
+1st stage. Larvae, about one-third of an inch; head, brown, shiny, and
+globulous.
+
+2d stage. Larvae, dark-brown, almost black; spines, white at the base,
+and black at the extremities; head shiny and light brown.
+
+3d stage. Larve, fine black; head black; white hairs on the back;
+spines, whitish, buff, or yellowish at the base, and black at the
+extremities; other larvae of a brown color.
+
+4th stage. Larvae, black granulated with white; long white hairs; horns,
+brown-orange with white tips; on each segment two brown spots. Spiracles
+well marked with outer circle, brown, then black; white and black dot in
+the center. Anal segment with brown ribs, the intervals black with white
+dots; head shining, black with two brown bands on the face, forming a
+triangle. Other larvae in fourth stage, velvety black, with coral-red
+spines; others with black spines.
+
+5th stage. Larvae, entirely black, with showy eye-like spiracles,
+polished black head; other larvae having the head brown and black. Larvae
+covered with long white hair; spines black or red. No difference noticed
+between the fifth and sixth stages.
+
+One larva on fourth stage was different from all others, and was
+described at the British Museum by Mr. W. F. Kirby as follows: "Larva
+reddish-brown, sparingly clothed with long slender white hairs, with
+four reddish stripes on the face, two rows of red spots on the back,
+spiracles surrounded with yellow, black and red rings; legs red, prolegs
+black, spotted with red. On segments three and four are four long
+coral-red fleshy-branched spines, two on each segment, below which, on
+each side, are two rudimentary ones just behind the head; in front of
+segment two are four similar rudimentary orange spines or tubercles;
+last segment black, strongly granulated and edges triangularly above and
+at the sides, with coral-red; several short rudimentary fleshy spines
+rising from the red portion; the last segment but one is reddish above,
+with a short red spine in the middle, and the one before it has a long
+coral-red spine in the middle similar to those of segments three and
+four, but shorter"
+
+As soon as my Imperialis larvae had hatched, I gave them various kinds of
+foliage, plane-tree, oak, pine, sallow, etc. At first they did not touch
+any kind of foliage, or they did not seem to touch any; and I was afraid
+I should be unable to rear them; but on the second or third day of their
+existence, they made up their minds and decided upon eating the foliage
+of some of the European trees I had offered them. They attacked oak,
+sallow, and pine, but did not touch the plane-tree leaves. In America,
+the larvae of Imperialis feed on button-wood, which is the American
+plane-tree (_Platanus occidentalis_), yet they did not take to _Platanus
+orientalis_. After a little time I reduced the foliage to oak and sallow
+branches, and ultimately gave them the sallow (_Salix caprea_) only, on
+which they thrived very well. I was pleased with this success; as I had
+previously read in a volume of the "Naturalist's Library" a description
+of _Ceratocampa imperialis_, which ends as follows: "The caterpillars
+are not common, and are the most difficult to bring to perfection in
+confinement, as they will not eat in that situation; and, even if they
+change into a chrysalis, they die afterward."
+
+Before I finish with _C. imperialis_, I must mention a peculiar fact.
+During the first stage, and, I think, also during the second, several
+larvae disappeared without leaving any traces. I also saw two smaller
+larvae held tight by the hind claspers of two larger ones. The larvae thus
+held and pressed were perfectly dead when I observed them, and I removed
+them. My impression then was that these larvae were carnivorous, not
+from this last fact alone, as I had previously observed it with larvae
+of Catocalae when they are too crowded, but from the fact that some had
+disappeared entirely from the glass under which they were confined. I
+began to reduce their numbers, and put six only under each glass, so as
+to be able to watch them better. Whether I had made a mistake or not
+previously to this I do not exactly know; but from this moment the
+larvae behaved in a most exemplary manner, especially when they became
+larger. They crawled over each other's backs without the least sign of
+spite or animosity, even when they were in sleep, in which case larvae
+are generally very sensitive and irritable, all were of a most pacific
+nature. It is, therefore, with the greatest pleasure that, for want of
+sufficient evidence, I withdraw this serious charge of cannibalism which
+I first intended to bring against them.
+
+From what has been said respecting the rearing of exotic silk-producing
+bombyces, especially tropical species, it must have been observed
+that several difficulties, standing in the way of success, have to be
+overcome. The moths of North American species emerge regularly enough
+during the months of May, June, or July, but Indian and other tropical
+species may emerge at any time of the year, if the weather is mild, as
+has been the case during this unusually mild winter of 1881-1882. From
+the end of December to the present time (March 14, 1882) moths of four
+species of Indian silk-producers, especially _Antheraea roylei_ and
+_Actias selene_, have constantly emerged, but only one or two at a time.
+These moths emerged from cocoons received in December and January last.
+
+It is only when these tropical species shall have been already reared in
+Europe that the emergence of the moths will be regular; then they will
+be single-brooded in Northern or Central Europe, and some will very
+likely become double-brooded in Southern Europe. But when just imported
+the moths of these tropical species will always be uncertain and
+irregular in their emergence; hence the importance of having a
+sufficient number of cocoons so as to meet this difficulty, i.e., the
+loss of the moths that emerge prematurely or irregularly.
+
+Before I conclude, I shall repeat what I already stated in a previous
+report, that the sending of live cocoons and pupae from India and other
+distant countries to Europe, can easily be done, so that they will
+arrive alive and in good condition, if care be taken that the boxes
+containing these live cocoons and pupae should not be left in the sun or
+near a fire (which has been the case before), and that they should at
+once be put in a cool place or in the ice-room of the steamer. The
+cocoons and pupae should be sent from October to March or April,
+according to distance, and it is most important to write on the cases,
+"Living silkworm cocoons or pupae, the case to be placed in the ice
+room."
+
+By taking this simple precaution, live cocoons and pupae, when newly
+formed, can be safely sent from very distant countries of Europe.
+
+To continue these interesting and useful studies, I shall always be glad
+to buy any number of live cocoons, or exchange them for other species,
+if preferable.
+
+ALFRED WAILLY.
+
+110 Clapham Road, London, S.W.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MOSQUITO OIL.
+
+
+A correspondent from Sheepshead Bay, a place celebrated for the size of
+its mosquitoes and the number of its amateur fishermen, recommends the
+following as a very good mixture for anointing the face and hands while
+fishing:
+
+  Oil of tar.           1 ounce.
+  Olive oil.            1 ounce.
+  Oil of pennyroyal.    1/2 ounce.
+  Spirit of camphor.    1/2 ounce.
+  Glycerine.            1/2 ounce.
+  Carbolic acid.        2 drachms.
+
+Mix. Shake well before using.--_Drug. Circular_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS.
+
+
+This most remarkable structure, in the province of the same name, adorns
+the city of Burgos, 130 miles north of Madrid. The corner stone was laid
+July 20, A.D. 1221, by Fernando III., and his Queen Beatrice, assisted
+by Archbishop Mauricio. The world is indebted to Mauricio for the
+selection of the site, and for the general idea and planning of what he
+intended should be, and in fact now is, the finest temple of worship in
+the world. This immense stone structure, embellished with airy columns,
+pointed arches, statues, inscriptions, delicate crestings, and flanked
+by two needles or aerial arrows, rises toward the heavens, a sublime
+invocation of Christian genius.
+
+Illuminated by the morning sun it appears, at a certain distance, as if
+the pyramids were floating in space; further on is seen the marvelous
+dome of the transept, crowned with eight towers of chiseled lace-work,
+over the center of the church.
+
+Pubic worship was held in a portion of the edifice nine years after the
+work was begun; from that time onward for three hundred years, various
+additional portions were completed. On March 4, 1539, the great
+transept, built fifty years previous, fell down; but was soon restored.
+August 16, 1642, at 61/2 o'clock, P.M., a furious hurricane overthrew the
+eight little towers that form the exterior corner of the dome; but in
+two years they were replaced, namely July 19, 1644: the same night the
+great bells sounded an alarm of fire, the transept having in some way
+become ignited. The activity of the populace, however, prevented the
+loss of the edifice, which for a time was in great danger.
+
+The first architect publicly mentioned in the archives of the edifice
+was the Master Enrique. He also directed the work of the Cathedral of
+Leon. He died July 10, 1277. The second architect was Juan Perez, who
+died in 1296, and was buried in the cloister, under the cathedral. He is
+believed to have been either the son or brother of the celebrated Master
+Pedro Perez, who designed the Cathedral of Toledo, and who died in 1299.
+The third architect of the Cathedral of Burgos was Pedro Sanchez, who
+directed the work in 1384; after him followed Juan Sanchez de Molina,
+Martin Fernandez, the three Colonias, Juan de Vallejo, Diego de Siloe,
+the elder Nicolas de Vergara, Matienzo, Pieredonda, Gil, Regines, and
+others. It is worthy of note that a number of Moorish architects were
+employed on the work during the 14th and 15th centuries, such as
+Mohomad, Yunce, the Master Hali, the Master Mahomet de Aranda, the
+Master Yunza de Carrion, the Master Carpenter Brahen. Among the figure
+sculptors employed were Juan Sanchez de Fromesta, the Masters Gil and
+Copin, the famous Felipe de Vigardi, Juan de Lancre, Anton de Soto, Juan
+de Villareal, Pedro de Colindres, and many others. Our engraving is from
+a recent number of _La Ilustracion Espanola y Americana_.
+
+[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS, SPAIN.--PHOTOGRAPH BY DE
+LAURENT.--DRWAWING BY M. HEBERT.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PANAMA CANAL.
+
+By MANUEL EISSLER, M.E., of San Francisco, Cal.
+
+I.
+
+HISTORICAL NOTES.
+
+
+When Cortez, in the year 1530, made the observation that the two great
+oceans could be seen from the peaks of mountains, he, in those remote
+days, preoccupied himself with the question to cut through the
+Cordilleras.
+
+Therefore, the idea of an interoceanic canal is by no means a modern
+one, as travelers and navigators observed that there was a great
+depression among the hills of the Isthmus of Panama. As Professor T.E.
+Nurse, of the U.S.N., says in his memoirs:
+
+"This problem of interoceanic communication has been justly said to
+possess not only practical value, but historical grandeur. It clearly
+links itself back to the era of the conquest of Cortez, three and a half
+centuries." [1] It is a problem which has been left for our modern era
+to solve, but nevertheless its history is thereby rendered still more
+interesting, having needed so many centuries to bring it to an issue.
+
+[Footnote 1: From Prof. Nurse's historical essay. See Survey of
+Nicaragua Canal, by Com. Lull.]
+
+Spain, which acquired through her Columbus a new empire, lying near, as
+it was supposed, to the riches of Asia, could not be indifferent, from
+the moment of her discoveries, to the means of crossing these lands to
+yet richer ones beyond.
+
+India, from the days of Alexander and of the geographers, Mela, Strabo,
+and Ptolemy, was the land of promise, the home of the spices, the
+inexhaustible fountain of wealth. The old routes of commerce thither had
+been closed one by one to the Christians; the overland trade had fallen
+into the hands of the Arabs; and at the fall of Constantinople, 1453,
+the commerce of the Black Sea and of the Bosphorus, the last of the old
+routes to the East, finally failed the Christian world. Yet even beyond
+the fame of the East, which tradition had brought down from Greek and
+Roman, much more had the crusaders kindled for Asia (Cathay) and its
+riches an ardor not easily suppressed in men's minds.
+
+The error of the Spanish Admiral in supposing that the eastern shores
+of Asia extended 240 degrees east of Spain, or to the meridian of
+the modern San Diego, in California--this error, insisted on in his
+dispatches and adopted and continued by his followers, still further
+animated the earlier Spanish sovereigns and the men whom they sent into
+the New World to reach Asia by a short and easy route.
+
+Nobody in Europe dreamt that Columbus had discovered a new continent,
+and when Balbao, in 1513, discovered the South Sea, then it was known
+that Asia lay beyond, and navigators directed their course there. On
+his deathbed, in 1506, Columbus still held to his delusion that he had
+reached Zipanga, Japan. In 1501 he was exploring the coast of Veragua,
+in Central America, still looking for the Ganges, and announcing his
+being informed on this coast of a sea which would bear ships to the
+mouth of that river, while about the same time the Cabots, under Henry
+VII., were taking possession of Newfoundland, believing it to be part of
+the island coast of China.
+
+Although these were grave blunders in geography and in navigation, the
+discoveries really made in the rich tropical zones, the acquirement of
+a new world, and the rich products continually reaching Europe from it,
+for a time aroused Spain from her lethargy. The world opened east and
+west. The new routes poured their spices, silks, and drugs through new
+channels into all the Teutonic countries. The strong purposes of having
+near access to the East were deepened and perpetuated doubly strong, by
+the certainties before men's eyes of what had been attained.
+
+Balbao, in 1513, gained from a height on the Isthmus of Panama the first
+proof of its separation from Asia; and Magellan enters the South Sea
+at the southern extremity of the country, now first proven to be thus
+separate and a continent. Men in those days began to think that creation
+was doubled, and that such discovered lands must be separate from India,
+China, and Japan. And the very successes of the Portuguese under Vasco
+da Gama, bringing from their eastern course the expectancy of Asia's
+wealth, intensely excited the Spaniards to renew their western search.
+
+The Portuguese, led around the Cape of Good Hope, had brought home vast
+treasures from the East, while the Spanish discoverers, as yet, had not
+reached the countries either of Montezuma or of the Inca. Their success
+"troubled the sleep of the Spaniards."
+
+Everything, then, of personal ambition and national pride, the thirst
+for gold, the zeal of religious proselytism, and the cold calculations
+of state policy, now concurred in the disposition to sacrifice what
+Spain already had of most value on the American shores in order to seize
+upon a greater good, the Indies, still supposed to be near at hand. And
+since it was now certain that the new lands were not themselves Asia,
+the next aim was to find the secret of the narrow passage across
+them which must lead thither. The very configuration of the isthmus
+strengthened the belief in the existence of such a passage by the number
+of its openings, which seemed to invite entrance in the expectancy that
+some one of them must extend across the narrow breadth of land.
+
+For this the Spanish government, in 1514, gave secret orders to
+D'Avilla, Governor of Castila del Oro, and to Juan de Solis, the
+navigator, to determine whether Castila del Oro were an island, and to
+send to Cuba a chart of the coast, if any strait were possible. For
+this, De Solis visited Nicaragua and Honduras; and later, led far to the
+south, perished in the La Plata. For this, Magellan entered the straits,
+which, strangely enough, he affirmed before setting out, that he "would
+enter," since he "had seen them marked out on the geographer Martin
+Behaim's globe." For this, Cortez sent out his expeditions on both
+coasts, exposing his own life and treasure, and sending home to the
+emperor, in his second relation, a map of the entire Gulf of Mexico
+(Dispatch from Cortez to Charles V., October 15, 1524). For this great
+purpose, and in full expectancy of success in it, the whole coast of
+the New World on each side, from Newfoundland on the northeast, curving
+westward on the south, around the whole sweep of the Gulf of Mexico,
+thence to Magellan's Straits, and thence through them up the Pacific to
+the Straits of Behring, was searched and researched with diligence.
+"Men could not get accustomed," says Humboldt, "to the idea that the
+continent extended uninterruptedly both so far north and south." Hence
+all these large, numerous, and persevering expeditions by the European
+powers.
+
+Among them, by priority of right and by her energy, was Spain. The great
+emperor was urgent on the conqueror of Mexico, and on all in subordinate
+positions in New Spain, to solve the secret of the strait. All Spain was
+awakened to it. "How majestic and fair was she," says Chevalier, "in the
+sixteenth century; what daring, what heroism and perseverance! Never had
+the world seen such energy, activity, or good fortune. Hers was a will
+that regarded no obstacles. Neither rivers, deserts, nor mountains far
+higher than those in Europe, arrested her people. They built grand
+cities, they drew their fleets, as in a twinkling of the eye, from the
+very forests. A handful of men conquered empires. They seemed a race of
+giants or demi-gods. One would have supposed that all the work necessary
+to bind together climates and oceans would have been done at the word of
+the Spaniards as by enchantment, and since nature had not left a passage
+through the center of America, no matter, so much the better for
+the glory of the human race; they would make it up by artificial
+communication. What, indeed, was that for men like them? It were done
+at a word. Nothing else was left for them to conquer, and the world was
+becoming too small for them."
+
+Certainly, had Spain remained what she then was, what had been in vain
+sought from nature would have been supplied by man. A canal or several
+canals would have been built to take the place of the long-desired
+strait. Her men of science urged it. In 1551, Gomara, the author of the
+"History of the Indies," proposed the union of the oceans by three of
+the very same lines toward which, to this hour, the eye turns with hope.
+
+"It is true," said Gomara, "that mountains obstruct these passes, but if
+there are mountains there are also hands; let but the resolve be made,
+there will be no want of means; the Indies, to which the passage will
+be made, will supply them. To a king of Spain, with the wealth of the
+Indies at his command, when the object to be obtained is the spice
+trade, what is possible is easy.
+
+But the sacred fire suddenly burned itself out in Spain. The peninsula
+had for its ruler a prince who sought his glory in smothering free
+thought among his own people, and in wasting his immense resources in
+vain efforts to repress it also outside of his own dominions through all
+Europe. From that hour, Spain became benumbed and estranged from all
+the advances of science and art, by means of which other nations, and
+especially England, developed their true greatness.
+
+Even after France had shown, by her canal of the south, that boats could
+ascend and pass the mountain crests, it does not appear that the
+Spanish government seriously wished to avail itself of a like means of
+establishing any communication between her sea of the Antilles and the
+South Sea. The mystery enveloping the deliberations of the council of
+the Indies has not always remained so profound that we could not know
+what was going on in that body. The Spanish government afterward opened
+up to Humboldt free access to its archives, and in these he found
+several memoirs on the possibility of a union between the two oceans;
+but he says that in no one of them did he find the main point, the
+height of the elevations on the isthmus, sufficiently cleared up, and
+he could not fail to remark that the memoirs were exclusively French or
+English. Spain herself gave it no thought. Since the glorious age of
+Balbao among the people, indeed, the project of a canal was in every
+one's thoughts. In the very wayside talks, in the inns of Spain, when a
+traveler from the New World chanced to pass, after making him tell of
+the wonders of Lima and Mexico, of the death of the Inca, Atahualpa,
+and the bloody defeat of the Aztecs, and after asking his opinion of El
+Dorado, the question was always about the two oceans, and what great
+things would happen if they could succeed in joining them.
+
+During the whole of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Spain
+had need of the best mode of conveyance for her treasures across the
+isthmus. Yet those from Peru came by the miserable route from Panama to
+the deadliest of climates. Porto Bello and her European wares for
+her colonies toiled up the Chagres river, while the roughest of
+communication farther north connected the Chimalapa and the Guasacoalcos
+in Mexico, and the trade there was limited sternly to but one port on
+each side. As late as Humboldt's visit, in 1802, when remarking upon the
+"unnatural modes of communication" by which, through painful delays, the
+immense treasures of the New World passed from Acapulco, Guayaquil,
+and Lima, to Spain, he says: "These will soon cease whenever an active
+government, willing to protect commerce, shall construct a good road
+from Panama to Porto Bello. The aristocratic nonchalance of Spain, and
+her fear to open to strangers the way to the countries explored for her
+own profit, only kept those countries closed." The court forbade, on
+pain of death, the use of plans at different times proposed. They
+wronged their own colonies by representing the coasts as dangerous and
+the rivers impassable. On the presentation of a memoir for improving the
+route through Tehuantepec, by citizens of Oaxaca, as late as 1775,
+an order was issued forbidding the subject to be mentioned. The
+memorialists were censured as intermeddlers, and the viceroy fell under
+the sovereign's displeasure for having seemed to favor the plans.
+
+The great isthmus was, however, further explored by the Spanish
+government for its own purposes; the recesses were traversed, and the
+lines of communication which we know to-day were then noted.
+
+In addition to the fact that comparatively little was explored north or
+south of that which early became the main highway, the Panama route,
+there is confirmation here of the truth that Spain concealed and even
+falsified much of her generally accurately made surveys. No stronger
+proof of this need be asked than that which Alcedo gives in connection
+with the proposal by Gogueneche, the Biscayan pilot, to open
+communication by the Atrato and the Napipi. "The Atrato," says the
+historian, "is navigable for many leagues, but the navigation of it is
+prohibited under pain of death, without the exception of any person
+whatever."
+
+The Isthmus of Nicaragua has always invited serious consideration for
+a ship canal route by its very marked physical characteristics, among
+which is chiefly its great depression between two nearly parallel ranges
+of hills, which depression is the basin of its large lake, a natural and
+all-sufficient feeder for such a canal.
+
+In 1524 a squadron of discovery sent out by Cortez on the coast of the
+South Sea, announced the existence of a fresh water sea at only
+three leagues from the coast; a sea which, they said, rose and fell
+alternately, communicating, it was believed, with the Sea of the North.
+Various reconnoissances were therefore made, under the idea that here
+the easy transit would be established between Spain and the spice lands
+beyond.
+
+It was even laid down on some of the old maps, that this open
+communication by water existed from sea to sea; while later maps
+represented a river, under the name of Rio Partido, as giving one of
+its branches to the Pacific Ocean and the other to Lake Nicaragua. An
+exploration by the engineer, Bautista Antonelli, under the orders of
+Philip II., corrected the false idea of an open strait.
+
+In the eighteenth century a new cause arose for jealousy of her
+neighbors and for keeping her northern part of the isthmus from their
+view. In the years 1779 and 1780 the serious purposes of the English
+government for the occupancy of Nicaragua, awakened the solicitudes of
+the Spanish government for this section. The English colonels, Hodgson
+and Lee, had secretly surveyed the lake and portions of the country,
+forwarding their plans to London, as the basis of an armed incursion,
+to renew such as had already been made by the superintendent of the
+Mosquito coast, forty years before, when, crossing the isthmus, he took
+possession of Realejo, on the Pacific, seeking to change its name to
+Port Edward. In 1780, Captain, afterward Lord Nelson, under orders from
+Admiral Sir Peter Parker, convoyed a force of two thousand men to San
+Juan de Nicaragua, for the conquest of the country.
+
+In his dispatches, Nelson said: "In order to give facility to the great
+object of government, I intend to possess the lake of Nicaragua, which,
+for the present, may be looked upon as the inland Gibraltar of Spanish
+America. As it commands the only water pass between the oceans, its
+situation must ever render it a principal post to insure passage to the
+Southern Ocean, and by our possession of it Spanish America is severed
+into two."
+
+The passage of San Juan was found to be exceedingly difficult; for the
+seamen, although assisted by the Indians from Bluetown, scarcely forced
+their boats up the shoals. Nelson bitterly regretted that the expedition
+had not arrived in January, in place of the close of the dry season. It
+was a disastrous failure, costing the English the lives of one thousand
+five hundred men, and nearly losing to them their Nelson.
+
+At this period, Charles III., of Spain, sent a commission to explore the
+country. These commissioners reported unfavorably as regarded the route;
+but fearing further intrusion from England, forbade all access to the
+coast; even falsifying and suppressing its charts and permanently
+injuring the navigation of the San Juan and the Colorado by obstructions
+in their beds.
+
+It is, however, a relief here to learn that when Humboldt visited the
+New World, he could say: "The time is passed when Spain, through a
+jealous policy, refused to other nations a thoroughfare across the
+possessions of which they kept the whole world so long in ignorance.
+Accurate maps of the coasts, and even minute plans of military
+positions, are published." It is also true that the Spanish Cortes,
+in 1814, decreed the opening of a canal, a decree deferred and never
+executed.
+
+It was reserved for our century to see this great project carried into
+execution, and it is but just that as a chronicler of events I should
+connect with the Canal of Panama the name of a family who have done much
+to bring the scheme, so to say, into practical execution.
+
+As early as the year 1836, Mr. Joly de Sabla turned his views toward the
+cutting of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. He resided at the time
+on the Island of Guadeloupe, one of the French West India Islands,
+where he possessed large estates. Of a high social position, the
+representative of one of France's ancient and noble families, with large
+means at his disposal and of an enterprising spirit much in advance of
+his time, he was well calculated to carry out such a grand scheme.
+
+He soon set about procuring from the Government of New Granada (now
+Colombia) the necessary grants and concessions, but much time and many
+efforts were spent before these could be brought to a satisfactory
+condition, and it was not until the year 1841 that he could again visit
+the Isthmus, bringing with him this time, on a vessel chartered by him
+for the purpose, a corps of engineers and employes, medical staff, etc.,
+etc. After two years spent in exploring and surveying a country at that
+time very imperfectly known, he returned to Guadeloupe to find his
+residence and most of his estates destroyed by the terrible earthquake
+that visited the island in February, 1843.
+
+Undaunted by this unexpected and severe blow, Mr. De Sabla persisted in
+his efforts, and in the same year obtained from the French government
+the establishment of a Consulate at Panama to insure protection to the
+future canal company, and also the sending of two government engineers
+of high repute (Messrs. Garella and Courtines), to verify the surveys
+already made and complete them.
+
+After receiving the respective reports of Garella and Courtines, Mr.
+De Sabla decided upon first constructing a railway across the Isthmus,
+postponing the cutting of the canal until this indispensable auxiliary
+should have rendered it practicable and profitable. He then presented
+the scheme in that shape to his friends in Paris and London, and formed
+a syndicate of thirteen members, among whom we may recall the names of
+the well known Bankers Caillard of Paris, and Baimbridge of London,
+of Sir John Campbell, then Vice President of the Oriental Steamship
+Company, of Viscount Chabrol de Chameane, and of Courtines, the
+exploring engineer.
+
+A new contract was then entered upon with New Granada in June, 1847, and
+early in 1848, the Syndicate was about to forward to the Isthmus the
+expedition which was to execute the preliminary works, while the company
+was being finally organized in Paris, and its stock placed.
+
+The success of the undertaking seemed to be assured beyond peradventure,
+when the unexpected breaking out of the French revolution in February,
+1848, dashed all hopes to the ground. Several of the prominent
+financiers engaged in the affair, taken by surprise by the suddenness of
+the revolution, had to suspend their payments and of course to withdraw
+from the Panama Canal and railroad scheme. Others withdrew from
+contagious fear and timidity. Finally the term fixed for carrying out
+certain obligations of the contract expired without their fulfillment
+by the company, and the concession was forfeited. Another contract was
+almost immediately applied for and granted with unseemly haste by the
+President of New Granada to Messrs. Aspinwall, Stephens and Chauncey,
+which resulted in the construction of the actual Panama Railroad.
+
+These gentlemen acted fairly in the matter, and in 1849, calling Mr.
+De Sabla to New York, offered him to join them in the new scheme.
+Unfortunately they had decided upon placing the Atlantic terminus of the
+railroad upon the low and swampy mud Island of Manzanillo, while Mr.
+De Sabla insisted on having it on the mainland on the dry and healthy
+northern shore of the Bay of Limon. They could not come to an
+understanding on this point, and Mr. De Sabla, whose experience and
+foresight taught him the dangers that would result to the shipping from
+the unprotected situation of the projected part (now Colon--Aspinwall),
+and who well knew the insalubrity of the malarial swamp constituting
+the Island of Manzanillo, withdrew forever from the undertaking, after
+having devoted to it without any benefit to himself, the best years of
+his life and a large portion of his private means.
+
+One of his sons, Mr. Theodore J. de Sabla, after having actively
+co-operated with Lieutenant Commander Wyse, in the original scheme
+of the present canal company, is now one of Count de Lesseps's
+representatives in the City of New York, and a director of the Panama
+Railroad Company.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED AVERAGING MACHINE.
+
+
+At the recent meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers, in
+this city, a paper on an improved form of the averaging machine was read
+by its inventor, Mr. Wm. S. Auchincloss.
+
+The ingenious method by which the weight of the platform is eliminated
+from the result of the work of the machine was exhibited and explained.
+This is accomplished by counterweights sliding automatically in tubes,
+so that in any position the unloaded platform is always in equilibrium.
+Any combination of representative weights can then be placed on this
+platform at the proper points of the scale. By then drawing the platform
+to its balancing point, the location of the center of gravity will at
+once be indicated on the scale by the pointer over the central trunnion.
+
+The weights may be arranged on a decimal system, with intermediate
+weights for closer working, or they may be made so as to express
+multiples or factors.
+
+Each machine is provided with a number of differing scales, divided
+suitably for various purposes. When the problem is one of time, the
+scale represents months and days; for problems of proportion, the zero
+of the scale is at the center of its length; for problems for the
+location of center of gravity of a system from a fixed point, the zero
+is at the extremity of the scale, etc.
+
+The machine exhibited has sixty-three transverse grooves, which, by
+arrangement of weights, can be made to serve the purposes of two hundred
+and fifty-two grooves.
+
+The machine is 29 inches in length, 9 inches in width, and weighs about
+13 pounds.
+
+With the machine can be found average dates, as, for instance, of
+purchases and of payments extending over irregular periods; also average
+prices, as for "futures," in comman use among cotton brokers. The
+problem of average haul, so often presented to the engineer, can be
+solved with ease and great celerity. Practical examples of the solution
+of these and a number of other problems involving proportions or
+averages were given by the author.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+COMPOUND BEAM ENGINE.
+
+
+The engine represented in Figs. 1 to 4 herewith is intended for a mill,
+and is of 530 to 800 indicated horse-power, the pressure being seven
+atmospheres, and the number of revolutions forty-five per minute. As
+will be seen by the drawing each cylinder is placed in a separate
+foundation plate, the two connecting rods acting upon cranks keyed
+at right angles upon the shaft, W, which carries the drum, T. The
+high-pressure cylinder, C, is 760 mm diameter, the low pressure cylinder
+being 1,220 mm. diameter, and the piston speed 2.28 m. The drum, which
+also fulfills the purpose of a fly wheel, is provided with twenty-eight
+grooves for ropes of 50 mm. diameter. With the exception of the
+cylinders, pistons, valves, and valve chests, the engines are of the
+same size, corresponding to the equal maximum pressures which come into
+action in each cylinder, and in this respect alone the engine differs in
+principle from an ordinary twin machine.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 1]
+
+The steam passes from the stop-valve, A, Fig. 4, through the steam pipe,
+D, to the high pressure cylinder, C, and having done its work, goes into
+the receiver, R, where it is heated. From the receiver it is led into
+the low-pressure cylinder, C1, and thence into the condenser. Provision
+is made for working both engines independently with direct steam when
+desired, suitable gear being provided for supplying steam of the proper
+pressure to the condensing engine, so that each engine shall perform
+exactly the same amount of work. The starting gear consists of a
+hand-wheel, H, which controls the stop valve, A, and of another h, which
+opens the valves for the jackets of the cylinders and receiver. The
+hand-wheel, h1 and h2, govern the valves, which turn the steam direct
+into the two cylinders. There are also lever, g, which opens the
+principal injection cock, H1, and the auxiliary injection cock, H2, the
+function of which is to assist in forming a speedy vacuum, when the
+engine has been standing for some time.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 2]
+
+The drum is 6.08 m. diameter, the breadth being 2.04 m., with a total
+weight of 33,000 kilos. The beams are of cast iron with balance weights
+cast on. The connecting rods and cross beams are of wrought iron, and
+the cranks, crank shaft, piston rods, valve rods, etc., of steel. The
+bed-plate for the main shaft bearings are cast in one piece with the
+standards for the beam, which are connected firmly together by the
+center bearing, M M1, which is cast in one piece, and also by the
+diagonal bracing piece, N N1. The construction of the cylinder and valve
+chests is shown in Fig. 1. The working cylinder is in the form of a
+liner to the cylinder, thus forming the steam jacket, with a view to
+future renewal. This lining has a flange at the lower part for bolting
+it down, being made steam-tight by the intervention of a copper packing
+ring. There is a similar ring at the upper part which is pressed down by
+the cylinder cover. The latter is cast hollow and strengthened by ribs.
+The pistons are provided with cast iron double self-expanding packing
+rings. For preventing accidents by condensed water, spring safety
+valves, ss and s1 s1, are connected to the valve chests. The valve gear,
+which is arranged in the same manner for both cylinders, is actuated
+by shafts, w and w1, rotated by toothed wheels as shown. Motion is
+communicated from the way-shafts, w and w1, by the eccentrics, and the
+eccentric rods, e1 e2 e3 e4, and the levers and rods belonging thereto,
+to the short steam valve rocking shafts levers, f1 f2 f3 f4, and the
+exhaust valve rocking shafts, k1 k2 k3 k4, the bearings of which are
+carried on brackets above the valve chests, which, being furnished with
+tappet levers, raise and lower the valves.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 3]
+
+The valves are conical, double-seated, and of cast iron, and the inlet
+and outlet valves are placed the one above the other, the seats being
+also conically ground and inserted through the cover of the valve chest.
+Both inlet and outlet valves are actuated from above, and are removable
+upward, an arrangement which admits of the valves being more easily
+examined than when the two are actuated from different sides of the
+valve chest. To carry out this idea the inlet valves are furnished with
+two guides, which, passing upward through the stuffing-box, are attached
+to a hard steel cross piece, which receives the action of a bent catch
+turning on a pin attached to the levers, t1, t2, t3, t4. The exhaust
+valves, on the contrary, have only one guide each, which passes upward
+through the seat of the admission valve, through the valve itself by
+means of a collar, and through the stuffing-box. It is furnished with
+hard steel armatures, through which the levers, z1 z2, Fig. 3, act upon
+the exhaust valves.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 4]
+
+The governor effects the acceleration or retardation of the loosening of
+the catch actuating the steam valve by means of hard steel projections
+on the shaft, v1, the position of which, by means of levers, is
+regulated by the governor, which in its highest position does not allow
+the lifting of the inlet valve at all. The regulation of the expansion
+by the governor from 0 to 0.45 takes place generally only in the case of
+the high-pressure cylinder, while the low-pressure cylinder has a fixed
+rate of expansion. Only when the low-pressure cylinder is required
+to work with steam direct from the boiler is the governor applied to
+regulate the expansion in it. An exact action in the valve guides and
+a regular descent is secured by furnishing them with small dash pot
+pistons working in cylinders. Into them the air is readily admitted by
+a small India-rubber valve, but the passage out again is controlled at
+pleasure.--_The Engineer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TO DETECT ALKALIES IN NITRATE OF SILVER--Stolba recommends the salt
+to be dissolved in the smallest quantity of water, and to add to
+the filtered solution hydrofluosilicic acid, drop by drop. Should a
+turbidity appear an alkaline salt is present. But should the liquid
+remain limpid, an equal volume of alcohol is to be added, which will
+cause a precipitate in case the slightest trace of an alkali be present.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POWER HAMMERS WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.
+
+[Footnote: Paper read before the Institution of Mechanical
+Engineers.--_Engineering_.]
+
+By DANIEL LONGWORTH, of London.
+
+
+The movable-fulcrum power hammer was designed by the writer about five
+and a half years ago, to meet a want in the market for a power hammer
+which, while under the complete control of only one workman, could
+produce blows of varying forces without alteration in the rapidity with
+which they were given. It was also necessary that the vibration and
+shock of the hammer head should not be transmitted to the driving
+mechanism, and that the latter should be free from noise and liability
+to derangement. The various uses to which the movable fulcrum hammers
+have been put, and their success in working[1]--as well as the
+importance of the general subject which includes them, namely, the
+substitution of stored power for human effort--form the author's excuse
+for now occupying the time of the meeting.
+
+[Footnote 1: The hammers have been for some years used by A. Bamlett, of
+Thirsk; the American Tool Company, of Antwerp; Messrs. W.&T. Avery, of
+Birmingham; Pullar & Sons, of Perth; Salter & Co., of West Bromwich;
+Vernon Hope & Co., of Wednesbury, etc.; and also for stamps by Messrs.
+Collins & Co., of Birmingham, etc.]
+
+Until these hammers were introduced, no satisfactory method had been
+devised for altering the force of the blow. The plan generally adopted
+was to have either a tightening pulley acting on the driving belt, a
+friction driving clutch, or a simple brake on the driving pulley, put in
+action by the hand or foot of the workman. Heavy blows were produced
+by simply increasing the number of blows per minute (and therefore the
+velocity), and light blows by diminishing it--a plan which was quite
+contrary to the true requirements of the case. To prevent the shock
+of the hammer head being communicated to the driving gear, an elastic
+connection was usually formed between them, consisting of a steel spring
+or a cushion of compressed air. With the steel spring, the variation
+which could be given in the thickness of the work under the hammer was
+very limited, owing to the risk of breaking the spring; but with the
+compressed air or pneumatic connection the work might vary considerably
+in thickness, say from 0 to 8 in. with a hammer weighing 400lb. The
+pneumatic hammers had a crank, with a connecting rod or a slotted
+crossbar on the piston-rod, a piston and a cylinder which formed the
+hammer-head. The piston-rod was packed with a cup leather, or with
+ordinary packing, the latter required to be adjusted with the greatest
+nicety, otherwise the piston struck the hammer before lifting it, or
+else the force of the blow was considerably diminished. As the piston
+moved with the same velocity during its upward and downward strokes,
+and, in the latter, had to overtake and outrun the hammer falling under
+the action of gravity, the air was not compressed sufficiently to give
+a sharp blow at ordinary working speeds, and a much heavier hammer was
+required than if the velocity of the piston had been accelerated to a
+greater degree.
+
+As it is impossible in the limits of this paper to describe all the
+forms in which the movable fulcrum hammers have been arranged, two types
+only will be selected taken from actual work; namely, a small planishing
+hammer, and a medium-sized forging hammer.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: To the makers, Messrs. J. Scott Rawlings & Co, of
+Birmingham, the author is indebted for the working drawings of these
+hammers.]
+
+The small planishing hammer, Figs. 1 to 3, next page, is used for
+copper, tin, electro, and iron plate, for scythes, and other thin work,
+for which it is sufficient to adjust the force of the blow once for all
+by hand, according to the thickness and quality of the material before
+commencing to hammer it. The hammer weighs 15 lb., and has a stroke
+variable from 21/2 in. to 91/2 in., and makes 250 blows per minute. The
+driving shaft, A, is fitted with fast and loose belt pulleys, the belt
+fork being connected to the pedal, P, which when pressed down by the
+foot of the workman, slides the driving belt on to the fast pulley and
+starts the hammer; when the foot is taken off the pedal, the weight on
+the latter moves the belt quickly on to the loose pulley, and the hammer
+is stopped. The flywheel on the shaft, A, is weighted on one side,
+so that it causes the hammer to stop at the top of its stroke after
+working; thus enabling the material to be placed on the anvil before
+starting the hammer. The movable fulcrum, B, consists of a stud, free to
+slide in a slot, C, in the framing, and held in position by a nut and
+toothed washer. On the fulcrum is mounted the socket, D, through which
+passes freely a round bar or rocking lever, E, attached at one end to
+the main piston, F, of the hammer, G, and having at the other extremity
+a long slide, H, mounted upon it. This slide is carried on the
+crank-pin, I, fastened to the disk, J, attached to the driving shaft, A.
+The crank-pin, in revolving, reciprocates the rocking lever, E, and
+main piston, F, and through the medium of the pneumatic connection, the
+hammer, G. The slide, H, in revolving with the crank-pin, also moves
+backward and forward along the rocking lever, approaching the fulcrum,
+B, during the down-stroke of the hammer, and receding from it during
+the up-stroke. By this means the velocity of the hammer is considerably
+accelerated in its downward stroke, causing a sharp blow to be given
+while it is gently raised during its upward stroke.
+
+To alter the force of the blow, the hammer, G, is made to rise and fall
+through a greater or less distance, as may be required, from the fixed
+anvil block, K, after the manner of the smith giving heavy or light
+blows on his anvil. It is evident that this special alteration of the
+stroke could not be obtained by altering the throw of a simple crank and
+connecting rod; but by placing the slot, C, parallel with the direction
+of the rocking lever, E, when the latter is in its lowest position, with
+the hammer resting on the anvil, and with the crank at the top of its
+stroke, this lowest position of the rocking lever and hammer is made
+constant, no matter what position the fulcrum, B, may have in the slot,
+C. To obtain a short stroke, and consequently a light blow, the fulcrum
+is moved in the slot toward the hammer, G; and to produce a long stroke
+and heavy blow the fulcrum is moved in the opposite direction.
+
+Fig. 3 gives the details of the pneumatic connection between the main
+piston and the hammer, in which packing and packing glands are dispensed
+with. The hammer, G, is of cast steel, bored out to fit the main piston,
+F, the latter being also bored out to receive an internal piston, L. A
+pin, M, passing freely through slots in the main piston, F, connects
+rigidly the internal piston, L, with the hammer, G. When the main piston
+is raised by the rocking lever, the air in the space, X, between the
+main and internal pistons, is compressed, and forms an elastic medium
+for lifting the hammer; when the main piston is moved down, the air in
+the space, Y, is compressed in its turn, and the hammer forced down to
+give the blow. Two holes drilled in the side of the hammer renew the air
+automatically in the spaces, X and Y, at each blow of the hammer.
+
+Figs. 4 to 6, on the next page, represent the medium size forging
+hammer, for making forgings in dies, swaging and tilting bars, and
+plating edged tools, etc.
+
+The hammer weighs 1 cwt., has a stroke variable from 4 in. to 141/2 in.,
+and gives 200 blows per minute; the compressed air space between the
+main piston and the hammer is sufficiently long to admit forgings up to
+3 in. thick under the hammer.
+
+To make forgings economically, it is necessary to bring them into the
+desired form by a few heavy blows, while the material is still in a
+highly plastic condition, and then to finish them by a succession of
+lighter blows. The heavy blows should be given at a slower rate than the
+lighter ones, to allow time for turning the work in the dies or on the
+anvil, and so to avoid the risk of spoiling it. In forging with the
+steam hammer the workman requires an assistant, who, with the lever
+of the valve motion in hand, obeys his directions as to starting and
+stopping, heavy or light blows, slow or quick blows, etc; the quickest
+speed attainable depending on the speed of the arm of the assistant.
+In the movable-fulcrum forging hammer the operations of starting and
+stopping, and the giving of heavy or light blows, are under the complete
+control of one foot of the workman, who requires therefore no assistant;
+and by properly proportioning the diameter of the driving pulley and
+size of belt to the hammer, the heavy blows are given at a slower rate
+than the light ones, owing to the greater resistance which they offer to
+the driving belt.
+
+In this hammer the pneumatic connection, the arrangements for the
+starting, stopping, and holding up of the hammer, as well as those for
+communicating the motion of the crank-pin to the hammer by means of
+a rocking lever and movable fulcrum, are similar to those in the
+planishing hammer, differing only in the details, which provide double
+guides and bearings for the principal working parts.
+
+[Illustration: LONGWORTH'S POWER HAMMER WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.]
+
+The movable fulcrum, B, Figs. 4 and 5, consists of two adjustable steel
+pins, attached to the fulcrum lever, Q, and turned conical where they
+fit in the socket, D. The fulcrum lever is pivoted on a pin, R, fixed in
+the framing of the machine, and is connected at its lower extremity
+to the nut, S, in gear with the regulating screw, T. The to-and-fro
+movement of the fulcrum lever, Q, by which heavy or light blows are
+given by the hammer, is placed under the control of the foot of the
+workman, in the following manner: U is a double-ended forked lever,
+pivoted in the center, and having one end embracing the starting pedal,
+P, and the other end the small belt which connects the fast pulley
+on the driving shaft, A, with the loose pulley, V, or the reversing
+pulleys, W and X. These are respectivly connected with the bevel wheels,
+W_{1}, and X_{1}, gearing into and placed at opposite sides of the bevel
+wheel, Z, on the regulating screw in connection with the fulcrum lever.
+When the workman places his foot on the pedal, P, to start the hammer,
+he finds his foot within the fork of the lever, U; and by slightly
+turning his foot round on his heel he can readily move the forked
+lever to right or left, so shifting the small belt on to either of the
+reversing pulleys, W or X, and causing the regulating screw, T, to
+revolve in either direction. The fulcrum lever is thus caused to move
+forward or backward, to give light or heavy blows. By moving the forked
+lever into mid position, the small belt is shifted into its usual place
+on the loose pulley, V, and the fulcrum remains at rest. To fix the
+lightest and heaviest blow required for each kind of work, adjustable
+stops are provided, and are mounted on a rod, Y, connected to an arm of
+the forked lever. When the nut of the regulating screw comes in contact
+with either of the stops, the forked lever is forced into mid position,
+in spite of the pressure of the foot of the workman, and thus further
+movement of the fulcrum lever, in the direction which it was taking,
+is prevented. The movable fulcrum can also be adjusted by hand to any
+required blow, when the hammer is stopped, by means of a handle in
+connection with the regulating screw.
+
+In conclusion the author wishes to direct attention to the fact, that in
+many of our largest manufactories, particularly in the midland counties,
+foot and hand labor for forging and stamping is still employed to an
+enormous extent. Hundreds of "Olivers," with hammers up to 60 lb. in
+weight, are laboriously put in motion by the foot of the workman, at a
+speed averaging fifty blows per minute; while large numbers of stamps,
+worked by hand and foot, and weighing up to 120 lb., are also employed.
+The low first cost of the foot hammers and stamps, combined with the
+system of piece work, and the desire of manufacturers to keep their
+methods of working secret, have no doubt much to do with the small
+amount of progress that has been made; although in a few cases
+competition, particularly with the United States of America, has forced
+the manufacturer to throw the Oliver and hand-stamp aside, and to employ
+steam power hammers and stamps. The writer believes that in connection
+with forging and stamping processes there is still a wide and profitable
+field for the ingenuity and capital of engineers, who choose to
+occupy themselves with this minor, but not the less useful, branch of
+mechanics.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACES APPLIED TO THE PUDDLING OF IRON.
+
+
+Since the year 1872, the large iron works at Ougree, near Liege, have
+applied the Bicheroux system of furnaces to heating, and, since the
+year 1877, to puddling. The results that have been obtained in this
+last-named application are so satisfactory that it appears to us to be
+of interest to speak of the matter in some detail.
+
+The apparatus, which is shown in the opposite page, consists of three
+distinct parts: (1) a gas generator; (2) a mixing chamber into which
+the gases and air are drawn by the natural draught, and wherein the
+combustion of the gases begins; and (3) a furnace, or laboratory (not
+represented in the figure), wherein the combustion is nearly finished,
+and wherein take place the different reactions of puddling. These three
+parts are given dimensions that vary according to the composition of the
+different coals, and they may be made to use any sort of coal, even
+the fine and schistose kinds which would not be suitable for ordinary
+puddling. The gases and the air necessary for the combustion of these
+being brought together at different temperatures, and being drawn into
+the mixing chamber through the same chimney, it will be seen that the
+dimensions of the flues that conduct them should vary with the kind of
+coal used; and the manner in which the gases are brought together is not
+a matter of indifference.
+
+[Illustration: THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACE.
+
+Vertical Section, and Horizontal Section through MNOPQR]
+
+The gas generator consists of a hopper, A, into which drops, through
+small apertures a, the coal piled up on the platform, D. These apertures
+are closed with coal or bricks. The bottom of the generator is formed of
+a small standing grate. The coal, on falling upon a mass in a state of
+ignition, distills and becomes transformed into coke, which gradually
+slides down over a grate to produce afterward, through its own
+combustion, a distillation of the coal following it. But as these are
+features found in all generators we will not dwell upon them.
+
+The gases that are produced flow through a long horizontal flue, B, into
+a vertical conduit, E, into which there debouches at the upper part a
+series of small orifices, F, that conduct the air that has been heated.
+The gases are inflamed, and traverse the furnace c (not shown in the
+cut), from whence they go to the chimney. Before the air is allowed to
+reach the intervening chamber it is made to pass into the sole of the
+furnace and into the walls of the chamber, so that to the advantage of
+having the air heated there is joined the additional one of having those
+portions of the furnace cooled that cannot be heated with impunity.
+
+The incompletely burned gases that escape from the furnace are utilized
+in heating the boilers of the establishment. The dimensions given these
+furnaces vary greatly according to the charge to be used. All the
+results at Ougree have been obtained with 400 kilogramme charges,
+and the dimensions of the gas generators have been calculated for
+Six-Bonniers coal, which does not yield over 20 per cent. of gas.
+
+The advantages of this system, which permits of expediting all the
+operations of puddling, are as follows:
+
+1. A notable economy in fuel, both as regards quantity and quality.
+
+2. Economy resulting from diminution in the waste of metal, with a
+consequent improvement in the quality of the products obtained.
+
+3. Diminution in cost of repairs.
+
+4. Less rapid wear in the grates.
+
+5. Improvement in the conditions of the work of puddling.
+
+As regards the first of these advantages, it may be stated that the
+puddling of ordinary Ougree forge iron, which required with other
+furnaces 900 to 1,000 kilogrammes of coal, is now performed with less
+than 600 kilogrammes per ton of the iron produced. The puddling of fine
+grained iron which required 1,300 to 1,500 kilogrammes of coal is now
+done with 800. So much for quantity; as for quality the system presents
+also a very marked advantage in that it requires no rolling coal--the
+operation of the furnace being just as regular with fine coal, even that
+sifted through screens of 0.02 meter.
+
+The second class of advantages naturally results from the almost
+complete prevention of access of cold air. The saving in wastage amounts
+to 3 or 4 per cent., that is to say, 100 kilogrammes of iron produced is
+accompanied by a loss of only 9 to 10 kilogrammes, instead of 13 to 15
+as ordinarily reckoned.
+
+The diminution in the cost of repairs is due to the fact that the
+furnace doors, of which there are two, permit of easy access to all
+parts of the sole; moreover, the coal never coming in contact with the
+fire-bridges, the latter last much longer than those in other styles of
+furnaces, and can be used for several weeks without the necessity of
+the least repair. The reduced wear of the grates results from the low
+temperature that can be used in the furnace, and the quantity of clinker
+that can be left therein without interfering with its operation, thus
+permitting of having the grates always black. These latter in no wise
+change, and after five months of work the square bars still preserve
+their sharpness of edges.
+
+As for the improvements in the conditions of the work of puddling, it
+may be stated that with a uniform price per 100 kilogrammes for all the
+furnaces, the laborers working at the gas furnaces can earn 25 to 30 per
+cent. more than those working at ordinary furnaces.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GESSNER'S CONTINUOUS CLOTH-PRESSING MACHINE.
+
+
+It is well known that there are several serious drawbacks in the usual
+plan of pressing woolen or worsted cloths and felts with press plates,
+press papers, and presses. Three objections of great weight may be
+mentioned, and events in Leeds give emphasis to a fourth. The three
+objections are--the labor required in setting or folding the cloth,
+the expense of the press papers, and the time required. The fourth
+objection, about which a dispute has occurred between the press-setters
+and the master finishers in Leeds, refers to the inapplicability of the
+common system to long lengths. The men object to these on account of
+the great labor involved in shifting the heavy mass of cloth and press
+plates to and from the presses. A minor drawback of this system is
+that it involves the presence of a fold up the middle of the piece. On
+account of these drawbacks it has long been understood to be desirable
+to expedite the process, and also to dispense with the press papers.
+This is the main purpose of the machine we now illustrate in section, in
+which the pressing is done continuously by what may be termed a species
+of ironing. The machine consists of a central hollow cylinder, C,
+three-quarters of the circumference of which is covered by the hollow
+boxes, M, heated by steam through the pipes shown, and which are
+mounted upon the levers, BB', whose fulcra are at bb. By means of the
+hand-wheel, T, and worm-wheel, n, which closes or opens the levers, BB',
+the pressure of the boxes upon the central roller may be adjusted at
+will, the spring-bolt, F, allowing a certain amount of yield. The faces
+of the press-boxes, MM, are covered by a curved sheet of German silver
+attached to the point, Y. This sheet takes the place of the press papers
+in the ordinary process. The course of the cloth through the machine is
+as follows, and is shown by the arrows: It is placed on the bottom board
+in front, and in its travel it passes over the rails, O, after which it
+is operated on by the brush, Z, leaving which it is conveyed over the
+rails, V and I, the rollers, K and P, and thence between the pressing
+roller, C, and the German silver press plate covering the heated boxes,
+M. Leaving these the piece passes over the roller, P, and is cuttled
+down in the bottom board by the cuttling motion, F, or a rolling-up
+motion may be applied. The maker states that arrangements for brushing
+and steaming may also be attached, so that in one passage through the
+machine a piece may be pressed, brushed, and steamed. The speed of the
+cylinder may be adjusted according to the quality or requirements of
+the goods that are under treatment. At the time of our visit, says the
+_Textile Manufacturer_, printed woolen pieces were being pressed at the
+rate of about four yards a minute, but higher speeds are often obtained.
+Messrs. Taylor, Wordsworth & Co., who have erected many of these
+machines in Leeds, Bradford, and Batley, inform us that they find they
+are adapted for the pressing of a wide variety of cloths, from Bradford
+goods and thin serges to the heavy pieces of Dewsbury and Batley. The
+inventor, Ernst Gessner, of Aue, Saxony, adopts an ingenious expedient
+for pressing goods with thick lists. He provides an arrangement for
+moving the cylinder endwise, according to the different widths of
+the pieces to be treated. One list is left outside at the end of the
+cylinder, and the other at the opposite end of the pressing boxes. The
+machine we saw was 80 in. wide on the roller, and it was one the design
+and construction of which undoubtedly do credit to Mr. Gessner.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVEMENTS IN WOOLEN CARDING ENGINES.
+
+
+Mr. Bolette, who has made a name for himself in connection with strap
+dividers, has experimented in another direction on the carding engine,
+and as his ideas contain some points of novelty we herewith give the
+necessary illustrations, so that our readers can judge for themselves as
+to the merit of these inventions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Fig. 1 represents the feeding arrangement. Here the wool is delivered by
+the feed rollers, A A, in the usual manner. The longer fibers are then
+taken off by a comb, B, and brought forward to the stripper, E, which
+transfers them to the roller, H, and thence to the cylinder. The shorter
+fibers which are not seized by the comb fall down, but as they drop
+they meet a blast of air created by a fan, which throws the lighter and
+cleaner parts in a kind of spray upon the roller, L, whence they pass on
+to the cylinder, while the dirt and other heavier parts fall downwards
+into a box, and are by this means kept off the cylinder. It is evident
+that in this arrangement it is not intended to keep the long and the
+short fibers separate, but to utilize them all in the formation of
+the yarn. The arrangement shown in Fig. 2 refers to the delivery end.
+Instead of the sliver being wound upon the roller in the usual way, it
+runs upon a sheet of linen, P, as in the case of carding for felt, with
+a to-and-fro motion in the direction of the axis of the rollers. In this
+way one or more layers of the fleece can be placed on the sheet, which
+in that case passes backwards and forwards from roller S to R, and _vice
+versa_. It is, in fact, the bat arrangement used for felt, only with
+this difference, that the bat is at once rolled up instead of going
+through the bat frame. In the manufacture of felt it is of course of
+importance to have many very thin layers of fleece superposed over
+each other in order to equalize it, and if the same is applied to the
+manufacture of cloth it will no doubt give satisfactory results, but may
+be rather costly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NOVELTIES IN RING SPINDLES.
+
+
+One of the drawbacks of ring spinning is the uneven pull of the
+traveler, which is the more difficult to counteract as it is exerted
+in jerks at irregular intervals. It is argued that with spindles and
+bearings as usually made the spindle is supported firmly in its bearing,
+and cannot give in case of such a lateral pull when exerted through the
+yarn by the traveler, and the consequence is either a breakage of the
+yarn or an uneven thread. Impressed with this idea, and in order to
+remedy this defect, an eminent Swiss firm has hit upon the notion of
+driving the spindle by friction, and to make it more or less loose in
+the bearings, so that in case of an extra pull by the traveler the
+spindle can give way a little, and thus prevent the breakage of the
+yarn. This idea has been carried out in four different ways, and as this
+seems to be an entirely new departure in ring spinning, we give the
+illustrations of their construction in detail.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.]
+
+Fig. 1 represents Bourcart's recent arrangement of attaching the thread
+guide to the spindle rail and the adjustable spindle. The spindle is
+held by the sleeve, g, which latter is screwed into the spindle rail, S,
+this being moved by the pinion, a; the collar is elongated upwards in a
+cuplike form, c, the better to hold the oil, and keep it from flying;
+d is the wharf, which has attached to it the sleeve, m, and which is
+situated loosely in the space between the spindle and the footstep, e.
+Above the wharf the spindle is hexagonal in shape, and to this part is
+attached the friction plate, a. Between the latter and the upper surface
+of the wharf a cloth or felt washer is inserted, to act as a brake. The
+footstep, e, is filled with oil, in which run the foot of the spindle
+and the sleeve m, the latter turning upon a steel ring situated on the
+bottom of the footstep. As, thus, the foot of the spindle is quite free,
+the upper part of the spindle can give sideways in the direction of any
+sudden pull, and the foot of the spindle can follow this motion in the
+opposite direction, the collar forming the fulcrum for the spindle. By
+this alteration of the vertical position of the spindle into an inclined
+one (though ever so trifling), the contact of the friction plate, a, and
+the wharf is interrupted, and thus the speed of the spindle reduced.
+This will cause less yarn to be wound on, and the pull thus to be
+neutralized; but as the wharf keeps turning at the same speed, its
+centrifugal force will act again upon the friction plate, and thus bring
+the spindle back to its vertical position as soon as the extra drag has
+been removed.
+
+In Fig. 2 the footstep, e, has the foot of the spindle more closely
+fitting at the bottom, but the upper part of the step opens out
+gradually, and forms a conical cavity of a little larger diameter than
+the spindle, so that the latter has a considerable play sideways. The
+wharf carries in its lower part the sleeve, g, which runs upon a steel
+ring as above. The upper surface of the wharf is arched, and upon this
+is fitted the correspondingly arched friction plate, a, which latter
+is attached to the spindle by a screw. The position of the spindle is
+maintained by the collar, m. This collar is loose in the spindle rail,
+and only held by the spring, m'. If now, a lateral drag is exerted upon
+the upper part of the spindle, the collar car follows the direction of
+this drag, and the spindle thus be brought out of the vertical position,
+the friction plate slipping at the same time. The force of the spring
+conjointly with the centrifugal force will then bring back the spindle
+into its normal position as soon as the drag is again even.
+
+Fig. 3 shows a spindle with a very long conical oil vessel, B, resting
+upon a disk, e", in cup, e', with a cover, e"'. The wharf, d, is here
+situated high up the spindle, has the same sleeve as in the preceding
+case, and runs round the bush, g, upon the ring, z. The friction plate
+resting upon the wharf is joined to the collar, a, running out into a
+cup shape, which is fixed to the spindle, which here has a hexagonal
+form. In this case the collar gives with the spindle, which latter
+has the necessary play in the long footstep; and as the collar and
+friction-plate are one, it is brought back to its normal place by
+centrifugal force.
+
+A peculiar arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. Here the ring and traveler,
+f, are placed as usual, but the spindle carries at the same time an
+inverted flier, t. The spindle turns loosely in the footstep, e, the
+oil chamber being carried up to the middle of its height. The wharf
+is placed in the same position as in the previous case, having also
+a sleeve running in the oil chamber, c, upon a steel ring, z. The
+friction-plate a, on the top of the wharf carries the flier, and on its
+upper surface is in contact with the inverted cup, a, which is attached
+to the spindle by a pin or screw. In order to limit at will the lateral
+motion of the spindle there is attached to the latter, between the
+footstep and the collar, a split ring, i, which can be closed more
+or less by a small set screw. The spindle is thus only held in the
+perpendicular position by its own velocity, which will facilitate a
+high degree of speed, through the entire absence of all friction in the
+bearings, this vertical position being assisted by the friction motion
+whenever the spindle has been drawn on one side. Although the notion of
+mounting spindles so that they can yield in order to center themselves
+is not new, it is evident that considerable ingenuity has been brought
+to bear upon the arrangement of the spindles we have described, but we
+are not in a position to say to what extent practice has in this case
+coincided with theory.--_Textile Manufacturer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTO-ENGRAVING ON ZINC OR COPPER.
+
+By LEON VIDAL.
+
+
+This process is similar in many respects to the one which was some
+time ago communicated to the Photographic Society of France by M.
+Stronbinsky, of St. Petersburg, but in a much improved and complete
+form. An account of it was given by M. Gobert, at the meeting of the
+same society, on the 2d December, 1882. The following are the details,
+as demonstrated by me at the meeting of the 9th of May last:
+
+Sheets of zinc or of copper of a convenient size are carefully planished
+and polished with powdered pumice stone. The sensitive mixture is
+composed of:
+
+  The whites of four fresh eggs beaten
+  to a froth......................... 100    parts
+  Pure bichromate of ammonia.........   2.50   "
+  Water..............................  50      "
+
+After this mixture has been carefully filtered through a paper filter, a
+few drops of ammonia are added. It will keep good for some time if well
+corked and preserved from exposure to the light. Even two months after
+being prepared I have found it to be still good; but too large a
+quantity should not be prepared at a time, as it does not improve with
+keeping.
+
+I find that the dry albumen of commerce will answer as well as the
+fresh. In that case I employ the following formula:
+
+  Dry albumen from eggs.............. 15 to 20    parts
+  Water..............................      100      "
+  Ammonia bichromate.................        2.50   "
+
+Always add some drops of ammonia, and keep this mixture in a well corked
+bottle and in a dark place.
+
+To coat the metal plate, place it on a turning table, to which it is
+made fast at the center by a pneumatic holder; to assure the perfect
+adhesion of this holder, it is as well to wet the circular elastic ring
+of the holder before applying it to the metallic surface. When this is
+done, the table may be made to rotate quickly without fear of detaching
+the plate by the rapidity of the movement. The plate is placed in a
+perfectly horizontal position, where no dust can settle on it; the
+mixture is then poured on it, and distributed by means of a triangular
+piece of soft paper, so as to cover equally all the parts of the plate.
+Care should be taken not to flow too much liquid over the plate, and
+when the latter is everywhere coated, the excess is poured off into a
+different vessel from that which contains the filtered mixture, or else
+into a filter resting on that vessel. The turning table should now be
+inverted so that the sensitive surface may be downwards, and it is made
+to rotate at first slowly, afterwards more rapidly, so as to make the
+film, which should be very thin, quite smooth and even. The whole
+operation should be carried out in a subdued light, as too strong a
+light would render insoluble the film of bichromated albumen.
+
+When the film is equalized the plate must be detached from the turning
+table and placed on a cast iron or tin plate heated to not more than 40 deg.
+or 50 deg. C. A gentle heat is quite sufficient to dry the albumen quickly;
+a greater heat would spoil it, as it would produce coagulation. So soon
+as the film is dry, which will be seen by the iridescent aspect it
+assumes, the plate is allowed to cool to the ordinary temperature,
+and is then at once exposed either beneath a positive, or beneath an
+original drawing the lines of which have been drawn in opaque ink, so as
+to completely prevent the luminous rays from passing through them; the
+light should only penetrate through the white or transparent ground of
+the drawing.
+
+I say a _positive_ because I wish to obtain an engraved plate; if I
+wanted to have a plate for typographic printing, I should have to take a
+_negative_. After exposure the plate must be at once developed, which is
+effected by dissolving in water those parts of the bichromated gelatine
+which have been protected from the action of light by the dark spaces
+of the cliche; these parts remain soluble, while the others have been
+rendered completely insoluble. If the plate were dipped in clear water
+it would be difficult to observe the picture coming out, especially on
+copper. To overcome this difficulty the water must be tinged with some
+aniline color; aniline red or violet, which are soluble in water,
+answers the purpose very well. Enough of the dye must be dissolved in
+the water to give it a tolerably deep color. So soon as the plate is
+plunged into this liquid the albumen not acted on by light is dissolved,
+while the insoluble parts are colored by absorbing the dye, so that the
+metal is exposed in the lines against a red or violet ground, according
+to the color of the dye used.
+
+When the drawing comes out quite perfect, and a complete copy of the
+original, the plate with the image on it is allowed to dry either of its
+own accord, or by submitting it to a gentle heat. So soon as it is dry
+it is etched, and this is done by means of a solution of perchloride
+of iron in alcohol. Both alcohol and iron perchloride will coagulate
+albumen; their action, therefore, on the image will not be injurious,
+since they will harden the remaining albumen still further. But to get
+the full benefit of this, the alcohol and the iron perchloride must
+both be free from water; it is therefore advisable to use the salt in
+crystals which have been thoroughly dried, and the alcohol of a strength
+of 95 deg..
+
+The following is the formula:
+
+  Perchloride of iron, well dried     50 gr.
+  Alcohol at 95 deg.                     100 "
+
+This solution must be carefully filtered so as to get rid of any deposit
+which may form, and must be preserved in a well-corked bottle, when it
+will keep for a long time. The plate is first coated with a varnish of
+bitumen of Judea on the edges (if those parts are not already covered
+with albumen) and on the back, so that the etching liquid can only act
+on the lines to be engraved. It is then placed, with the side to be
+engraved downwards, in a porcelain basin, into which a sufficient
+quantity of the solution of perchloride of iron is poured, and the
+liquid is kept stirred so as to renew the portion which touches the
+plate; but care must be taken not to touch with the brush the parts
+where there is albumen remaining. The length of time that the etching
+must be continued depends on the depth required to be given to
+the engraving; generally a quarter of an hour will be found to be
+sufficient. Should it be thought desirable to extend the action over
+half an hour, the lines will be found to have been very deeply engraved.
+When the etching is considered to have been pushed far enough, the plate
+must be withdrawn from the solution, and washed in plenty of water;
+it must then be forcibly rubbed with a cloth so as to remove all the
+albumen, and after it has been polished with a little pumice, the
+engraving is complete.
+
+It will be seen that this process may be used with advantage instead of
+that of photo-engraving with bitumen, in cases where it is not advisable
+to use acids. One of my friends, Mr. Fisch, suggests the plan--which
+seems to deserve a careful investigation--of combining this process
+with that where bitumen is employed; it would be done somewhat in the
+following way. The plate of metal would be first coated evenly with
+bitumen of Judea on the turning table, and when the bitumen is quite
+dry, it should be again coated with albumen in the manner as described
+above. In full sunlight the exposure need not exceed a minute in length;
+then the plate would be laid in colored water, dried, and immersed in
+spirits of turpentine. The latter will dissolve the bitumen in all
+the parts where it has been exposed by the removal of the albumen not
+rendered insoluble by the action of light. But it remains to be seen
+whether the albumen will not be undermined in this method; therefore,
+before recommending the process, it ought to be thoroughly studied. The
+metal is now exposed in all the parts that have to be etched, while
+all the other parts are protected by a layer of bitumen coated with
+coagulated albumen. Hence we may employ as mordant water acidulated with
+3, 4, or 5 per cent. of nitric acid, according as it is required to have
+the plate etched with greater or less vigor.
+
+By following the directions above given, any one wishing to adopt the
+process cannot fail of obtaining good results, One of its greatest
+advantages is that it is within the reach of every one engaged in
+printing operations.--_Photo News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MERIDIAN LINE.
+
+[Footnote: From Proceedings of the Association of County Surveyors of
+Ohio, Columbus, January, 1882.]
+
+
+The following process has been used by the undersigned for many years.
+The true meridian can thus be found within one minute of arc:
+
+_Directions_.--Nail a slat to the north side of an upper window--the
+higher the better. Let it be 25 feet from the ground or more. Let it
+project 3 feet. Kear the end suspend a plumb-bob, and have it swing in a
+bucket of water. A lamp set in the window will render the upper part of
+the string visible. Place a small table or stand about 20 feet south of
+the plumb-bob, and on its south edge stick the small blade of a pocket
+knife; place the eye close to the blade, and move the stand so as to
+bring the blade, string, and polar star into line. Place the table so
+that the star shall be seen very near the slat in the window. Let this
+be done half an hour before the greatest elongation of the star. Within
+four or five minutes after the first alignment the star will have moved
+to the east or west of the string. Slip the table or the knife a little
+to one side, and align carefully as before. After a few alignments the
+star will move along the string--down, if the elongation is west; up, if
+east. On the first of June the eastern elongation occurs about half-past
+two in the morning, and as daylight comes on shortly after the
+observation is completed, I prefer that time of year. The time of
+meridian passage or of the elongation can be found in almost any work on
+surveying. Of course the observer should choose a calm night.
+
+In the morning the transit can be ranged with the knife blade and
+string, and the proper angle turned off to the left, if the elongation
+is east; to the right, if west.
+
+Instead of turning off the angle, as above described, I measure 200 or
+300 feet northtward, in the direction of the string, and compute the
+offset in feet and inches, set a stake in the ground, and drive a tack
+in the usual way.
+
+Suppose the distance is 250 feet and the angle 1 deg. 40', then the offset
+will be 7,271 feet, or 7 feet 31/4 inches. A minute of arc at the distance
+of 250 feet is seven-eighths of an inch; and this is the most accurate
+way, for the vernier will not mark so small a space accurately.
+
+
+ANGLE OF ELONGATION.
+
+This should be computed by the surveyor for each observation. The
+distance between the star and the pole is continually diminishing, and
+on January 1, 1882, was 1 deg. 18' 48".
+
+There is a slight annual variation in the distance. July 1, 1882, it
+will be 1 deg. 19' 20". If from this latter quantity the observer will
+subtract 16" for 1883, and the same quantity for each succeeding year
+for the next four or five years, no error so great as one-quarter of a
+minute will be made in the position of the meridian as determined in the
+summer months. If winter observations are made, the distance in January
+should be used. The formula for computing the angle of elongation is
+easily made by any one understanding spherical trigonometry, and is
+this:
+
+   R x sin. Polar dist.
+  --------------------- = sin. of angle of elongation.
+        cos. lat.
+
+As an example, suppose the time is July, 1882, and the latitude 40 deg..
+Then the computation being made, the angle will be found to be 1 deg. 43'
+34". A difference of six minutes in the latitude will make less than
+10" difference in the angle, as one can see by trial. Any good State
+or county map will give the latitude to within one or two miles--or
+minutes.
+
+The facts being as here stated, the absurdity of the Ohio law,
+concerning the establishment of county meridians, becomes apparent. The
+longitude has nothing at all to do With the meridian; and a difference
+of _six miles_ in latitude makes no appreciable error in the meridian
+established as here suggested, whereas the statute requires the latitude
+within _one half a second_, which is _fifty feet_. There are some other
+things, besides the ways of Providence, which may be said to be "past
+finding out." It is not probable that a surveyor would err so much as
+_three_ miles in his latitude, but should he do so, then the error in
+his meridian line, resulting from the mistake, will be _five seconds_,
+and a line _one mile_ long, run on a course 5" out of the way, will vary
+but _an inch and a half_ from the true position. Surveyors well know
+that no such accuracy is attainable. R. W. McFARLAND,
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRO-MANIA.
+
+By W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS.
+
+
+A history of electricity, in order to be complete, must include two
+distinct and very different subjects: the history of electrical science,
+and a history of electrical exaggerations and delusions. The progress of
+the first has been followed by a crop of the second from the time when
+Kleist, Muschenbroek, and Cuneus endeavored to bottle the supposed
+fluid, and in the course of these attempts stumbled upon the "Leyden
+jar."
+
+Dr. Lieberkuhn, of Berlin, describes the startling results which he
+obtained, or imagined, "when a nail or a piece of brass wire is put into
+a small apothecary's phial and electrified." He says that "if, while it
+is electrifying, I put my finger or a piece of gold which I hold in my
+hand to the nail, I receive a shock which stuns my arms and shoulders."
+At about the same date (the middle of the last century), Muschenbroek
+stated, in a letter to Reaumur, that, on taking a shock from a thin
+glass bowl, "he felt himself struck in his arms, shoulders, and breast,
+so that he lost his breath, and was two days before he recovered from
+the effects of the blow and the terror" and that he "would not take a
+second shock for the kingdom of France." From the description Of the
+apparatus, it is evident that this dreadful shock was no stronger than
+many of us have taken scores of times for fun, and have given to
+our school-follows when we became the proud possessors of our first
+electrical machine.
+
+Conjurers, mountebanks, itinerant quacks, and other adventurers operated
+throughout Europe, and were found at every country fair and _fete_
+displaying the wonders of the invisible agent by giving shocks and
+professing to cure all imaginable ailments.
+
+Then came the discoveries of Galvani and Volta, followed by the
+demonstrations of Galvani's nephew Aldini, whereby dead animals were
+made to display the movements of life, not only by the electricity of
+the Voltaic pile, but, as Aldini especially showed, by a transfer of
+this mysterious agency from one animal to another.
+
+According to his experiments (that seem to be forgotten by modern
+electricians) the galvanometer of the period, a prepared frog, could be
+made to kick by connecting its nerve and muscle with muscle and nerve of
+a recently killed ox, with, or without metallic intervention.
+
+Thus arose the dogma which still survives in the advertisements of
+electrical quacks, that "electricity is life," and the possibility of
+reviving the dead was believed by many. Executed criminals were in
+active demand; their bodies were expeditiously transferred from the
+gallows or scaffold to the operating table, and their dead limbs were
+made to struggle and plunge, their eyeballs to roll, and their features
+to perpetrate the most horrible contortions by connecting nerves with
+one pole, and muscles with the opposite pole of a battery.
+
+The heart was made to beat, and many men of eminence supposed that if
+this could be combined with artificial respiration, and kept up for
+awhile, the victim of the hangman might be restored, provided the neck
+was not broken. Curious tales were loudly whispered concerning gentle
+hangings and strange doings at Dr. Brookes's, in Leicester Square, and
+at the Hunterian Museum, in Windmill Street, now flourishing as "The
+Cafe de l'Etoile." When a child, I lived about midway between these
+celebrated schools of practical anatomy, and well remember the tales of
+horror that were recounted concerning them. When Bishop and Williams (no
+relation to the writer) were hanged for burking, i.e., murdering people
+in order to provide "subjects" for dissection, their bodies were sent to
+Windmill Street, and the popular notion was that, being old and faithful
+servants of the doctors, they were galvanized to life, and again set up
+in their old business.
+
+It is amusing to read some of the treatises on medical galvanism that
+were published at about this period, and contrast their positive
+statements of cures effected and results anticipated with the position
+now attained by electricity as a curative agent.
+
+Then came the brilliant discoveries of Faraday, Ampere, etc.,
+demonstrating the relations between electricity and magnetism, and
+immediately following them a multitude of patents for electro-motors,
+and wild dreams of superseding steam-engines by magneto-electric
+machinery.
+
+The following, which I copy from the _Penny Mechanic_, of June 10, 1837,
+is curious, and very instructive to those who think of investing in any
+of the electric power companies of to-day: "Mr. Thomas Davenport, a
+Vermont blacksmith, has discovered a mode of applying magnetic and
+electro-magnetic power, which we have good ground for believing will be
+of immense importance to the world." This announcement is followed by
+reference to Professor Silliman's _American Journal of Science and the
+Arts_, for April, 1837, and extracts from American papers, of which the
+following is a specimen: "1. We saw a small cylindrical battery, about
+nine inches in length, three or four in diameter, produce a magnetic
+power of about 300 lb., and which, therefore, we could not move with
+our utmost strength. 2. We saw a small wheel, five-and-a-half inches in
+diameter, performing more than 600 revolutions in a minute, and lift a
+weight of 24 lb. one foot per minute, from the power of a battery of
+still smaller dimensions. 3. We saw a model of a locomotive engine
+traveling on a circular railroad with immense velocity, and rapidly
+ascending an inclined plane of far greater elevation than any hitherto
+ascended by steam-power. And these and various other experiments which
+we saw, convinced us of the truth of the opinion expressed by Professors
+Silliman, Renwick, and others, that the power of machinery may be
+increased from this source beyond any assignable limit. It is computed
+by these learned men that a circular galvanic battery about three feet
+in diameter, with magnets of a proportionable surface, would produce at
+least a hundred horse-power; and therefore that two such batteries would
+be sufficient to propel ships of the largest class across the Atlantic.
+The only materials required to generate and continue this power for
+such a voyage would be a few thin sheets of copper and zinc, and a few
+gallons of mineral water."
+
+The Faure accumulator is but a very weak affair compared with this, Sir
+William Thomson notwithstanding. To render the date of the above fully
+appreciable, I may note that three months later the magazine from which
+it is quoted was illustrated with a picture of the London and Birmingham
+Railway Station displaying a first-class passenger with a box seat on
+the roof of the carriage, and followed by an account of the trip to
+Boxmoor, the first installment of the London and North-Western Railway.
+It tells us that, "the time of starting having arrived, the doors of
+the carriages are closed, and, by the assistance of the conductors, the
+train is moved on a short distance toward the first bridge, where it
+is met by an engine, which conducts it up the inclined plane as far as
+Chalk Farm. Between the canal and this spot stands the station-house for
+the engines; here, also, are fixed the engines which are to be employed
+in drawing the carriages up the inclined plane from Euston Square, by
+a rope upwards of a mile in length, the cost of which was upwards of
+L400." After describing the next change of engines, in the same matter
+of course way as the changing of stage-coach horses, the narrative
+proceeds to say that "entering the tunnel from broad daylight to perfect
+darkness has an exceedingly novel effect."
+
+I make these parallel quotations for the benefit of those who imagine
+that electricity is making such vastly greater strides than other
+sources of power. I well remember making this journey to Boxmoor, and
+four or five years later traveling on a circular electro-magnetic
+railway. Comparing that electric railway with those now exhibiting,
+and comparing the Boxmoor trip with the present work of the London and
+North-Western Railway, I have no hesitation in affirming that the rate
+of progress in electro-locomotion during the last forty years has been
+far smaller than that of steam.
+
+The leading fallacy which is urging the electro-maniacs of the present
+time to their ruinous investments is the idea that electro-motors
+are novelties, and that electric-lighting is in its infancy; while
+gas-lighting is regarded as an old, or mature middle-aged business,
+and therefore we are to expect a marvelous growth of the infant and no
+further progress of the adult.
+
+These excited speculators do not appear to be aware of the fact that
+electric-lighting is older than gas-lighting; that Sir Humphry Davy
+exhibited the electric light in Albemarle Street, while London was still
+dimly lighted by oil-lamps, and long before gas-lighting was attempted
+anywhere. The lamp used by Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, at
+the beginning of the present century, was an arrangement of two
+carbon pencils, between which was formed the "electric arc" by the
+intensely-vivid incandescence and combustion of the particles of carbon
+passing between the solid carbon electrodes. The light exhibited by Davy
+was incomparably more brilliant than anything that has been lately shown
+either in London, or Paris, or at Sydenham. His arc was _four inches
+in length_, the carbon pencils were four inches apart, and a broad,
+dazzling arch of light bridged the whole space between. The modern arc
+lights are but pygmies, mere specks, compared with this; a leap of 1/3
+or 1/4 inch constituting their maximum achievement.
+
+Comparing the actual progress of gas and electric lighting, the gas has
+achieved by far the greater strides; and this is the case even when we
+compare very recent progress.
+
+The improvements connected with gas-making have been steadily
+progressive; scarcely a year has passed from the date of Murdoch's
+efforts to the present time, without some or many decided steps having
+been made. The progress of electric-lighting has been a series of
+spasmodic leaps, backward as well as forward.
+
+As an example of stepping backward, I may refer to what the newspapers
+have described as the "discoveries" of Mr. Edison, or the use of an
+incandescent wire, or stick, or sheet of platinum, or platino-iridium;
+or a thread of carbon, of which the "Swan" and other modern lights are
+rival modifications.
+
+As far back as 1846 I was engaged in making apparatus and experiments
+for the purpose of turning to practical account "King's patent electric
+light," the actual inventor of which was a young American, named Starr,
+who died in 1847, when about 25 years of age, a victim of overwork
+and disappointment in his efforts to perfect this invention and a
+magneto-electric machine, intended to supply the power in accordance
+with some of the "latest improvements" of 1881 and 1882.
+
+I had a share in this venture, and was very enthusiastic until after I
+had become practically acquainted with the subject. We had no difficulty
+in obtaining a splendid and perfectly steady light, better than any that
+are shown at the Crystal Palace.
+
+We used platinum, and alloys of platinum and iridium, abandoned them as
+Edison did more than thirty years later, and then tried a multitude of
+forms of carbon, including that which constitutes the last "discovery"
+of Mr. Edison, viz., burnt cane. Starr tried this on theoretical
+grounds, because cane being coated with silica, he predicted that by
+charring it we should obtain a more compact stick or thread, as the
+fusion of the silica would hold the carbon particles together. He
+finally abandoned this and all the rest in favor of the hard deposit of
+carbon which lines the inside of gas-retorts, some specimens of which we
+found to be so hard that we required a lapidary's wheel to cut them into
+the thin sticks.
+
+Our final wick was a piece of this of square section, and about 1/8 of
+an inch across each way. It was mounted between two forceps--one holding
+each end, and thus leaving a clear half-inch between. The forceps were
+soldered to platinum wires, one of which passed upward through the top
+of the barometer tube, expanded into a lamp glass at its upper part.
+This wire was sealed to the glass as it passed through. The lower wire
+passed down the middle of the tube.
+
+The tube was filled with mercury and inverted over a cup of mercury.
+Being 30 inches long up to the bottom of the expanded portion, or lamp
+globe, the mercury fell below this and left a Torricellian vacuum there.
+One pole of the battery, or dynamo-machine, was connected with the
+mercury in the cup, and the other with the upper wire. The stick of
+carbon glowed brilliantly, and with perfect steadiness.
+
+I subsequently exhibited this apparatus in the Town-hall of Birmingham,
+and many times at the Midland Institute. The only scientific difficulty
+connected with this arrangement was that due to a slight volatilization
+of the carbon, and its deposition as a brown film upon the lamp glass;
+but this difficulty is not insuperable.--_Knowledge_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ACTION OF MAGNETS UPON THE VOLTAIC ARC.
+
+
+The action of magnets upon the voltaic arc has been known for a long
+time past. Davy even succeeded in influencing the latter powerfully
+enough in this way to divide it, and since his time Messrs. Grove and
+Quet have studied the effect under different conditions. In 1859, I
+myself undertook numerous researches on this subject, and experimented
+on the induction spark of the Ruhmkorff coil, the results of these
+researches having been published in the last two editions of my notes on
+the Ruhmkorff apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+These researches were summed up in the journal _La Lumiere Electrique_
+for June 15, 1879. Recently, Mr. Pilleux has addressed to us some new
+experiments on the same subject, made on the voltaic arc produced by a
+De Meritens alternating current machine. Naturally, he has found the
+same phenomena that I had made known; but he thinks that these new
+researches are worthy of interest by reason of the nature of the arc in
+which he experimented, and which, according to him, is of a different
+nature from all those on which, up to the present time, experiments have
+been made. Such a distinction as this, however, merits a discussion.
+
+With the induction spark, magnets have an action only on the aureola
+which accompanies the line of fire of the static discharge; and this
+aureola, being only a sort of sheath of heated air containing many
+particles of metal derived from the rheophores, represents exactly the
+voltaic arc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+Moreover, although the induced currents developed in the bobbin are
+alternately of opposite direction, the galvanometer shows that the
+currents that traverse the break are of the same direction, and that
+these are direct ones. The reversed currents are, then, arrested during
+their passage; and, in order to collect them, it becomes necessary to
+considerably diminish the gaseous pressure of the aeriform conductor
+interposed in the discharge; to increase its conductivity; or to open to
+the current a very resistant metallic derivation. By this latter means,
+I have succeeded in isolating, one from the other, in two different
+circuits, the direct induced currents and the reversed induced ones.
+As only direct currents can, in air at a normal pressure, traverse
+the break through which the induction spark passes, the aureola that
+surrounds it may be considered as being exactly in the same conditions
+as a voltaic arc, and, consequently, as representing an extensible
+conductor traversed by a current flowing in a definite direction. Such
+a conductor is consequently susceptible of being influenced by all the
+external reactions that can be exerted upon a current; only, by reason
+of its mobility, the conductor may possibly give way to the action
+exerted upon the current traversing it, and undergo deformations that
+are in relation with the laws of Ampere. It is in this manner that I
+have explained the different forms that the aureola of the induction
+spark assumes when it is submitted to the action of a magnet in the
+direction of its axial line, or in that of its equatorial line, or
+perpendicular to these latter, or upon the magnetic poles themselves.
+
+Experiments of a very definite kind have not yet been made as to the
+nature of the arc produced by induced currents developed in alternating
+current machines; but, from the experiments made with electric candles,
+we are forced to admit that the current reacts as if it were alternately
+reversed through the arc, since the carbons are used up to an equal
+degree; and, moreover, Mr. Pilleux's experiments show that effects
+analogous to those of induction coils are produced by the reaction of
+magnets upon the arc. There is, then, here a doubtful point that it
+would be interesting to clear up; and we believe that it is consequently
+proper to introduce in this place Mr. Pilleux's note:
+
+"Having at my disposal," says he, "a powerful vertical voltaic arc of 12
+centimeters in length, kept up by alternately reversed currents, and one
+of the most powerful permanent magnets that Mr. De Meritens employs for
+magneto-electric machines, I have been enabled to make the following
+experiments:
+
+"1. When I caused one of the poles of my magnet to slowly approach the
+voltaic arc, I ascertained that, at a distance of 10 centimeters, the
+arc became flattened so as to assume the appearance of those gas jets
+called 'butterfly.' The plane of the 'butterfly' was parallel with the
+pole that I presented, or, in other words, with the section of the
+magnet. At the same time, the arc began to emit a strident noise, which
+became deafening when the pole of the magnet was brought to within a
+distance of about 2 millimeters. At this moment, the butterfly form
+produced by the arc was _greatly spread out, and reduced to the
+thickness of a sheet of paper_; and then it burst with violence, and
+projected to a distance a great number of particles of incandescent
+carbon.
+
+"2. The magnet employed being a horseshoe one, when I directed it
+laterally so as to present successively, now the north and then the
+south pole to the arc, the 'butterfly' pivoted upon itself so as not to
+present the same surface to each pole of the magnet."
+
+By referring to the accompanying figure, which we extract from our note
+on the Ruhmkorff apparatus, it will be seen that the aureola which
+developed as a circular film from right to left at D, on the north pole
+of the magnet, N.S. (Fig. 1), projected itself in an opposite direction
+at C, upon the south pole, S, of the same magnet; but, between the two
+poles, these two contrary actions being obliged to unite, they gave rise
+in doing so to a very characteristic helicoid spiral whose direction
+depended upon that of the current of discharge through the aureola,
+or upon the polarity of the magnetic poles. On the contrary, when the
+discharge took place in the direction of the equatorial line, as in Fig.
+2, the circular film developed itself in the plane of the neutral line
+above or below the line of discharge, according to the direction of the
+current and the magnetic polarity of the magnet.
+
+There is, then, between Mr. Pilleux's experiments and my own so great an
+analogy that we might draw the deduction therefrom that induced currents
+in alternating machines have, like those of the Ruhmkorff coil, a
+definite direction, which would be that of currents having the greatest
+tension, that is to say, that of direct currents. This hypothesis seems
+to us the more plausible in that Mr. J. Van Malderem has demonstrated
+that the attraction of solenoids with the currents, not straight,
+of magneto-electric machines is almost as great as that of the same
+solenoids with straight currents; and it is very likely that the
+difference which may then exist should be so much the less in proportion
+as the induced currents have more tension. We might, then, perhaps
+explain the different effects of the wear of the carbons serving as
+rheophores, according as the currents are continuous or alternating, by
+the different calorific effects produced on these carbons, and by the
+effects of electric conveyance which are a consequence of the passage of
+the current through the arc.
+
+We know that with continuous currents the positive carbon possesses a
+much higher temperature than the negative, and that its wear is about
+twice greater than that of the latter. But such greater wear of the
+positive carbon is especially due to the fact that combustion is greater
+on it than on the negative, and also to the fact that the carbonaceous
+particles carried along by the current to the positive pole are
+deposited in part upon the other pole. Supposing that these polarities
+of the carbons were being constantly alternately reversed, the effects
+might be symmetrical from all quarters, although the only current
+traversing the break were of the same direction; for, admitting that the
+reverse currents could not traverse the break, they would exist none the
+less for all that, and they might give rise (as has been demonstrated
+by Mr. Gaugain with regard to the discharges of the induction spark
+intercepted by the insulating plate of a condenser) to return discharges
+through the generator, which would then have, in the metallic part of
+the circuit, the same direction as the direct currents succeeding,
+although they had momentarily brought about opposite polarities in the
+electrodes. What might make us suppose such an interpretation of the
+phenomenon to have its _raison d'etre_, is that with the induced
+currents of the Ruhmkorff coil, it is not the positive pole that is
+the hottest, but rather the negative; from whence we might draw the
+deduction that it is not so much the direction of the current that
+determines the calorific effect in the electrodes, as the conditions of
+such current with respect to the generator. I should not be
+surprised, then, if, in the arc formed by the alternating currents of
+magneto-electric machines, there should pass only one current of the
+same direction, and which would be the one formed by the superposition
+of direct currents, and if the reverse currents should cause return
+discharges in the midst of the generating bobbins at the moment the
+direct currents were generated.--_Th. Du Moncel_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VOLCKMAR'S SECONDARY BATTERIES.
+
+
+The inventive genius of the country is now directed to these important
+accessories of electric enterprise, and no wonder, for as far as can at
+present be seen, the secret of electric motion lies in these secondary
+batteries. Among other contributions of this kind is the following, by
+Ernest Volckmar, electrician, Paris:
+
+The object of this invention is to render unnecessary the use in
+secondary batteries of a porous pot which creates useless resistance
+to the electric current, and to store in an apparatus of comparatively
+small weight and bulk considerable electric force. To this end two
+reticulated or perforated plates of lead of similar proportions are
+prepared, and their interstices are filled with granules or filaments of
+lead, by preference chemically pure. These plates are then submitted to
+pressure, and placed together, with strips of nonconducting material
+interposed between them, in a suitable vessel containing a bath of
+acidulated water. The plates being connected with wires from an electric
+generator are brought for a while under the action of the current, to
+peroxidize and reduce the whole of the finely divided lead exposed to
+the acidulated water. The secondary battery is then complete. It will be
+understood that any number of these pairs of plates may be combined to
+form a secondary battery, their number being determined by the amount
+of storage required. The perforated plates of lead may be prepared by
+drilling, casting, or in other convenient manner, but the apertures, of
+whatever form, should be placed as closely together as possible, and
+the finely divided lead to be peroxidized is pressed into the cells or
+cavities so as to fill their interiors only.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY, AND THE
+MINERALS OCCURRING THEREIN.
+
+By NELSON H. DARTON.
+
+
+There will be many persons in the city of New York and its suburbs who
+will not have the time or facilities for leaving town during the summer,
+to spend a part of their time enjoying the country, but would have
+sufficient time to take occasional recreation for short periods. I have
+sought by this paper to show a pleasurable, and at the same time very
+instructive use for the time of this latter class, and that is in
+mineralogy. In the surrounding parts of New York are many mineralogical
+localities, known to no others than a few professional mineralogists,
+etc., and from which an excellent assortment of minerals may be
+obtained, which would well grace a cabinet and afford considerable
+instruction and entertainment to their owner and friends, besides acting
+as an incentive to a further study of this and the other sciences. These
+localities which I will discuss are all within an hour's ride from New
+York, and the expenses inside of a half dollar, and generally very much
+less. I could detail many other places further off, but will reserve
+that for another paper.
+
+The course which I will pursue in my explanations I have purposely made
+very simple, avoiding--or when using, explaining--all technical terms.
+The apparatus and tests noticed are of the most rudimentary style
+consistent with that which is necessary to attain the simple purpose of
+distinguishment, and altogether I have prepared this paper for those
+having at the present time little or no knowledge or practice in
+mineralogy, while those having it can be led perhaps by the details of
+the localities noticed. Another reason why I have written so in detail
+of this last subject is, because the experiences of most amateur
+mineralogists are generally so very discouraging in their endeavors to
+find the minerals, and there is everything in giving a good start
+to properly fix the interest on the subject. The reason of these
+discouragements is simple, and generally because they do not know the
+portion of the locality, say, for instance, a certain township, in which
+the minerals occur. And if they do succeed in finding this, it is seldom
+that the portion in which the mineral occurs, which is generally some
+small inconspicuous vein or fissure, is found; and even in this it
+is generally difficult to recognize and isolate the mineral from the
+extraneous matter holding it. As an instance of this I might cite thus:
+Dana, in his text book on mineralogy, will mention the locality for
+a certain species, as Bergen Hill--say for this instance, dogtooth
+calespar. When we consider that Bergen Hill, in the limited sense of the
+expression, is ten miles long and fully one mile wide, and as the rock
+outcrops nearly all over it, and it is also covered with quarries,
+cuttings, etc., it may be seen that this direction is rather indefinite.
+To the professional mineralogist it is but an index, however, and he
+may consult the authority it is quoted from--the _American Journal of
+Science_, etc.--and thus find the part referred to, or by consulting
+other mineralogists who happen to know. Again, the person having found
+by inquiry that the part referred to is the Pennsylvania Railroad, and
+as this is fully a mile long and interspersed with various prominent
+looking, but veins of a mineral of little value, at any rate not the one
+in question, they are few who could suppose that it occurred in that.
+Apparently a vein of it would not be noticed at all from the surrounding
+rock of gravelly earth, but there it is, and in a vein of chlorite. This
+is so throughout the long and more or less complete stated lists of
+mineralogical localities. Thus I will, in describing the mineral, after
+explaining the conditions under which it occurs, give almost the
+exact spot where I have found the same mineral myself, and have left
+sufficiently fine specimens to carry away, and thus no time will be lost
+in going over fruitless ground, and further, this paper is written up to
+the date given at its end, insuring a necessary presence of them.
+
+In order that one not familiar with mineral specimens should not carry
+off from the various localities a variety of worthless stones, etc.,
+which are frequently more or less attractive to an inexperienced eye,
+the following hints may be salutary.
+
+There are the varieties of three minerals, which are very commonly met
+with in greater or less abundance in mineralogical trips: they are of
+calcite, steatite, and quartz. They occur in so many modifications of
+form, color, and condition that one might speedily form a cabinet of
+these, if they were taken when met with, and imagine it to be of great
+value. The first of these is calcite. It occurs as marble, limestone;
+calcspar, dogtooth spar, nail head spar, stalactites, and a number of
+other forms, which are only valuable when occurring in perfect crystals
+or uniquely set upon the rock holding it. The calcspar is extremely
+abundant at Bergen Hill, where it might be mistaken for many of the
+other minerals which I describe as occurring there, and even in
+preference to them, to one's great chagrin upon arriving home and
+testing it, to find that it is nothing but calcite. In order to avoid
+this and distinguish this mineral on the field, it should be tested with
+a single drop of acid, which on coming in contact with it bubbles up or
+effervesces like soda water, seidlitz powder, etc., while it does not do
+so with any of the minerals occurring in the same locality. This acid
+is prepared for use as follows: about twenty drops of muriatic acid are
+procured from a druggist in a half-ounce bottle, which is then filled up
+with water and kept tightly corked. It is applied by taking a drop out
+on a wisp of broom or a small minim dropper, which may be obtained at
+the druggist's also. I do not say that in every case this mineral should
+be rejected, because it is frequently very beautiful and worthy of place
+in a cabinet, but should be kept only under the conditions mentioned
+further on in this paper, under the head of "Calcite in Weehawken
+Tunnel."
+
+The next mineral abundant in so many forms is quartz, and is not so
+readily distinguished as calcite. It is found of every color, shape,
+etc., possible, and that which is found in any of the localities I am
+about to describe, with the exception of fine crystals on Staten Island,
+are of no value and may be rejected, unless answering in detail to the
+description given under Staten Island. The method of distinguishing the
+quartz is by its hardness, which is generally so great that it cannot be
+scratched by the point of a knife, or at least with great difficulty,
+and a fragment of it will scratch glass readily; thus it is
+distinguished from the other minerals occurring in the localities
+discussed in this paper.
+
+The other minerals so common are the varieties of steatite. This is
+especially so at Bergen Hill and Staten Island. They occur in amorphous
+masses generally, and may be distinguished by being so soft as to be
+readily cut by the finger nail. I will detail further upon the soapstone
+forms in discussing the localities on Staten Island, and the chloritic
+form under the head of "Weehawken Tunnel." The surest method of avoiding
+these and recognizing the others by their appearance, which is generally
+the only guide used by a professional mineralogist, is to copy off the
+lists of the various minerals I describe, and, by visiting the American
+Museum of Natural History on any week day except Mondays and Tuesdays,
+one may see and become familiar with the minerals they are going
+in quest of, besides others in the cases. This method is much more
+satisfactory than printed descriptions, and saves the labor of many of
+the distinguishing manipulations I am about to describe, besides saving
+the trouble of bringing inferior specimens of the minerals home.
+
+In going forth on a trip one should be provided with a mineralogical
+hammer, or one answering its purpose, and a cold chisel with which to
+detach or trim the minerals from adhering rocks, the bottle of acid
+before referred to, and a three cornered file for testing hardness,
+as explained further on. As I noticed before, the better plan of
+distinguishing a mineral is by being familiar with its appearance, but
+as this is generally impracticable, I will detail the modes used in
+lieu of this to be applied on bringing the minerals home. These
+distinguishments depend on difference in specific gravity, hardness,
+solubility in hot acids, and the action of high heat. I will explain the
+application of each one separately, commencing with--
+
+_The Specific Gravity_.--In ascertaining the specific gravity the
+following apparatus is necessary: a small pair of hand scales with a set
+of weights, from one grain to one ounce. These can be procured from the
+apparatus maker, the scales for about fifty cents, and the weights for
+not much over the same amount. The scales are prepared for this work by
+cutting two small holes in one of the scale pans, near together, with
+a pointed piece of metal, and tying a piece of silk thread about eight
+inches long into these. In a loop at the end of this thread the mineral
+to be examined is suspended. It should be a pure representative of the
+mineral it is taken from, should weigh about from one hundred grains to
+an ounce, and be quite dry and free from dirt. If the piece of mineral
+obtained is very large, this sized portion may be often taken from it
+without injury; but it will not do to mar the beauty of a mineral to
+ascertain its specific gravity, and it is generally only applicable
+when a small piece is at hand. With more weights, however, a piece of a
+quarter pound weight may be taken if necessary. The mineral is tied into
+the loop and weighed, the weight being set down in the note book, either
+in grains or decimal parts of an ounce. Call this result A. It is then
+weighed in some water held in a vessel containing about a quart, taking
+care while weighing it that it is entirely immersed, but at the same
+time does not touch either the sides or bottom. Both weighings should
+be accurate to a grain. This result we call B. The specific gravity is
+found by subtracting B from A, and dividing A by the remainder. For
+instance, if the mineral weighed eight hundred grains when weighed in
+the air, and in the water six hundred, giving us the equation: 800
+/ (800 - 600) = sp. gr., or 4, which is the specific gravity of
+the mineral. If the mineral whose specific gravity is sought is an
+incrustation on a rock, or a mixture of a number of minerals, or would
+break to pieces in the water, the specific gravity is by this method of
+course unattainable, and other data must be used.
+
+_The Comparative Hardness_.--The next characteristic of the mineral to
+be ascertained is the comparative hardness. In mineralogy there is a
+scale fixed for comparison, from 1 to 10, 10 being the hardest, the
+diamond, and Number 1 the soft soapstone. These and the intermediate
+minerals fixed upon the scale are generally inaccessible to those who
+may use the contents of this paper, and I will give some more familiar
+materials for comparison. 8, 9, and 10 are the topaz, sapphire, and
+diamond respectively, and as these and minerals of similar hardness will
+probably not be found in any of the localities of which I make mention,
+we need not become accustomed to them for the present. 7 is of
+sufficient hardness to scratch glass, and is also not to be cut with the
+file before mentioned, which is used for these determinations. 6 is
+of the hardness of ordinary French glass. 5 is about the hardness of
+horse-shoe or similar iron; 4 of the brown stone (sandstone) of which
+the fronts of many city buildings, etc., are built; 3 of marble; 2 of
+alabaster; and 1 as French chalk, or so soft as to be readily cut with
+the finger nail. The method of using and applying these comparisons is
+by having the above matters at hand, and compare them by the relative
+ease with which they can be cut by running the edge of the file over
+their surface. One will soon become familiar with the scale, and it
+may of course then be discarded. As it is one of the most important
+characteristics of some of the minerals, it should be carefully
+executed, and the result carefully considered. It is of course
+inapplicable under those conditions with minerals that are in very small
+crystals or in a fibrous condition.
+
+_Action of Hot Acids_.--This very important test is never, like the
+above, applicable upon the field, but applied when home is reached.
+From the body of the mineral as pure and clean as possible a portion is
+chipped, about the size of a small pea; this is wrapped in a piece of
+stiff wrapping paper, and after placing it in contact with a solid body,
+crushed finally by a blow from the hammer. A pinch of the powder so
+obtained is taken up on the point of a penknife, and transferred into
+a test tube. Two or more of these should be provided, about six inches
+long. They may be obtained in the apparatus shop for a trifle. Some
+hydrochloric, or, as it is generally called, muriatic acid, is poured
+upon it to the depth of about three quarters of an inch; the tube is
+then placed in some boiling water heated over a lamp in a tinned or
+other vessel, and allowed to boil for from ten to fifteen minutes;
+the tube is then removed and its contents allowed to cool, and then
+examined. If the powder has all disappeared, we term the mineral
+"soluble;" if more or less is dissolved, "partly soluble;" if none,
+"insoluble;" and if the contents of the tube are of a solid transparent
+mass like jelly, "gelatinous;" while if transparent gelatinous flakes
+are left, it is so termed. As this method of distinguishment is always
+applicable, it is very important, and its detail and result should be
+carefully noticed. Care should be taken that only a small portion of
+the mineral is used, and also but little acid; the action should be
+observed, and is frequently a characteristic, in the case with calcspar,
+which effervesces while dissolving. The acid used is hydrochloric at
+first, and then, if the mineral cannot he recognized, the same treatment
+may be repeated using nitric acid. Both of these acids should be at hand
+and two ounces are generally sufficient.
+
+_Action of Heat_.--This is, perhaps, the most important characteristic,
+and, when taken with the preceding data, will identify any of the
+minerals found in any one locality, which I will describe, from each
+other. The heat is applied to the mineral by means of a candle and
+blowpipe. A thick wax candle answers well, and an ordinary japanned tin
+blowpipe, costing twenty cents, will serve the purpose. The substance
+to be examined is held on a loop of platinum wire about one inch to the
+left and just below the top of the wick, which is bent toward it. Here
+it is steadily held, as is shown in Fig. 1, and the flame of the candle
+bent over upon it, and the heat intensified by blowing a steady and
+strong current of air across it by means of the blowpipe held in the
+mouth and supported by the right hand, whose elbow is resting upon the
+table. The current of air is difficult to keep up by one unaccustomed to
+the blowpipe, the skill of using which is readily obtained; it consists
+in breathing through the nostrils, while the air is forced out by
+pressure on the air held by the inflated cheeks, and not from the lungs.
+This can be practiced while not using the blow-pipe, and may readily
+be accomplished by one's keeping his cheeks distended with air and
+breathing at the same time.
+
+This heat is steadily applied until the splinter of mineral has been
+kept at a high red heat for a sufficient length of time to convince one
+of what it may do, as fuse or not, or on the edges. The first two
+are evident, as when it fuses it runs into a globule; the last, by
+inspecting it before and after the heating with a magnifying glass;
+sometimes it froths up when heated, and is then said to "intumesce;" or,
+if it flies to fragments, "decrepitates." Upon the first it is further
+heated; but in the latter case, a new splinter of mineral must be broken
+off from the mass and heated upon the wire very cautiously until quite
+hot, when it may then be readily heated further without fear of loss.
+For holding the splinter of mineral, which should well represent the
+mass and be quite small, is a three-inch length of platinum wire of the
+thickness of a cambric-needle; this may be bought for about ten cents at
+the apparatus shop. The ends should be looped, as is shown in Fig. 2,
+and the mineral placed in the loop.
+
+Sometimes a mineral has to be fused with borax, as I mention further
+on in my tables. This is done by heating the wire-loop to redness, and
+plunging it into some borax; what adheres is fused upon it by heating.
+Some more is accumulated in the same manner, until the loop is filled
+with a fair-sized globule. A small quantity of the mineral, which had
+been crushed as for the acid test, is caused to adhere to it while it is
+molten, and then the heat of the blast directed upon it for some time
+until either the small fragments of mineral dissolve, or positively
+refuse to do so. After cooling, the aspect of the globule is noticed as
+to color, transparency, etc. Care must be taken that too large an amount
+of the mineral is not taken, a very minute amount being sufficient.
+
+I trust by the use of these distinguishing reactions one will be able
+to recognize by the tables to be given the name of the mineral in hand,
+especially as they are from certain parts, where all the minerals
+occurring therein are known to us; and I have worded the characteristics
+so that they will serve to isolate from all that possibly could be found
+in that locality.
+
+The first general locality is Bergen Hill, New Jersey. This comprises
+the range of bluffs of trap rock commencing at Bergen Point and running
+up behind Jersey City and Hoboken, etc., to the part opposite about
+Thirtieth Street, New York, where it comes close to the river, and from
+there along the river to the north for a long distance, known as the
+Palisades. It is about a mile wide on an average, and from a few feet to
+about two hundred feet in height. The mineralogical localities in and
+upon it are at the following parts, commencing at the south: First
+Pennsylvania Railroad cuts where the mining operations are just about
+completed; then the Erie Tunnel, in which the specimens that first made
+Bergen Hill noted as a mineralogical locality, and whose equals have not
+since been procured, were found, but which is now inaccessible to the
+general public. Further north is the Morris and Essex Tunnel, in which
+many fine specimens were secured, and is also inaccessible; and last,
+but far from being least, is the Ontario Tunnel at Weehawken; and, as
+it is the only practicable part besides the Pennsylvania Railroad and a
+number of surface outcrops which I will mention, I will commence with
+that.
+
+_The Weehawken Tunnel_--This tunnel is now being cut through the
+trap-rock for the New York, Ontario, and Western Railroad, and will
+be completed in a few months, but will, probably, be available as a
+mineralogical locality for a year to come. It is located about half a
+mile south of the Weehawken Ferry from Forty-second Street, New York
+city, and the place where to climb upon the hill to get to the shafts
+leading to it is made prominent by the large body of light-colored rock
+on the dump, a few rods north of where the east entrance is to be. The
+western end is in the village of New Durham, on the New Jersey Northern
+Railroad, and recognized by the immense earth excavations. A pass is
+necessary to gain admittance down the shafts, and this can be procured
+from the office of the company, between the third and fourth shafts to
+the tunnel, in the grocery and provision store just to the north of
+the tramway connecting the shafts on the surface. As it will not be
+necessary to go down in any of the shafts besides the first and second
+in order to fulfill the objects of this paper, no difficulty need be
+encountered in procuring the pass if this is stated.
+
+These two shafts are about eight hundred feet apart and one hundred and
+seventy feet deep. A platform elevator is the mode of access to the
+tunneled portion below, and a free shower-bath is included in the
+descent; consequently, a rubber-coat and water tight boots are
+necessary. A pair of overalls should be worn if one is to engage in
+any active exploration below; candles should also be provided, as the
+electric lights, at the face of the headings, give but little light, and
+remind one very forcibly of a dim flash light with a foliaged tree in
+front of it. The electric wires for supplying these arrangements run
+along the north side of the tunnel for those on the east headings, and
+on the south side for the west. They are excellent things to keep clear
+of, as they have sufficient current passing through them to knock one
+down; thus their position can be readily ascertained.
+
+_Modes of Occurrence of the Minerals_.--In general, the greater number
+of the specimens which are to be found in the tunnel occur in veins
+generally perpendicular, and with other minerals of little or no value,
+as calcite, chlorite, and imperfect crystals of the same mineral. A
+few occur in nodules inclosed in the solid body of rock, and in which
+condition they are seldom of value. The greater abundance are in the
+veins of the dark-green soft chlorite, and some few in horizontal beds.
+The minerals are found in the first condition by examining all the veins
+running from floor to ceiling of the tunnel. The ores of calcite first
+mentioned are very conspicuous, they being white in the dense black
+rock. They may be chipped from, as there are about thirty or forty of
+them exposed in each shaft, and the character of the minerals examined
+to see if anything but calcite is in it. This is ascertained by a drop
+of acid, as explained before, and by the descriptions given further on.
+The veins of chlorite are not so conspicuous, being of a dark-green
+color; but by probing along the walls with a stick or hammer, they may
+be recognized by their softness, or by its dull glistening appearance.
+They are comparatively few, but from an inch to three feet wide; and
+minerals are found by digging it out with a stick or a three-foot drill,
+to be had at the headings. Where the most minerals occur in the chlorite
+is when plenty of veins of calcite are in its vicinity, and its edges
+near the trap are dry and crumbly. It is here where the minerals are
+found in this crumbly chlorite, and generally in geodes--that is, the
+faces of the minerals all point inward, formerly a spherical mass--rough
+and uncouth on the outside, and from half an inch to nearly a foot in
+diameter. These are valuable finds, and well worth digging for. The beds
+of minerals generally are of but one species, and will be mentioned
+under the head of the minerals occurring in them. Besides, in the tunnel
+there are generally more or less perfect minerals upon the main dump
+over the edge of the bluff toward the river. Here many specimens that
+have escaped the eyes of the miners may be found among the loose rock,
+being constantly strewn out by the incline of the bed; in fact, this is
+the only place in which quite a number of the incident minerals may be
+found; but I will not linger longer on this, as I shall refer to it
+under the minerals individually.
+
+The minerals occurring at the tunnel are as follows, with their
+descriptions and locations in the order of their greatest abundance:
+
+_Calcite_.--This mineral occurs in great abundance in and about the
+tunnel, and from all the shafts. There are two forms occurring there,
+the most abundant of which is the rhombohedral, after Fig. 3. It can
+generally be obtained, however, in excellent crystals, which, although
+perfect in form, are opaque, but often large and beautiful. It is always
+packed with a thousand or its multiple of other crystals into veins of a
+few inches thick; and crystals are obtained by carefully breaking with
+edge of the cold chisel these masses down to the fundamental form shown.
+As the masses are never secured by the miners, they can always be picked
+from the piles of _debris_ around the shafts and the dumps, and afford
+some little instruction as to the manner in which a mineral is built up
+by crystallization, and may be subdivided by cleavage to a crystal of
+the same shape exactly, but infinitesimally small. A crystal to be worth
+preserving should be about an inch in diameter, and as transparent as is
+attainable.
+
+Another form of calcite which is to be sparingly found is what is called
+dogtooth spar, having the form shown in Fig. 4. They occur in clear
+wine-yellow-colored crystals, from a quarter to half an inch in length;
+they occur in the chlorite in geodes of variable sizes, but generally
+two and a half inches in diameter, and which, when carefully broken in
+half, showed beautiful grottoes of these crystals. The few of these that
+I have found were in the four-foot vein of chlorite down the Shaft No.
+1, to the west of the shaft about one hundred and fifty feet, and on
+the south wall; it may be readily found by probing for it, and then the
+geodes by digging in. There need be no difficulty in finding this vein
+if these conditions are carefully considered, or if one of the miners
+be asked as to the soft vein. Both these forms of calcite may be
+distinguished from the other minerals by first effervescing on coming
+in contact with the acids; second, by glowing with an intense (almost
+unbearably so) light when heated with the blowpipe, but not fusing.
+Their specific gravity is 2.6, or near it, and hardness about 3, or
+equal to ordinary unpolished white marble.
+
+_Natrolite_.--The finest specimens of this mineral that have ever been
+found in Bergen Hill were taken from a bed of it in this tunnel, having
+in its original form, before it was cut out by the tunnel passing
+through, over one hundred square feet, and from one-half to two and a
+half and even three inches in thickness; it was in all possible shapes
+and forms--all extremely rare and beautiful. A large part of one end
+of this bed still remains, and, by careful cutting, fine masses may be
+obtained. This bed may be readily found; it is nearly horizontal, and in
+its center about four feet from the floor of the tunnel, and about half
+an inch thick. It is down Shaft No. 2, on the north wall, and commences
+about eighty feet from the shaft. It is cut into in some places, but
+there is plenty more left, and can be obtained by cutting the rock
+above it and easing it out by means of the blade of a knife or similar
+instrument. This natrolite is a grouping of very small but perfect
+crystals, having the forms shown in Fig. 5; they are from a quarter to
+an inch long, and, if not perfectly transparent, are of a pure white
+color; they may be readily recognized by their form, and occurring in
+this bed. Its hardness, which is seldom to be ascertained owing to the
+delicacy of the crystals, is about 5, and the specific gravity 2.2.
+This is readily found, but is no distinction; its reaction before the
+blowpipe, however, is characteristic, it readily fusing to a transparent
+globule, clear and glassy, and by forming a jelly when heated with
+acids. The bed holding the upright crystals is also natrolite in
+confused matted masses. This mineral has also been found in other parts
+of the shaft, but only in small druses. There is a prospect at present
+that another bed will be uncovered soon, and some more fine specimens to
+be easily obtained.
+
+_Pectolite_, or as it is termed by the miners, "silky spar."--This
+mineral is quite abundant and in fine masses, not of the great beauty
+and size of those taken from the Erie Tunnel, but still of great
+uniqueness. The mineral is recognized by its peculiar appearance, as
+is shown in Fig. 6, where it may be seen that it is in groups of
+fine delicate fibers about an inch long, diverging from a point into
+fan-shaped groups. The fibers are very tightly packed together, as are
+also the groups; they are very tough individually, and have a hardness
+of 4, and a specific gravity of about 2.5. It gelatinizes on boiling
+with acid, and a fragment may be readily fused in the blowpipe flame,
+yielding a transparent globule. The appearance is the most striking
+characteristic, and at once distinguishes this mineral from any of the
+others occurring in this locality. Considerable quantities of pectolite
+may generally be found on the dump, but also in Shaft No. 1, and
+especially No. 2. The veins of it are difficult to distinguish from the
+calcite, as they are almost identical in color, and many of the calcite
+veins are partly of pectolite--in fact, every third or fourth vein will
+contain more or less of it. There is, however, a very fine vein of
+pectolite about twenty-five feet further east from the natrolite bed; it
+runs from the floor to ceiling, and is about two inches in thickness;
+some specimens of which I took from these were unusually unique in both
+size and appearance. It makes a very handsome specimen for the cabinet,
+and should be carefully trimmed to show the characteristics of the
+mineral.
+
+_Datholite_.--This mineral has been found very frequently in the tunnel,
+it occurring in pockets in the softer trap near the chlorite, and also
+in the latter, generally at a depth of one hundred and fifty feet from
+the surface, and consequently near the ceiling of the tunnel. All that
+has been found of any great beauty has been in the western end of the
+Shaft No. 1 and the eastern of Shaft No. 2, where the trap is quite
+soft; here it is found nearly every day in greater or less quantity, and
+from this some may generally be found on the dump, or, in the vein
+of chlorite which I mentioned as a locality for the dogtooth spar,
+considerable may be obtained in it and on its western edge near the
+ceiling. A ladder about thirteen feet long is used for attending the
+lights, and may generally be borrowed, and access to the remainder
+of this pocket thus gained. Datholite is also very characteristic in
+appearance, and can only be confounded with some forms of calcite
+occurring near it. It occurs in small glassy, nearly globular crystals;
+they are generally not over three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and
+generally pure and perfectly transparent, having a hardness of a little
+over 5, and specific gravity of 3; as it generally occurs as a druse
+upon the trap, or an apopholite, calcite, etc., this is seldom
+attainable, however, and we have a very distinctive characteristic in
+another test: this is the blowpipe, under which it at first intumesces
+and then fuses to a transparent globule, and the flame, after playing
+upon it, is of a deep green color. Nitric acid must be used to boil it
+up with, and with it it may be readily gelatinized. This last test will
+seldom be necessary, however, and may be dispensed with if the hardness
+and blowpipe reactions may be ascertained.
+
+_Apopholite_.--This beautiful mineral has been found in fair abundance
+at times in Shafts No. 1 and 2 in pockets, and seldom in place, most of
+it being taken from the loose stone at the mouth of the shaft, and it
+may generally be found on the dump. It is readily mistaken for calcite
+by the miners and those unskilled in mineralogy, but a drop of acid will
+quickly show the difference. The sizes of the crystals are very various,
+from an eighth of an inch long or thick, to, in one case, an inch and
+a half. The colors have been varied from white to nearly all tints,
+including pink, purple, blue, and green; the white variety is, however,
+the most abundant, and makes a handsome cabinet specimen. The crystals
+are generally packed together in a mass, but are frequently set apart as
+heavy druses of crystals having the form shown in Fig. 7. Sometimes,
+as in the former grouping, the crystals are without the pyramidal
+terminations, and are then right square prisms. The fracture being at
+perfect right angles, distinguishes it from calcite. Its hardness is
+generally fully 5, the specific gravity between 2.4 and 2.5; it is
+difficult to fuse before the blowpipe, but is finally fused into an
+opaque globule. Upon heating with nitric acid it partly dissolves, and
+the remainder becomes flaky and gelatinous. Apopholite, although quite
+rare, now may be bought from the men, or at least one of the engineers
+of Shaft No. 2's elevator, and generally at low terms.
+
+_Phrenite_.--This mineral is quite abundant in Shafts No. 1 and 2, in
+very small masses, incrustations, and even in small crystals. It
+occurs embedded in or incrusting the trap, and also with calcite and
+apopholite. The only sure place to find it is at the southwest side of
+an opening through the pile of drift rock under the trestle work of the
+tramway, between shaft No. 1 and the dump, and within a few feet of a
+number of wooden vats sunk into the ground seen just before descending
+the hills and near the edge. Here on a number of blocks of trap it may
+be found, a greenish white incrustation about as thick as a knife blade;
+it also may be found on the main dump, and is sometimes found in plates
+one-eighth of an inch thick, of a darker green color, upon calcite. Its
+easiest distinguishment from the other minerals of this locality, with
+which it might be confounded, is its great hardness of from 6 to 7.
+It is very fragile and brittle, however, and is never perfectly
+transparent, but quite opaque; its specific gravity is 2.9, and it is
+readily fused before the blowpipe after intumescing. It partly dissolves
+in acid without gelatinizing, leaving a flaky residue; it is a beautiful
+mineral when in masses or crystals of a dark green color, but the best
+place in the vicinity to secure specimens of this kind is, as I will
+detail hereafter, at Paterson, N. J.
+
+_Iron and Copper Pyrites_.--Both of these common but frequently
+beautiful minerals occur in the tunnel and adjacent rocks in great
+abundance. The crystals are generally about one-fourth of an inch in
+diameter, and groups of these may be frequently obtained on the dump in
+the shafts, especially No. 1 and 2, and where the rock is being cleared
+away for the eastern entrance to the tunnel. They resemble each other
+very much; the iron pyrites, however, is in cubical forms and having the
+great hardness of from 6 to 7, while the copper pyrites, less abundant
+and in forms having triangles for bases, but having sometimes other
+forms and a hardness of but 3 to 4. Both are similar in aspect to a
+piece of brass, and cannot be mistaken for any other mineral. The form
+of the copper pyrites is shown in Fig. 8; the iron is, as before noted,
+in cubes, more or less modified.
+
+_Stilbite_.--Small quantities of this beautiful mineral have been found
+in Shaft No. 2, in a small bed of but a few square feet in area, but
+quite thick and appearing much like natrolite. This bed was about one
+hundred feet east from Shaft No. 2, and in the center of the heading
+when it was at that point. It has been encountered since in small
+quantities, and it would do well to look out for it in the fresh
+tunneled portion after the date appended to this paper. It generally
+occurs in the form shown in Fig. 9, grouped very similarly to natrolite,
+and being right upon the rock or a thin bed of itself. The crystals are
+generally half an inch long, but often less. The modifications of the
+above form, which are frequent in this species, strike one forcibly of
+the resemblance they bear to a broad stone spear head on a diminutive
+scale, with a blunted edge; their hardness is about 4, specific gravity
+2.2, the color generally a pearly white or grayish. After a long
+boiling with nitric acid it gelatinizes, but it foams up and fuses to a
+transparent glass before the blowpipe. A little stilbite may often be
+found on the dumps.
+
+_Laumonite_ occurs in very small quantities on calcite or apopholite,
+and can hardly be expected to be found on the trip; but as it might be
+found, I will detail some of its characteristics. Hardness 4, specific
+gravity 2.3; it generally occurs in small crystals, but more frequently
+in a crumbly, chalky mass, which it becomes upon exposure to the air.
+The crystals are generally transparent and frequently tinged yellow in
+color. It gelatinizes by boiling with acid, and after intumescing before
+the blowpipe, fuses to a frothy mass. To keep this mineral when in
+crystals from crumbling upon exposure it may be dipped in a thin mastic
+varnish or in a gum-arabic solution.
+
+_Heulandite_.--This rare mineral has been found under the same
+conditions as laumonite in Shaft No. 2, but it is seldom to be met with,
+and then in small crystals. It is of a pure white color, sometimes
+transparent. It intumesces and readily fuses before the blowpipe, and
+dissolves in acid without gelatinizing. Hardness 4, specific gravity
+2.2.
+
+The few other minerals occurring in the tunnel are so extremly rare as
+not to be met with by any other than an expert, and it is impossible
+to detail the localities, as they generally occur as minute druses or
+incrustations upon other minerals with which they may be confounded, and
+have been removed as soon as discovered. The minerals referred to are
+analcime, chabazite, Thompsonite, and finally, the mineral which I first
+found in this formation, Hayesine, which is extremely rare, and of which
+I only obtained sufficient to cover a square inch. The particulars in
+regard to its locality, etc., maybe found in the _American Journal of
+Sciences_ for June, page 458. I will now sum up the characteristics of
+these several minerals of this locality in the table:
+
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+   Name.  |  H. |Sp.|Action of        |Action of        |Color.|Appearance.
+          |     |Gr.|Blowpipe.        |hot acid.        |      |
+----------+-----+---+-----------------+-----------------+------+---------------
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Calcite   |  3  |2.6|Infusible,       |Soluble with     |White |Like Fig.
+          |     |   |but glows        |effervescence    |      |3 and 4.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Natrolite |  5  |2.2|Readily fused    |Forms a jelly    |  do. |Like Fig 5.
+          |     |   |to clear globule |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Pectolite |  4  |2.5|      do.        |  do.  do.       |  do. |Divergent
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |fibers, Fig. 6.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Datholite |  5  |3.0|Intumesces, fused|Forms a jelly    |Color-|Small, nearly
+          |     |   |to clear globule,|                 |less  |spherical, etc.
+          |     |   |gives green flame|                 |white |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Apopholite|  5  |2.5|Difficult, fused |Partly soluble   |Tinted|Like Fig. 7.
+          |     |   |to opaque globule|in nitric acid   |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Phrenite  |  6  |2.9|Intomesces, fused|Partly soluble   |Green-|In tables and
+          |to 7 |   |to clear globule |in nitric acid,  |ish   |incrustations.
+          |     |   |                 |leaving flakes   |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Iron      |  6  |5.0|Burns and yields |                 |Brass |Cubical.
+pyrites   |to 7 |   |a black globule, |                 |      |
+          |     |   |decrepitates     |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Copper    |  3  |4.2|    do.     do.  |                 |  do. |Tetrahedronal.
+pyrites   |to 4 |   |                 |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Stilbite  |  4  |2.2|Intumesces and   |Difficult; jelly |White |Like Fig. 8.
+          |     |   |fuses readily    |on long boiling  |      |
+          |     |   |                 |with nitric acid.|      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Laumonite |  4  |2.3|Intumesces and   |Readily          |  do. |Generally
+          |to 0 |   |fuses to frothy  |gelatinizes      |      |chalky.
+          |     |   |mass             |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Heulandite|  4  |2.2|Intumesces and   |Soluble, no      |  do. |In right
+          |     |   |readily fuses    |jelly            |      |rhomboidal
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |prisms.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+_To Distinguish the Minerals together the one from the other_.--Calcite
+by effervescing on placing a drop of acid upon it. Natrolite resembles
+stilbite, but may be distinguished by gelatinizing readily with
+hydrochloric acid and by not intumescing when heated before the
+blowpipe; from the other minerals by the form of the crystals and their
+setting, also the locality in the tunnel in which it was found.
+
+Pectolite sometimes resembles some of the others, but may be readily
+distinguished by its _tough_ long fibers, not brittle like natrolite.
+Datholite may generally be distinguished by the form of its crystals and
+their glassy appearance, with great hardness, and by tingeing the flame
+from the blowpipe of a true green color. Apopholite is distinguished
+from calcite, as noticed under that species, and from the others by its
+form, difficult fusibility, and part solubility.
+
+Phrenite is characterized by its hardness, greenish color, occurrence,
+and action of acid. Iron pyrites is always known by its brassy metallic
+aspect and great hardness. Copper pyrites, by its aspect from the other
+minerals, and from iron pyrites by its inferior hardness and less
+gravity.
+
+Stilbite is characterized by its form, difficult gelatinizing, and
+intumescence before the blowpipe; from natrolite as mentioned under that
+species.
+
+Laumonite is known by its generally chalky appearance and a probable
+failure in finding it.
+
+Heulandite is distinguished from stilbite by its crystals and perfect
+solubility; from apopholite by form of crystals.
+
+In the next part of this paper I will commence with Staten Island.
+
+July 1, 1882. (_To be continued_.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANTISEPTICS.
+
+
+The author has endeavored to ascertain what agents are able to destroy
+the spores of bacilli, how they behave toward the microphytes most
+easily destroyed, such as the moulds, ferments, and micrococci, and if
+they suffice at least to arrest the development of these organisms in
+liquids favorable to their multiplication. His results with phenol,
+thymol, and salicylic acid have been unfavorable. Sulphurous acid
+and zinc chloride also failed to destroy all the germs of infection.
+Chlorine, bromine, and mercuric chloride gave the best results;
+solutions of mercuric chloride, nitrate, or sulphate diluted to 1 part
+in 1,000 destroy spores in ten minutes.--_R. Koch_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTALLIZATION AND ITS EFFECTS UPON IRON.
+
+By N.B. WOOD, Member of the Civil Engineers' Club, of Cleveland.
+
+[Footnote: Read January 10th. 1882.]
+
+
+The question has been asked, "What is the chemically scientific
+definition of crystallization?" Now as the study of crystallization and
+its effect upon matter, physically as well as chemically, will be of
+interest, considering the subject matter for discussion, I shall not
+only endeavor to answer the question, as I understand it, but try to
+treat it somewhat technologically.
+
+Having this object in view, I have prepared or brought about the
+conditions necessary to the formation of a few crystals of various
+chemical substances, which for various reasons, such as lack of time and
+bad weather, are not as perfect as could be desired, but will perhaps
+subserve the purpose for which they were designed. I think you will
+agree with me that they are beautiful, if they are imperfect, and I can
+assure you that the pleasure of watching their formation fully repays
+one for the trouble, if for no other reason than the mere gratification
+of the senses. From the earliest times and by all races of men, the
+crystal has been admired and imitated, or improved by cutting and
+polishing into faces of various substances. I have also procured
+specimens of steel and iron which show the effect of crystallization,
+which was produced (perhaps) under known conditions, so that the
+conclusions which we arrive at from their study will have a fair chance
+of being logical, at least, and perhaps of some practical value.
+
+When we examine inanimate nature we find two grand divisions of matter,
+_fluid_ and _solid_. These two divisions may be subdivided into, the
+former gaseous and liquid, the latter amorphous and crystalline; but
+whether one or the other of these divisions be considered, their
+ultimate and common division will be the ATOM. By the atom we understand
+that portion of matter which admits of no further division, which,
+though as inconceivable for minuteness as space is for extent, has still
+definite weight, form, and volume; which under favorable circumstances,
+has that power or force called cohesion, the intensity of which
+constitutes strength of material, which every engineer is supposed to
+understand, but which lies far beyond the powers of the human mind for
+comprehension or analysis. When we apply a magnet to a mass of iron
+filings, we observe the particles arrange themselves in regular order,
+having considerable strength in one direction, and very little or none
+in any other. Now, although we understand very little about the force
+which holds these particles in position, we do know that it is actual
+force applied from without and maintained at the expense of some of the
+known sources of force. But the force or power or property of cohesion
+seems to be a quality stored within the atom itself, in many cases
+similar to magnetism, having powerful attraction in some directions
+and very little or none in others. A crystal of mica, for instance, or
+gypsum may be divided to any degree of thinness, but is very difficult
+to even break. This property of crystals is termed cleavage. Cohesion
+and crystallization are affected variously by various circumstances,
+such as heat or its absence, motion or its absence, etc. In fact, almost
+every phenomenon of nature within the range of ordinary temperatures
+has effects which may be favorable to the crystallization of some
+substances, and at the same time unfavorable to others; so it will be
+seen that it is impossible to lay down any rule for it except for named
+substances, like substances requiring like conditions, to bring its
+atoms into that state of equilibrium where crystallization can occur.
+If we examine crystals carefully we find, not only that nature has here
+provided geometric forms of marvelous beauty and exactness, with faces
+of polish and quoins of acuteness equal to the work of the most skillful
+lapidist, "but that in whatever manner or under whatever circumstances a
+crystal may have been formed, whether in the laboratory of the chemist
+or the workshop of nature, in the bodies of animals or the tissues of
+plants, up in the sky or in the depths of the earth, whether so rapidly
+that we may literally see its growth, or by the slow aggregation of its
+molecules during perhaps thousands of years, we always find that the
+arrangement of the faces is subject to fixed and definite laws." We find
+also that a crystal is always finished and has its form as perfectly
+developed when it is the minutest point discernible by the microscope as
+when it has attained its ultimate growth. I might add parenthetically
+that crystals are sometimes of immense size, one at Milan of quartz
+being 3 feet 3 inches long and 5 feet 6 inches in circumference, and is
+estimated to weigh over 800 pounds; and a gigantic beryl at Grafton, N.
+H., is over 4 feet in length and 32 inches in diameter, and weighs not
+less than 5,000 pounds; but the most perfect specimens are of small
+size, as some accident is sure to overtake the larger ones before they
+acquire their growth, to interfere with their symmetry or transparency.
+This you will see abundantly illustrated by the examples which I have
+prepared, as also the constancy of the angles of like faces. Chemically
+speaking, the crystal is always a perfect chemical body, and can never
+be a mechanical mixture. This fact has been of great value to the
+science of chemistry in developing the atomic theory, which has
+demonstrated that a body can only exist chemically combined when a
+definite number of atoms of each element is present, and that there is
+no certainty of such proportions existing except in the crystal. I
+hold before you a crystal of common alum. Its chemical symbol would be
+Al_{2}O_{3},3SO_{3}+KO,SO_{3}+24H_{2}O. If we knew its weight and wished
+to know its ultimate component parts, we could calculate them more
+readily than we could acquire that knowledge by any other means. But the
+elements of this quantity of uncrystallized alum could not be computed.
+Then we may define crystallization to be the operation of nature wherein
+the chemical atoms or molecules of a substance have sufficient polarized
+force to arrange themselves about a central attracting point in definite
+geometrical forms.
+
+Fresenius defines it thus: "_Every operation, or process, whereby bodies
+are made to pass from the fluid to the solid state, and to assume_
+certain fixed, _mathematically definable, regular forms_." It would be
+folly for me to attempt to criticise Fresenius, but I give you both
+definitions, and you can take your choice. The definition of Fresenius,
+however, will not suit our present purpose, because the crystallization
+of wrought iron occurs, or seems to, _after_ the iron has acquired a
+_solid state_.
+
+Iron, as you all know, is known to the arts in three forms: cast or
+crude, steel, and wrought or malleable. Cast iron varies much in
+chemical composition, being a mixture of iron and carbon chiefly, as
+constant factors, with which silicium in small quantities (from 1 to
+5 per cent.), phosphorus, sulphur, and sometimes manganese (e.g.
+spiegeleisen) and various other elements are combined. All of these have
+some effect upon the crystalline structure of the mass, but whatever
+crystallization takes place occurs at the moment of solidification, or
+between that and a red heat, and varies much, according to the time
+occupied in cooling, as to its composition. My own experience leads me
+to think that a cast iron having about 3 per cent. of carbon, a small
+per centage of phosphorus, say about 1/2 of 1 per cent., and very small
+quantities of silicium, the less the better, and traces of manganese
+(the two latter substances _slagging_ out almost entirely during the
+process of remelting for casting), makes a metal best adapted to the
+general use of the founder. Such proportions will make a soft, even
+grained, dark gray iron, whose crystals are small and bright, and whose
+fracture will be uneven and sharp to the touch. The phosphorus in this
+instance gives the metal liquidity at a low temperature, but does not
+seem to influence the crystallization to any appreciable extent. The two
+elements to be avoided by the founder are silicium and sulphur. These
+give to iron a peculiar crystalline appearance easily recognized by
+an experienced person. Silicium seems to obliterate the sparkling
+brilliancy of the crystalline faces of good iron, and replace them with
+very fine dull ones only discernible with a lens, and the iron breaks
+more like stoneware than metal, while sulphur in appreciable quantities
+gives a striated crystalline texture similar to chilled iron, and very
+brittle. Phosphorus in very large quantities acts similarly. The form of
+the crystal in cast iron is the octahedron, so that right angles with
+sharp corners should be avoided as much as possible in castings, as the
+most likely position for a crystal to take would be with its faces along
+the line of the angle. Steel, to be of any value as such, _must_ be made
+of the purest material. Phosphorus and sulphur _must_ not exist, except
+in the most minute quantities, or the metal is worthless. If either of
+these substances be present in a bar of steel, its structure will
+be coarse, crystalline and weak. The reason of this is unknown, but
+probably their presence reduces the power of cohesion; and, that being
+reduced, gives the molecules of steel greater freedom to arrange
+themselves in conformity with their polarity, and this in its turn again
+weakens the mass by the tendency of the crystals to cleavage in certain
+directions. Carbon is a constant element in steel, as it is in cast
+iron, but is frequently replaced by chromium, titanium, etc., or is said
+to be, though it is not quite clear to me how it can be so if steel is
+a chemical compound. However this may be, we know that a piece of good
+soft steel breaks with a fine crystalline fracture, and the same piece
+hardened when broken shows either an amorphous structure or one very
+finely crystalline, which would indicate that the crystals had been
+broken up by the action of heat, and that they had not had sufficient
+time to return to their original position on account of the sudden
+cooling. The tendency of the molecules of steel after hardening to
+assume their natural position when cold seems to be very great, for we
+have often seen large pieces of steel burst asunder after hardening,
+though lying untouched, and sometimes with such force as to hurl the
+fragments to some distance. If a piece of steel be subjected to a bright
+yellow or white heat its nature is entirely changed, and the workman
+says it is burnt. Though this is not actually a fact, it does well
+enough to express that condition of the metal. Steel cannot be burnt
+unless some portion of it has been oxidized. The carbon would of course
+be attacked first, its affinity for oxygen being greatest; but we find
+nothing wanting in a piece of burnt steel. It can, by careful heating,
+hammering and hardening, be returned to its former excellence. Then what
+change has taken place? I should say that two modifications have been
+made, one physical, the other chemical. The change chemically is that
+of a chemical compound to a mixture of carbon and iron, so that in a
+chemical sense it resembles cast iron. The change physically is that of
+crystallization, being due partly to chemical change and partly to the
+effect of heat. I have procured a specimen of steel showing beautifully
+the effect of overheating. The specimen is labeled No. 1, and is a piece
+of Park Brothers' steel (one of the best brands made in America). It has
+been heated at one end to proper heat for hardening, and at the other is
+what is technically called "burnt." It has been broken at intervals
+of about 11/2 inches, showing the transition from amorphous or proper
+hardening to highly crystalline or "burnt." Malleable or wrought iron
+is or should be pure iron. Of course in practice it is seldom such, but
+generally nearly so, being usually 98, 99, or even more per cent. It is
+exceedingly prone to crystallization, the purer varieties being as much
+subject to it as others, except those contaminated with phosphorus,
+which affects it similarly with steel, and makes it very weak to cross
+and tensile strains. I have never estimated the quantity present in any
+except one specimen, a bar of 11/2 round, which literally fell to pieces
+when dropped across a block of iron. It had 1.32 per cent. of phosphorus
+and was very crystalline, though the crystals were not very large. Iron
+which has been, when first made, quite fibrous, when subjected to a
+series of shocks for a greater or less period, according to their
+intensity, when subjected to intense currents of electricity, or when
+subjected to high temperatures, or has by mechanical force been pushed
+together, or, as it is called, upset, becomes extremely crystalline.
+Under all of these circumstances it is subjected to one physical
+phenomenon, that of motion. It would seem that if a bar of iron were
+struck, the blow would shake the whole mass, and consequently the
+relative position of the particles remain unchanged, but this is not the
+case. When the blow is struck it takes an appreciable length of time for
+the effect to be communicated to the other end so as to be heard, if the
+distance is great. This shows that a small force is communicated from
+particle to particle independently along the whole mass, and that each
+atom actually moves independently of its neighbor. Then, if there be
+any attraction at the time tending to arrange it differently, it will
+conform to it. So much for theory with regard to this important matter.
+It looks well on paper, but do the facts of the case correspond? If
+practically demonstrated and systematically executed, experiments fail
+to corroborate the theory, and if, furthermore, we find there is no
+necessity for the theory, we naturally conclude that it is all wrong,
+or, at least, imperfectly understood. Now there is one other quality
+imparted to iron by successive shocks, which, I think, is independent
+of crystallization, and this quality is hardness and consequent
+brittleness. One noticeable feature about this also is, that as
+"absolute cohesion" or tensile strength diminishes, "relative cohesion"
+or strength to resist crushing increases. Specimens Nos. 2, 3, and 4 are
+pieces of Swedish iron, probably from the celebrated mines of Dannemora.
+Nos. 2 and 3 are parts of the same bolt, which, after some months' use
+on a "heading machine" in a bolt and nut works, where it was subjected
+to numerous and violent shocks, (perhaps 50,000 or 60,000 per day),
+it broke short off, as you see in No 2, showing a highly crystalline
+fracture. To test whether this structure continued through the bolt, I
+had it nicked by a blacksmith's cold chisel and broken. The specimen
+shows that it is still stronger at that point than at the point where
+it is actually broken, but the resulting fracture shows the same
+crystalline appearance. I next had specimen No. 4 cut from a fresh
+bar of iron which had never been used for anything. It also shows a
+crystalline fracture, indicating that this peculiarity had existed in
+the iron of both from the beginning.
+
+I next took specimen No. 3 and subjected it to a careful annealing,
+taking perhaps two hours in the operation. Although it is a 1-1/8 bolt
+and has V threads cut upon it we were unable to break it, although bent
+cold through an arc of 90 deg., and probably would have doubled upon itself
+if we had had the means to have forced it. Now what does this show? Have
+the crystals been obliterated by the process of annealing, or has only
+their cleavage been destroyed, so that when they break, instead of
+showing brilliant, sparkling faces, they are drawn into a fibrous
+looking mass? The latter seems to be the most plausible theory, to which
+I admit objections may be raised. For my own part, I am inclined to the
+belief that the crystal exists in all iron which is finished above a
+bright red heat, and that between that and black heat they are formed
+and have whatever characteristics circumstances may confer upon them,
+modified by the action of agencies heretofore mentioned.
+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement,
+No. 344, August 5, 1882, by Various
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 344,
+August 5, 1882, by Various
+
+Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the
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+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 344, August 5, 1882
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August, 2005 [EBook #8717]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on August 3, 2003]
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+Edition: 10
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+Language: English
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+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUP. NO. 344 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland,
+Charles Franks and the DP Team
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 344
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, August 5, 1882
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 344.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--The Panama Canal. By
+     MANUEL EISSLER. I.--Historical notes.--Spanish Discoveries
+     in Central America.--Early explorations.--Nicaragua
+     projects.--Panama railway, etc.
+
+     Improved Averaging Machine.
+
+     Compound Beam Engine. 4 figures.--Borsig's improved
+     compound beam engine.
+
+     Power Hammers with Movable Fulcrum.--By DANIEL
+     LONGWORTH. 5 figures.
+
+     The Bicheroux System of Furnaces Applied to the Puddling of
+     Iron. 2 figures.
+
+     Gessner's Continuous Cloth Pressing Machine. 3 figures.
+
+     Novelties in Ring Spindles. 4 figures.
+
+     Improvements in Woolen Carding Engines.
+
+II.  NATURAL HISTORY.--Metamorphosis of the Deer's
+     Antlers.--Annual changes. 9 figures.
+
+     Monkeys. By A.R. WALLACE.--Comparison of skeletons of man,
+     orang outang, and chimpanzee.--Other anatomical resemblances
+     and diversities.--The different kinds of monkeys and the
+     countries they inhabit.--American monkeys.--Lemurs.
+     --Distribution, affinities, and zoological rank of monkeys.
+
+     Silk Producing Bombyces and other Lepidoptera reared in
+     1881. By ALFRED WAILLY, Member Lauriat de la Societe
+     d'Acclimatation de France.--An extended and important
+     European, Asiatic, and American silk worms, and other
+     silk producers.
+
+III. MINERALOGY, METALLURGY, ETC.--The Mineralogical
+     Localities In and Around New York City and the Minerals
+     Occurring Therein.--By NELSON H. DARTON.--Chances for
+     collecting within one hour's ride of New York.--Methods
+     of collecting and testing.--Localities on Bergen
+     Hill.--The Weehawken Tunnel.--Minerals and modes of
+     occurrence.--Calcite.--Natrolite.--Pectolite.--Datholite.
+     --Apopholite.--Phrenite.--Iron and copper pyrites.
+     --Stilbite.--Laumonite.--Heulandite.
+
+     Antiseptics.
+
+     Crystallization and its Effects Upon Iron. By N.B. WOOD.--
+     Beauty of Crystals.--Nature of cohesion.--Cleavage.--Growth
+     of crystals.--Some large crystals.--Cast iron.--Influence
+     of phosphorus and sulphur.--Nature of steel.--Burnt
+     steel.--Effect of annealing.
+
+IV.  ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--The Cathedral of Burgos, Spain.
+     --Full page illustration from photograph.
+
+     Description of Burgos Cathedral.
+
+     Photo-Engraving on Zinc and Copper. By LEON VIDAL.
+
+     Meridian Line.--A surveyor's method of finding the true
+     meridian.--By R.W. MCFARLAND.
+
+V.   ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electro Mania. By W. MATTIEU
+     WILLIAMS.--Example of electrical exaggeration and
+     delusion.--Early scientific attempts at electro-motors,
+     electric lamps, etc.
+
+     Action of Magnets Upon the Voltaic Arc. By TH. DU
+     MONCEL. 2 figures.
+
+     Volckmar's Secondary Batteries.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+METAMORPHOSIS OF THE DEER'S ANTLERS.
+
+
+Every year in March the deer loses its antlers, and fresh ones
+immediately begin to grow, which exceed in size those that have just
+been lost. Few persons probably have been able to watch and observe the
+habits of the animal after it has lost its antlers. It will, therefore,
+be of interest to examine the accompanying drawings, by Mr. L. Beckmann,
+one of them showing a deer while shedding its antlers, and the other
+as the animal appears after losing them. In the first illustration the
+animal has just lost one of its antlers, and fright and pain cause it
+to throw its head upward and become disturbed and uneasy. The remaining
+antler draws down one side of the head and is very inconvenient for the
+animal. The remaining antler becomes soon detached from its base,
+and the deer turns--as if ashamed of having lost its ornament and
+weapon--lowers its head, and sorrowfully moves to the adjoining thicket,
+where it hides. A friend once observed a deer losing its antlers, but
+the circumstances were somewhat different. The animal was jumping over a
+ditch, and as soon as it touched the further bank it jumped high in the
+air, arched its back, bent its head to one side in the manner of an
+animal that has been wounded, and then sadly approached the nearest
+thicket, in the same manner as the artist has represented in the
+accompanying picture. Both antlers dropped off and fell into the ditch.
+
+[Illustration: METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--FIRST STAGE.]
+
+Strong antlers are generally found together, but weak ones are lost at
+intervals of two or three days. A few days after this loss the stumps
+upon which the antlers rested are covered with a skin, which grows
+upward very rapidly, and under which the fresh antlers are formed, so
+that by the end of July the bucks have new and strong antlers, from
+which they remove the fine hairy covering by rubbing them against young
+trees. It is peculiar that the huntsman, who knows everything in regard
+to deer, and has seventy-two signs by which he can tell whether a male
+or female deer passes through the woods, does not know at what age the
+deer gets its first antlers and how the antlers indicate the age of the
+animal. Prof. Altum, in Eberswalde, has given some valuable information
+in regard to the relation between the age of the deer and the forms of
+their antlers, but in some respects he has not expressed himself very
+clearly, and I think that my observations given in addition to his may
+be of importance. When the animal is a year old--that is, in June--the
+burrs of the antlers begin to form, and in July the animal has two
+protuberances of the size of walnuts, from which the first branches of
+the antlers rise; these branches having the length of a finger only, or
+being even shorter, as shown at 1, in diagram, on p. 5481. After the
+second year more branches are formed, which are considerably longer and
+much rougher at the lower ends than the first. The third pair of antlers
+is different from its predecessors, inasmuch as it has "roses," that is,
+annular ridges around the bases of the horn, which latter are now bent
+in the shape of a crescent. Either the antler has a single branch (Fig.
+3, _a_), or besides the point it has another short end, which is a most
+rare shape, and is known as a "fork" (Fig. 3, _b_), or it has two forks
+(Fig. 3, _c_). In the following year the antlers take the form shown
+in Fig. 4, and then follows the antler shown in Fig. 5, _a_, which
+generally has "forks" in place of points, and is known as forked antler
+in contradistinction to the point antler shown in Fig. 5, _b_, which
+retains the shape of the antler, Fig. 4, but has additional or
+intermediate prongs or branches. The huntsmen designate the antlers by
+the number of ends or points on the two antlers. For instance, Fig. 4 is
+a six-ender; Fig. 5 shows an eight-ender, etc.; and antlers have been
+known to have as many as twenty-two ends. If the two antlers do not
+have the same number of ends the number of ends on the larger antler
+is multiplied by two and the word "odd" is placed before the word
+designating the number of ends. For instance, if one antler has
+three ends and the other four, the antler would be termed an "odd"
+eight-ender. The sixth antler shown in Fig. 6 is a ten-ender, and
+appears in two different forms, either with a fork at the upper end, as
+shown in Fig. 6, _a_, or with a crown, as shown in Fig. 6, _b_. In Fig.
+7 an antler is shown which the animal carries from its seventh year
+until the month of March of its eighth year. From that time on the
+crowns only increase and change. The increase in the number of points is
+not always as regular as I have described it, for in years when food
+is scarce and poor the antlers are weak and small, and when food is
+plentiful and rich the antlers grow exceedingly large, and sometimes
+skip an entire year's growth.--_Karl Brandt, in Leipziger lllustrirte
+Zeitung_.
+
+[Illustration: METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--SECOND STAGE.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MONKEYS.
+
+By ALFRED R. WALLACE.
+
+
+If the skeleton of an orang-outang and a chimpanzee be compared with
+that of a man, there will be found to be the most wonderful resemblance,
+together with a very marked diversity. Bone for bone, throughout the
+whole structure, will be found to agree in general form, position, and
+function, the only absolute differences being that the orang has nine
+wrist bones, whereas man and the chimpanzee have but eight; and the
+chimpanzee has thirteen pairs of ribs, whereas the orang, like man, has
+but twelve. With these two exceptions, the differences are those of
+shape, proportion, and direction only, though the resulting differences
+in the external form and motions are very considerable. The greatest of
+these are, that the feet of the anthropoid or man-like apes, as well as
+those of all monkeys, are formed like hands, with large opposable thumbs
+fitted to grasp the branches of trees, but unsuitable for erect walking,
+while the hands have weak, small thumbs, but very long and powerful
+fingers, forming a hook, rather than a hand, adapted for climbing up
+trees and suspending the whole weight from horizontal branches. The
+almost complete identity of the skeleton, however, and the close
+similarity of the muscles and of all the internal organs, have produced
+that striking and ludicrous resemblance to man, which every one
+recognizes in these higher apes, and, in a less degree, in the whole
+monkey tribe; the face and features, the motions, attitudes, and
+gestures being often a strange caricature of humanity. Let us, then,
+examine a little more closely in what the resemblance consists, and how
+far, and to what extent, these animals really differ from us.
+
+Besides the face, which is often wonderfully human--although the absence
+of any protuberant nose gives it often a curiously infantile aspect,
+monkeys, and especially apes, resemble us most closely in the hand and
+arm. The hand has well-formed fingers, with nails, and the skin of the
+palm is lined and furrowed like our own. The thumb is, however, smaller
+and weaker than ours, and is not so much used in taking hold of
+anything. The monkey's hand is, therefore, not so well adapted as that
+of man for a variety of purposes, and cannot be applied with such
+precision in holding small objects, while it is unsuitable for
+performing delicate operations, such as tying a knot or writing with a
+pen. A monkey does not take hold of a nut with its forefinger and thumb,
+as we do, but grasps it between the fingers and the palm in a clumsy
+way, just as a baby does before it has acquired the proper use of
+its hand. Two groups of monkeys--one in Africa and one in South
+America--have no thumbs on their hands, and yet they do not seem to be
+in any respect inferior to other kinds which possess it. In most of the
+American monkeys the thumb bends in the same direction as the fingers,
+and in none is it so perfectly opposed to the fingers as our thumbs are;
+and all these circumstances show that the hand of the monkey is, both
+structurally and functionally, a very different and very inferior organ
+to that of man, since it is not applied to similar purposes, nor is it
+capable of being so applied.
+
+When we look at the feet of monkeys we find a still greater difference,
+for these have much larger and more opposable thumbs, and are therefore
+more like our hands; and this is the case with all monkeys, so that even
+those which have no thumbs on their hands, or have them small and weak
+and parallel to the fingers, have always large and well-formed thumbs on
+their feet. It was on account of this peculiarity that the great French
+naturalist Cuvier named the whole group of monkeys Quadrumana, or
+four-handed animals, because, besides the two hands on their fore-limbs,
+they have also two hands in place of feet on their hind-limbs. Modern
+naturalists have given up the use of this term, because they say that
+the hind extremities of all monkeys are really feet, only these feet
+are shaped like hands; but this is a point of anatomy, or rather of
+nomenclature, which we need not here discuss.
+
+Let us, however, before going further, inquire into the purpose and
+use of this peculiarity, and we shall then see that it is simply an
+adaptation to the mode of life of the animals which possess it. Monkeys,
+as a rule, live in trees, and are especially abundant in the great
+tropical forests. They feed chiefly upon fruits, and occasionally eat
+insects and birds'-eggs, as well as young birds, all of which they find
+in the trees; and, as they have no occasion to come down to the ground,
+they travel from tree to tree by jumping or swinging, and thus pass the
+greater part of their lives entirely among the leafy branches of lofty
+trees. For such a mode of existence, they require to be able to move
+with perfect ease upon large or small branches, and to climb up rapidly
+from one bough to another. As they use their hands for gathering fruit
+and catching insects or birds, they require some means of holding on
+with their feet, otherwise they would be liable to continual falls, and
+they are able to do this by means of their long finger-like toes and
+large opposable thumbs, which grasp a branch almost as securely as a
+bird grasps its perch. The true hands, on the contrary, are used chiefly
+to climb with, and to swing the whole weight of the body from one branch
+or one tree to another, and for this purpose the fingers are very long
+and strong, and in many species they are further strengthened by being
+partially joined together, as if the skin of our fingers grew together
+as far as the knuckles. This shows that the separate action of the
+fingers, which is so important to us, is little required by monkeys,
+whose hand is really an organ for climbing and seizing food, while their
+foot is required to support them firmly in any position on the branches
+of trees, and for this purpose it has become modified into a large and
+powerful grasping hand.
+
+Another striking difference between monkeys and men is that the former
+never walk with ease in an erect posture, but always use their arms in
+climbing or in walking on all-fours like most quadrupeds. The monkeys
+that we see in the streets dressed up and walking erect, only do so
+after much drilling and teaching, just as dogs may be taught to walk in
+the same way; and the posture is almost as unnatural to the one animal
+as it is to the other. The largest and most man-like of the apes--the
+gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang-outang--also walk usually on all-fours;
+but in these the arms are so long and the legs so short that the body
+appears half erect when walking; and they have the habit of resting on
+the knuckles of the hands, not on the palms like the smaller monkeys,
+whose arms and legs are more nearly of an equal length, which tends
+still further to give them a semi-erect position. Still they are never
+known to walk of their own accord on their hind legs only, though they
+can do so for short distances, and the story of their using a stick and
+walking erect by its help in the wild state is not true. Monkeys, then,
+are both four-handed and four-footed beasts; they possess four hands
+formed very much like our hands, and capable of picking up or holding
+any small object in the same manner; but they are also four-footed,
+because they use all four limbs for the purpose of walking, running, or
+climbing; and, being adapted to this double purpose, the hands want the
+delicacy of touch and the freedom as well as the precision of movement
+which ours possess. Man alone is so constructed that he walks erect with
+perfect ease, and has his hands free for any use to which he wishes
+to apply them; and this is the great and essential bodily distinction
+between monkeys and men.
+
+We will now give some account of the different kinds of monkeys and the
+countries they inhabit.
+
+
+THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MONKEYS AND THE COUNTRIES THEY INHABIT.
+
+Monkeys are usually divided into three kinds--apes, monkeys, and
+baboons; but these do not include the American monkeys, which are really
+more different from all those of the Old World than any of the
+latter are from each other. Naturalists, therefore, divide the whole
+monkey-tribe into two great families, inhabiting the Old and the New
+World respectively; and, if we learn to remember the kind of differences
+by which these several groups are distinguished, we shall be able
+to understand something of the classification of animals, and the
+difference between important and unimportant characters.
+
+Taking first the Old World groups, they may be thus defined: apes have
+no tails; monkeys have tails, which are usually long; while baboons have
+short tails, and their faces, instead of being round and with a man-like
+expression as in apes and monkeys, are long and more dog-like. These
+differences are, however, by no means constant, and it is often
+difficult to tell whether an animal should be classed as an ape, a
+monkey, or a baboon. The Gibraltar ape, for example, though it has no
+tail, is really a monkey, because it has callosities, or hard pads of
+bare skin on which it sits, and cheek pouches in which it can stow away
+food; the latter character being always absent in the true apes, while
+both are present in most monkeys and baboons. All these animals,
+however, from the largest ape to the smallest monkey, have the same
+number of teeth as we have, and they are arranged in a similar manner,
+although the tusks or canine teeth of the males are often large, like
+those of a dog.
+
+The American monkeys, on the other hand, with the exception of the
+marmosets, have four additional grinding teeth (one in each jaw on
+either side), and none of them have callosities, or cheek pouches. They
+never have prominent snouts like the baboons; their nostrils are placed
+wide apart and open sideways on the face; the tail, though sometimes
+short, is never quite absent; and the thumb bends the same way as the
+fingers, is generally very short and weak, and is often quite wanting.
+We thus see that these American monkeys differ in a great number of
+characters from those of the Eastern hemisphere; and they have this
+further peculiarity, that many of them have prehensile or grasping
+tails, which are never found in the monkeys of any other country.
+This curious organ serves the purpose of a fifth hand. It has so much
+muscular power that the animal can hang by it easily with the tip curled
+round a branch, while it can also be used to pick up small objects with
+almost as much ease and exactness as an elephant's trunk. In those
+species which have it most perfectly formed it is very long and
+powerful, and the end has the underside covered with bare skin, exactly
+resembling that of the finger or palm of the hand and apparently equally
+sensitive. One of the common kinds of monkeys that accompany street
+organ-players has a prehensile tail, but not of the most perfect kind;
+since in this species the tail is entirely clad with hair to the tip,
+and seems to be used chiefly to steady the animal when sitting on a
+branch by being twisted round another branch near it. The statement is
+often erroneously made that all American monkeys have prehensile tails;
+but the fact is that rather less than half the known kinds have them
+so, the remainder having this organ either short and bushy, or long
+and slender, but entirely without any power of grasping. All
+prehensile-tailed monkeys are American, but all American monkeys are not
+prehensile-tailed.
+
+By remembering these characters it is easy, with a little observation,
+to tell whether any strange monkey comes from America or from the Old
+World. If it has bare seat-pads, or if when eating it fills its mouth
+till its cheeks swell out like little bags, we may be sure it comes from
+some part of Africa or Asia; while if it can curl up the end of its tail
+so as to take hold of anything, it is certainly American. As all the
+tailed monkeys of the Old World have seat-pads (or ischial callosities
+as they are called in scientific language), and as all the American
+monkeys have tails, but no seat-pads, this is the most constant external
+character by which to distinguish them; and having done so we can look
+for the other peculiarities of the American monkeys, especially the
+distance apart of the nostrils and their lateral position.
+
+The whole monkey-tribe is especially tropical, only a few kinds being
+found in the warmer parts of the temperate zone. One inhabits the Rock
+of Gibraltar, and there is one very like it in Japan, and these are the
+two monkeys which live furthest from the equator. In the tropics they
+become very abundant and increase in numbers and variety as we approach
+the equator, where the climate is hot, moist, and equable, and where
+flowers, fruits, and insects are to be found throughout the year. Africa
+has about 55 different kinds, Asia and its islands about 60, while
+America has 114, or almost exactly the same as Asia and Africa together.
+Australia and its islands have no monkeys, nor has the great and
+luxuriant island of New Guinea, whose magnificent forests seem so well
+adapted for them. We will now give a short account of the different
+kinds of monkeys inhabiting each of the tropical continents.
+
+Africa possesses two of the great man-like apes--the gorilla and the
+chimpanzee, the former being the largest ape known, and the one which,
+on the whole, perhaps most resembles man, though its countenance is less
+human than that of the chimpanzee. Both are found in West Africa, near
+the equator, but they also inhabit the interior wherever there are great
+forests; and Dr. Schweinfurth states that the chimpanzee inhabits the
+country about the sources of the Shari River in 28° E. long. and 4° N.
+lat.
+
+The long-tailed monkeys of Africa are very numerous and varied. One
+group has no cheek pouches and no thumb on the hand, and many of these
+have long soft fur of varied colors. The most numerous group are the
+Guenons, rather small long-tailed monkeys, very active and lively,
+and often having their faces curiously marked with white or black, or
+ornamented with whiskers or other tufts of hair; and they all have large
+cheek pouches and good sized thumbs. Many of them are called green
+monkeys, from the greenish yellow tint of their fur, and most of them
+are well formed, pleasing animals. They are found only in tropical
+Africa.
+
+The baboons are larger but less numerous. They resemble dogs in the
+general form and the length of the face or snout, but they have hands
+with well-developed thumbs on both the fore and hind limbs; and this,
+with something in the expression of the face and their habit of sitting
+up and using their hands in a very human fashion, at once shows that
+they belong to the monkey tribe. Many of them are very ugly, and in
+their wild state they are the fiercest and most dangerous of monkeys.
+Some have the tail very long, others of medium length, while it is
+sometimes reduced to a mere stump, and all have large cheek pouches and
+bare seat pads. They are found all over Africa, from Egypt to the Cape
+of Good Hope; while one species, called the hamadryas, extends from
+Abyssinia across the Red Sea into Arabia, and is the only baboon found
+out of Africa. This species was known to the ancients, and it is often
+represented in Egyptian sculptures, while mummies of it have been found
+in the catacombs. The largest and most remarkable of all the baboons
+is the mandrill of West Africa, whose swollen and hog-like face is
+ornamented with stripes of vivid blue and scarlet. This animal has a
+tail scarcely two inches long, while in size and strength it is not much
+inferior to the gorilla. The large baboons go in bands, and are said to
+be a match for any other animals in the African forests, and even to
+attack and drive away the elephants from the districts they inhabit.
+
+Turning now to Asia, we have first one of the best known of the large
+man-like apes--the orang-outang, found only in the two large islands,
+Borneo and Sumatra. The name is Malay, signifying "man of the woods,"
+and it should be pronounced órang-óotan, the accent being on the first
+syllable of both words. It is a very curious circumstance that, whereas
+the gorilla and chimpanzee are both black, like the negroes of the same
+country, the orang-outang is red or reddish brown, closely resembling
+the color of the Malays and Dyaks who live in the Bornean forests.
+Though very large and powerful, it is a harmless creature, feeding on
+fruit, and never attacking any other animal except in self-defense. A
+full-grown male orang-outang is rather more than four feet high, but
+with a body as large as that of a stout man, and with enormously long
+and powerful arms.
+
+Another group of true apes inhabit Asia and the larger Asiatic islands,
+and are in some respects the most remarkable of the whole family. These
+are the Gibbons, or long-armed apes, which are generally of small size
+and of a gentle disposition, but possessing the most wonderful agility.
+In these creatures the arms are as long as the body and legs together,
+and are so powerful that a gibbon will hang for hours suspended from
+a branch, or swing to and fro and then throw itself a great distance
+through the air. The arms, in fact, completely take the place of the
+legs for traveling. Instead of jumping from bough to bough and running
+on the branches, like other apes and monkeys, the gibbons move along
+while hanging suspended in the air, stretching their arms from bough to
+bough, and thus going hand over hand as a very active sailor will climb
+along a rope. The strength of their arms is, however, so prodigious,
+and their hold so sure, that they often loose one hand before they have
+caught a bough with the other, thus seeming almost to fly through the
+air by a series of swinging leaps; and they travel among the network of
+interlacing boughs a hundred feet above the earth with as much ease and
+certainty as we walk or run upon level ground, and with even greater
+speed. These little animals scarcely ever come down to the ground of
+their own accord; but when obliged to do so they run along almost erect,
+with their long arms swinging round and round, as if trying to find some
+tree or other object to climb upon. They are the only apes who naturally
+walk without using their hands as well as their feet; but this does not
+make them more like men, for it is evident that the attitude is not an
+easy one, and is only adopted because the arms are habitually used to
+swing by, and are therefore naturally held upward, instead of downward,
+as they must be when walking on them.
+
+The tailed monkeys of Asia consist of two groups, the first of which
+have no cheek pouches, but always have very long tails, They are
+true forest monkeys, very active and of a shy disposition. The most
+remarkable of these is the long-nosed monkey of Borneo, which is very
+large, of a pale brown color, and distinguished by possessing a long,
+pointed, fleshy nose, totally unlike that of all other monkeys. Another
+interesting species is the black and white entellus monkey of India,
+called the "Hanuman," by the Hindoos, and considered sacred by them.
+These animals are petted and fed, and at some of the temples numbers
+of them come every day for the food which the priests, as well as the
+people, provide for them.
+
+The next group of Eastern monkeys are the Macaques, which are more like
+baboons, and often run upon the ground. They are more bold and vicious
+than the others. All have cheek pouches, and though some have long
+tails, in others the tail is short, or reduced to a mere stump. In some
+few this stump is so very short that there appears to be no tail, as in
+the magot of North Africa and Gibraltar, and in an allied species that
+inhabits Japan.
+
+
+AMERICAN MONKEYS.
+
+The monkeys which inhabit America form three very distinct groups:
+1st, the Sapajous, which have prehensile or grasping tails; 2nd, the
+Sagouins, which have ordinary tails, either long or short; and, 3rd, the
+Marmosets, very small creatures, with sharp claws, long tails which are
+not prehensile, and a smaller number of teeth than all other American
+monkeys. Each of these three groups contain several sub-groups, or
+_genera_, which often differ remarkably from each other, and from all
+the monkeys of the Old World.
+
+We will begin with the howling monkeys, which are the largest found in
+America, and are celebrated for the loud voice of the males. Often in
+the great forests of the Amazon or Oronooko a tremendous noise is heard
+in the night or early morning, as if a great assemblage of wild beasts
+were all roaring and screaming together. The noise may be heard for
+miles, and it is louder and more piercing than that of any other
+animals, yet it is all produced by a single male howler, sitting on the
+branches of some lofty tree. They are enabled to make this extraordinary
+noise by means of an organ that is possessed by no other animal. The
+lower jaw is unusually deep, and this makes room for a hollow bony
+vessel about the size of a large walnut, situated under the root of the
+tongue, and having an opening into the windpipe by which the animal
+can force air into it. This increases the power of its voice, acting
+something like the hollow case of a violin, and producing those
+marvelous rolling and reverberating sounds which caused the celebrated
+traveler Waterton to declare that they were such as might have had their
+origin in the infernal regions. The howlers are large and stout bodied
+monkeys, with bearded faces, and very strong and powerfully grasping
+tails. They inhabit the wildest forests; they are very shy, and are
+seldom taken captive, though they are less active than many other
+American monkeys.
+
+Next come the spider monkeys, so called from their slender bodies and
+enormously long limbs and tail. In these monkeys the tail is so long,
+strong, and perfect, that it completely takes the place of a fifth hand.
+By twisting the end of it round a branch the animal can swing freely in
+the air with complete safety; and this gives them a wonderful power of
+climbing end passing from tree to tree, because the distance they can
+stretch is that of the tail, body, and arm added together, and these are
+all unusually long. They can also swing themselves through the air for
+great distances, and are thus able to pass rapidly from tree to tree
+without ever descending to the ground, just like the gibbons in the
+Malayan forests. Although capable of feats of wonderful agility, the
+spider monkeys are usually slow and deliberate in their motions, and
+have a timid, melancholy expression, very different from that of most
+monkeys. Their hands are very long, but have only four fingers, being
+adapted for hanging on to branches rather than for getting hold of small
+objects. It is said that when they have to cross a river the trees on
+the opposite banks of which do not approach near enough for a leap,
+several of them form a chain, one hanging by its tail from a lofty
+overhanging branch and seizing hold of the tail of the one below it,
+then gradually swinging themselves backward and forward till the lower
+one is able to seize hold of a branch on the opposite side. He then
+climbs up the tree, and, when sufficiently high, the first one lets go,
+and the swing either carries him across to a bough on the opposite side
+or he climbs up over his companions.
+
+Closely allied to the last are the woolly monkeys, which have an equally
+well developed prehensile tail, but better proportioned limbs, and a
+thick woolly fur of a uniform gray or brownish color. They have well
+formed fingers and thumbs, both on the hands and feet, and are rather
+deliberate in their motions, and exceedingly tame and affectionate in
+captivity. They are great eaters, and are usually very fat. They are
+found only in the far interior of the Amazon valley, and, having a
+delicate constitution, seldom live long in Europe. These monkeys are not
+so fond of swinging themselves about by their tails as are the spider
+monkeys, and offer more opportunities of observing how completely this
+organ takes the place of a fifth hand. When walking about a house, or on
+the deck of a ship, the partially curled tail is carried in a horizontal
+position on the ground, and the moment it touches anything it twists
+round it and brings it forward, when, if eatable, it is at once
+appropriated; and when fastened up the animal will obtain any food that
+may be out of reach of its hands with the greatest facility, picking up
+small bits of biscuit, nuts, etc., much as an elephant does with the tip
+of his trunk.
+
+We now come to a group of monkeys whose prehensile tail is of a less
+perfect character, since it is covered with hair to the tip, and is of
+no use to pick up objects. It can, however, curl round a branch, and
+serves to steady the animal while sitting or feeding, but is never used
+to hang and swing by in the manner so common with the spider monkeys and
+their allies. These are rather small-sized animals, with round heads and
+with moderately long tails. They are very active and intelligent, their
+limbs are not so long as in the preceding group, and though they have
+five fingers on each hand and foot, the hands have weak and hardly
+opposable thumbs. Some species of these monkeys are often carried about
+by itinerant organ men, and are taught to walk erect and perform many
+amusing tricks. They form the genus _Cebus_ of naturalists.
+
+The remainder of the American monkeys have non-prehensile tails, like
+those of the monkeys of the Eastern hemisphere; but they consist of
+several distinct groups, and differ very much in appearance and habits.
+First we have the Sakis, which have a bushy tail and usually very long
+and thick hair, something like that of a bear. Sometimes the tail is
+very short, appearing like a rounded tuft of hair; many of the species
+have fine bushy whiskers, which meet under the chin, and appear as if
+they had been dressed and trimmed by a barber, and the head is often
+covered with thick curly hair, looking like a wig. Others, again, have
+the face quite red, and one has the head nearly bald, a most remarkable
+peculiarity among monkeys. This latter species was met with by Mr. Bates
+on the Upper Amazon, and he describes the face as being of a vivid
+scarlet, the body clothed from neck to tail with very long, straight,
+and shining white hair, while the head was nearly bald, owing to the
+very short crop of thin gray hairs. As a finish to their striking
+physiognomy these monkeys have bushy whiskers of a sandy color meeting
+under the chin, and yellowish gray eyes. The color of the face is so
+vivid that it looks as if covered with a thick coat of bright scarlet
+paint. These creatures are very delicate, and have never reached Europe
+alive, although several of the allied forms have lived some time in our
+Zoological Gardens.
+
+An allied group consists of the elegant squirrel monkeys, with long,
+straight, hairy tails, and often adorned with pretty variegated colors.
+They are usually small animals; some have the face marked with black and
+white, others have curious whiskers, and their nails are rather sharp
+and claw like. They have large round heads, and their fur is more glossy
+and smooth than in most other American monkeys, so that they more
+resemble some of the smaller monkeys of Africa. These little creatures
+are very active, running about the trees like squirrels, and feeding
+largely on insects as well as on fruit.
+
+Closely allied to these are the small group of night monkeys, which have
+large eyes, and a round face surrounded by a kind of ruff of whitish
+fur, so as to give it an owl like appearance, whence they are sometimes
+called owl-faced monkeys. They are covered with soft gray fur, like that
+of a rabbit, and sleep all day long concealed in hollow trees. The
+face is also marked with white patches and stripes, giving it a rather
+carnivorous or cat like aspect, which, perhaps, serves as a protection,
+by causing the defenseless creature to be taken for an arboreal tiger
+cat or some such beast of prey.
+
+This finishes the series of such of the American monkeys as have a
+larger number of teeth than those of the Old World. But there is another
+group, the Marmosets, which have the same number of teeth as Eastern
+monkeys, but differently distributed in the jaws, a premolar being
+substituted for a molar tooth. In other particulars they resemble the
+rest of the American monkeys. They are very small and delicate creatures
+some having the body only seven inches long. The thumb of the hands
+is[1] not opposable, and instead of nails they have sharp compressed
+claws. These diminutive monkeys have long, non-prehensile tails, and
+they have a silky fur often of varied and beautiful colors. Some are
+striped with gray and white, or are of rich brown or golden brown tints,
+varied by having the head or shoulders white or black, while in many
+there are crests, frills, manes, or long ear tufts, adding greatly to
+their variety and beauty. These little animals are timid and restless;
+their motions are more like those of a squirrel than a monkey. Their
+sharp claws enable them to run quickly along the branches, but they
+seldom leap from bough to bough like the larger monkeys. They live on
+fruits and insects, but are much afraid of wasps, which they are said to
+recognize even in a picture.
+
+[Transcribers note 1: Changed from '... it not opposable', ...]
+
+This completes our sketch of the American monkeys, and we see that,
+although they possess no such remarkable forms as the gorilla or the
+baboons, yet they exhibit a wonderful diversity of external characters,
+considering that all seem equally adapted to a purely arboreal life.
+In the howlers we have a specially developed voice organ, which is
+altogether peculiar; in the spider monkeys we find the adaptation to
+active motion among the topmost branches of the forest trees carried to
+an extreme point of development; while the singular nocturnal monkeys,
+the active squirrel monkeys, and the exquisite little marmosets, show
+how distinct are the forms under which the same general type, may be
+exhibited, and in how many varied ways existence may be sustained under
+almost identical conditions.
+
+
+LEMURS.
+
+In the general term, monkeys, considered as equivalent to the order
+Primates, or the Quadrumana of naturalists, we have to include another
+sub-type, that of the Lemurs. These animals are of a lower grade than
+the true monkeys, from which they differ in so many points of structure
+that they are considered to form a distinct sub-order, or, by some
+naturalists, even a separate order. They have usually a much larger head
+and more pointed muzzle than monkeys; they vary considerably in the
+number, form, and arrangement of the teeth; their thumbs are always well
+developed, but their fingers vary much in size and length; their tails
+are usually long, but several species have no tail whatever, and they
+are clothed with a more or less woolly fur, often prettily variegated
+with white and black. They inhabit the deep forests of Africa,
+Madagascar, and Southern Asia, and are more sluggish in their movements
+than true monkeys, most of them being of nocturnal and crepuscular
+habits. They feed largely on insects, eating also fruits and the eggs or
+young of birds.
+
+The most curious species are--the slow lemurs of South India, small
+tailless nocturnal animals, somewhat resembling sloths in appearance,
+and almost as deliberate in their movements, except when in the act of
+seizing their insect prey; the Tarsier, or specter lemur, of the Malay
+islands, a small, long tailed nocturnal lemur, remarkable for the
+curious development of the hind feet, which have two of the toes very
+short, and with sharp claws, while the others have nails, the third toe
+being exceedingly long and slender, though the thumb is very large,
+giving the feet a very irregular and _outré_ appearance; and, lastly,
+the Aye-aye, of Madagascar, the most remarkable of all. This animal has
+very large ears and a squirrel like tail, with long spreading hair.
+It has large curved incisor teeth, which add to its squirrel like
+appearance, and caused the early naturalists to class it among the
+rodents. But its most remarkable character is found in its fore feet
+or hands, the fingers of which are all very long and armed with sharp
+curved claws, but one of them, the second, is wonderfully slender,
+being not half the thickness of the others. This curious combination of
+characters shows that the aye-aye is a very specialized form--that is,
+one whose organization has been slowly modified to fit it for a peculiar
+mode of life. From information received from its native country, and
+from a profound study of its organization, Professor Owen believes
+that it is adapted for the one purpose of feeding on small wood-boring
+insects. Its large feet and sharp claws enable it to cling firmly to the
+branches of trees in almost any position; by means of its large delicate
+ears it listens for the sound of the insect gnawing within the branch,
+and is thus able to fix its exact position; with its powerful curved
+gnawing teeth it rapidly cuts away the bark and wood till it exposes the
+burrow of the insect, most probably the soft larva of some beetle, and
+then comes into play the extraordinary long wire-like finger, which
+enters the small cylindrical burrow, and with the sharp bent claw hooks
+out the grub. Here we have a most complex adaptation of different parts
+and organs, all converging to one special end, that end being the same
+as is reached by a group of birds, the woodpeckers, in a different way;
+and it is a most interesting fact that, although woodpeckers abound in
+all the great continents, and are especially common in the tropical
+forests of Asia, Africa, and America, they are quite absent from
+Madagascar. We may, therefore, consider that the aye-aye really occupies
+the same place in nature in the forests of this tropical island, as do
+the woodpeckers in other parts of the world.
+
+
+DISTRIBUTION, AFFINITIES, AND ZOOLOGICAL RANK OF MONKEYS.
+
+Having thus sketched an outline of the monkey tribe as regards their
+more prominent external characters and habits, we must say a few words
+on their general relations as a distinct order of mammalia. No other
+group so extensive and so varied as this, is so exclusively tropical in
+its distribution, a circumstance no doubt due to the fact that monkeys
+depend so largely on fruit and insects for their subsistence. A very
+few species extend into the warmer parts of the temperate zones, their
+extreme limits in the northern hemisphere being Gibraltar, the Western
+Himalayas at 11,000 feet elevation, East Thibet, and Japan. In America
+they are found in Mexico, but do not appear to pass beyond the tropic.
+In the Southern hemisphere they are limited by the extent of the forests
+in South Brazil, which reach about 30° south latitude. In the East,
+owing to their entire absence from Australia, they do not reach the
+tropic; but in Africa, some baboons range to the southern extremity of
+the continent.
+
+But this extreme restriction of the order to almost tropical lands is
+only recent. Directly we go back to the Pliocene period of geology,
+we find the remains of monkeys in France, and even in England. In the
+earlier Miocene, several kinds, some of large size, lived in France,
+Germany, and Greece, all more or less closely allied to living forms of
+Asia and Africa. About the same period monkeys of the South American
+type inhabited the United States. In the remote Eocene period the same
+temperate lands were inhabited by lemurs in the East, and by curious
+animals believed to be intermediate between lemurs and marmosets in the
+West. We know from a variety of other evidence that throughout these
+vast periods a mild and almost sub-tropical climate extended over all
+Central Europe and parts of North America, while one of a temperate
+character prevailed as far north as the Arctic circle. The monkey tribe
+then enjoyed a far greater range over the earth, and perhaps filled a
+more important place in nature than it does now. Its restriction to the
+comparatively narrow limits of the tropics is no doubt mainly due to the
+great alteration of climate which occurred at the close of the Tertiary
+period, but it may have been aided by the continuous development of
+varied forms of mammalian life better fitted for the contrasted seasons
+and deciduous vegetation of the north temperate regions. The more
+extensive area formerly inhabited by the monkey tribe, would have
+favored their development into a number of divergent forms, in distant
+regions, and adapted to distinct modes of life. As these retreated
+southward and became concentrated in a more limited area, such as were
+able to maintain themselves became mingled together as we now find them,
+the ancient and lowly marmosets and lemurs subsisting side by side with
+the more recent and more highly developed howlers and anthropoid apes.
+
+Throughout the long ages of the Tertiary period monkeys must have been
+very abundant and very varied, yet it is but rarely that their fossil
+remains are found. This, however, is not difficult to explain. The
+deposits in which mammalian remains most abound are those formed in
+lakes or in caverns. In the former the bodies of large numbers of
+terrestrial animals were annually deposited, owing to their having been
+caught by floods in the tributary streams, swallowed up in marginal bogs
+or quicksands, or drowned by the giving way of ice. Caverns were the
+haunts of hyenas, tigers, bears, and other beasts of prey, which dragged
+into them the bodies of their victims, and left many of their bones to
+become embedded in stalagmite or in the muddy deposit left by floods,
+while herbivorous animals were often carried into them by these floods,
+or by falling down the swallow-holes which often open into caverns from
+above. But, owing to their arboreal habits, monkeys were to a great
+extent freed from all these dangers. Whether devoured by beasts or birds
+of prey, or dying a natural death, their bones would usually be left on
+dry land, where they would slowly decay under atmospheric influences.
+Only under very exceptional circumstances would they become embedded
+in aqueous deposits; and instead of being surprised at their rarity
+we should rather wonder that so many have been discovered in a fossil
+state.
+
+Monkeys, as a whole, form a very isolated group, having no near
+relations to any other mammalia. This is undoubtedly an indication of
+great antiquity. The peculiar type which has since reached so high a
+development must have branched off the great mammalian stock at a very
+remote epoch, certainly far back in the Secondary period, since in the
+Eocene we find lemurs and lemurine monkeys already specialized. At this
+remoter period they were probably not separable from the insectivora,
+or (perhaps) from the ancestral marsupials. Even now we have one living
+form, the curious Galeopithecus or flying lemur, which has only recently
+been separated from the lemurs, with which it was formerly united, to be
+classed as one of the insectivora; and it is only among the Opossums and
+some other marsupials that we again find hand-like feet with opposable
+thumbs, which are such a curious and constant feature of the monkey
+tribe.
+
+This relationship to the lowest of the mammalian tribes seems
+inconsistent with the place usually accorded to these animals at the
+head of the entire mammalian series, and opens up the question whether
+this is a real superiority or whether it depends merely on the obvious
+relationship to ourselves. If we could suppose a being gifted with
+high intelligence, but with a form totally unlike that of man, to have
+visited the earth before man existed in order to study the various forms
+of animal life that were found there, we can hardly think he would have
+placed the monkey tribe so high as we do. He would observe that their
+whole organization was specially adapted to an arboreal life, and this
+specialization would be rather against their claiming the first rank
+among terrestrial creatures. Neither in size, nor strength, nor beauty,
+would they compare with many other forms, while in intelligence they
+would not surpass, even if they equaled, the horse or the beaver. The
+carnivora, as a whole, would certainly be held to surpass them in the
+exquisite perfection of their physical structure, while the flexible
+trunk of the elephant, combined with his vast strength and admirable
+sagacity, would probably gain for him the first rank in the animal
+creation.
+
+But if this would have been a true estimate, the mere fact that the ape
+is our nearest relation does not necessarily oblige us to come to any
+other conclusion. Man is undoubtedly the most perfect of all animals,
+but he is so solely in respect of characters in which he differs from
+all the monkey tribe--the easily erect posture, the perfect freedom
+of the hands from all part in locomotion, the large size and complete
+opposability of the thumb, and the well developed brain, which enables
+him fully to utilize these combined physical advantages. The monkeys
+have none of these; and without them the amount of resemblance they have
+to us is no advantage, and confers no rank. We are biased by the too
+exclusive consideration of the man-like apes. If these did not exist
+the remaining monkeys could not be thereby deteriorated as to their
+organization or lowered in their zoological position, but it is doubtful
+if we should then class them so high as we now do. We might then dwell
+more on their resemblances to lower types--to rodents, to insectivora,
+and to marsupials, and should hardly rank the hideous baboon above the
+graceful leopard or stately stag. The true conclusion appears to be,
+that the combination of external characters and internal structure which
+exists in the monkeys, is that which, when greatly improved, refined,
+and beautified, was best calculated to become the perfect instrument
+of the human intellect and to aid in the development of man's higher
+nature; while, on the other hand, in the rude, inharmonious, and
+undeveloped state which it has reached in the quadrumana, it is by no
+means worthy of the highest place, or can be held to exhibit the most
+perfect development of existing animal life.--_Contemporary Review_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS.]
+
+
+
+
+SILK-PRODUCING BOMBYCES AND OTHER LEPIDOPTERA REARED IN 1881.
+
+By ALFRED WAILLY, Membre Lauréat de la Société d'Acclimatation de
+France.
+
+
+By referring to my reports for the years 1879 and 1880, which appeared
+in the _Journal of the Society of Arts_, February 13 and March 5, 1880,
+February 25 and March 4, 1881, it will be seen that the bad weather
+prevented the successful rearing in the open air of most species of
+silk-producing larvæ. In 1881, the weather was extremely favorable up
+to the end of July, but the incessant and heavy rains of the month of
+August and beginning of September, proved fatal to most of the larvæ
+when they were in their last stages. However, in spite of my many
+difficulties, I had the satisfaction of seeing them to their last
+stage. Larvæ of all the silk-producing bombyces were preserved in their
+different stages, and can be seen in the Bethnal-green Museum. In July,
+when the weather was magnificent, the little trees in my garden were
+literally covered with larvæ of more species than I ever had before, and
+two or three more weeks of fair weather would have given me a good crop
+of cocoons, instead of which I only obtained a very small number. The
+sparrows, as usual, also destroyed a quantity of worms, in spite of wire
+or fish-netting placed over some of the trees.
+
+On the trees were to be seen--_Attacus cynthia_ (the Ailantus silkworm),
+the rearing of which was, as usual, most successful; _Samia cecropia_
+and _Samia gloveri_, from America; also hybrids of _Gloveri cecropia_
+and _Cecropia gloveri_; _Samia promethea_ and _Telea polyphemus_;
+_Attacus pernyi_, and a new hybrid, which I obtained this last season by
+the crossing of Pernyi with Royle. For the first time I reared _Actias
+selene_, from India, on a nut-tree in the garden, and _Attacus atlas_,
+on the ailantus. The _Selene_ larvæ reached their fifth and last stage.
+The Atlas larvæ only reached the third stage, and were destroyed by the
+heavy rains; only two remained on the tree till about the 8th or 9th of
+September, when they had to be removed. I shall now reproduce the notes
+I took on some of the various species I reared.
+
+_Actias Selene_.--With sixty cocoons I only obtained one pairing. The
+moths emerged from the beginning of March till the 13th of August,
+at intervals of some duration, or in batches of males or females. I
+obtained a pairing of Selene on the 30toh of June, 1881, and the worms
+commenced to hatch on the 13th of July. The larvæ in first stage are of
+a fine brown-red, with a broad black band in the middle of the body. The
+second stage commenced on the 20th of July; larvæ, of a lighter reddish
+color, without the black band; tubercles black. Third stage commenced on
+the 28th of July; larvæ green; the first four tubercles yellow, with a
+black ring at the base; other tubercles, orange yellow. Fourth stage
+commenced on the 6th of August; larvæ green; first four tubercles
+golden-yellow, the others orange-red. Fifth stage commenced on the 19th
+of August; first four tubercles yellow, with a black ring at the base;
+other tubercles yellow, slightly tinged with orange-red; lateral band
+brown and greenish yellow; head and forelegs dark-brown. As stated
+before, the larvæ were reared on a nut-tree in the garden, till the last
+stage. Selene feeds on various trees--walnut, wild cherry, wild pear,
+etc. In Ceylon (at Kandy), it is found on the wild olive tree. As far as
+I am informed by correspondents in Ceylon, this species is not found--or
+is seldom found--on the coasts, but _Attacus atlas_ and Mylitta are
+commonly found there.
+
+_Attacus (antheroea) roylei_ (with sixty cocoons); three pairings only
+were obtained, and this species I found the most difficult to pair in
+captivity. Two moths emerged on the 5th of March, a male and a female,
+and a pairing was obtained; but the weather being then too cold, the ova
+were not fertile, the female moth, after laying about two hundred eggs,
+lived till the 22d of March, which is a very long time; this was owing
+to the low temperature. The moths emerged afterward from the 8th of
+April till the 25th of June. A pairing took place on the 2d of June, and
+another on the 6th of June.
+
+Roylei (the Himalaya oak silkworm) is very closely allied to Pernyi, the
+Chinese oak silkworm; the Roylei moths are of a lighter color, but the
+larvæ of both species can hardly be distinguished from one another.
+The principal difference between the two species is in the cocoon. The
+Roylei cocoon is within a very large and tough envelope, while that of
+Pernyi has no outer envelope at all. The larvæ of Roylei I reared did
+not thrive, and the small number I had only went to the fourth stage,
+owing to several causes. I bred them under glass, in a green-house. A
+certain number of the larvæ were unable to cut the shell of the egg.
+
+Here are a few notes I find in my book: Ova of Roylei commenced to hatch
+on the 29th of June; second stage commenced on the 9th of July. The
+larvæ in the first two stages seemed to me similar to those of Pernyi,
+as far as I could see. In second stage, the tubercles were of a
+brilliant orange-red; on anal segment, blue dot on each side. Third
+stage, four rows of orange-yellow tubercles, two blue dots on anal
+segment, brilliant gold metallic spots at the base of the tubercles on
+the back, and silver metallic spots at the base of the tubercles on the
+sides. No further notes taken.
+
+One of my correspondents in Vienna (Austria) obtained a remarkable
+success in the rearing of Roylei. From the twenty-five eggs he had
+twenty-three larvæ hatched, which produced twenty-three fine cocoons.
+The same correspondent, with thirty-five eggs of _Samia gloveri_,
+obtained twenty cocoons. My other correspondents did not obtain any
+success in rearing these two species, as far as I know.
+
+_Hybrid Roylei-Pernyi_.--I have said that it is extremely difficult to
+obtain the pairing of Roylei moths in captivity. But the male Pernyi
+paired readily with the female Roylei. I obtained six such pairings, and
+a large quantity of fertile ova. The pairings of Roylei (female) with
+Pernyi (male) took place as follows: two on the 21st of May, one on the
+3d of June, two on the 4th of June, and one on the 6th.
+
+The larvæ of this new hybrid, _Roylei-Pernyi_, contrary to what might
+have been expected, were much easier to rear than those of Roylei, and
+the cocoons obtained are far superior to those of Roylei, in size,
+weight, and richness of silk. The cocoon of my new hybrid has, like
+Roylei, an envelope, but there is no space between this envelope and the
+true cocoon inside. Therefore, this time, the crossing of two different
+species (but, it must be added, two very closely allied species) has
+produced a hybrid very superior, at least to one of the types, that of
+Roylei. The cocoons of the hybrid _Roylei-Pernyi_ seem to me larger and
+heavier than any Pernyi cocoons I have as yet seen.
+
+The larvæ of this new hybrid have been successfully reared in France,
+in Germany, in Austria, and in the United States of North America. The
+cocoons obtained by Herr L. Huessman, one of my German correspondents,
+are remarkable for their size and beauty. The silk is silvery white.
+
+I have seventeen cocoons of this hybrid species, which number may be
+sufficient for its reproduction. But the question arises, "Will the
+moths obtained from these cocoons be susceptible of reproduction?"
+
+In my report on Lepidoptera for the year 1879, I stated, with respect to
+hybrids and degeneracy, that hybrids had been obtained by the crossing
+of _Attacus pernyi_ and _Attacus yama-maï_, but that, although the moths
+(some of which may be seen in the Bethnal-green Museum) are large and
+apparently perfect in every respect, yet these hybrids could not be
+reproduced. It must be stated that these two species differ essentially
+in one particular point. _Yama-maï_ hibernates in the _ovum_ state,
+while Pernyi hibernates in the _pupa_ state. The hybrids hibernated in
+the _pupa_ state. Roylei, as Pernyi, hibernates in the _pupa_ state.
+
+In the November number, 1881, of "The Entomologist," Mr. W.F. Kirby,
+of the British Museum, wrote an article having for its title,
+"Hermaphrodite-hybrid Sphingidæ," in which, referring to hybrids of
+_Smerinthus ocellatus_ and _populi_, he says that hermaphroditism is the
+usual character of such hybrids.
+
+I extract the following passage from his article: "I was under the
+impression that hermaphroditism was the usual character of these
+hybrids; and it has suggested itself to my mind as a possibility, which
+I have not, at present, sufficient data either to prove or to disprove,
+that the sterility of hybrids in general (still a somewhat obscure
+subject) may perhaps be partly due to hybridism having a tendency to
+produce hermaphroditism."
+
+Now, will the moths of new hybrid Roylei pernyi (which I expect will
+emerge in May or June, 1882) have the same tendency to hermaphroditism
+as has been observed with the hybrids obtained by the crossing of
+_Smerinthus populi_ with _Sm. ocellatus_? I do not think that such will
+be the case with the moths of the hybrid Roylei-pernyi, on account of
+the close relationship of Roylei with Pernyi, but nothing certain can be
+known till the moths have emerged. Here are the few notes taken on the
+hybrid Roylei-pernyi: Ova commenced to hatch on the 12th of June; these
+were from the pairing which had taken place on the 21st of May. Larvæ,
+black, with long white hairs. Second stage commenced on the 21st of
+June. Larva, of a beautiful green; tubercles orange-yellow; head dark
+brown. Third stage commenced on the 1st of July; fourth stage on the
+7th. Larva of same color in those stages; tubercles on the back,
+violet-blue or mauve; tubercles on the sides, blue. Fifth stage
+commenced on the 18th of July. Larva, with tubercles on back and sides,
+blue, or violet-blue. First cocoon commenced on the 10th of August. Want
+of time prevented me from taking fuller and more accurate notes.
+
+_Attacus Atlas_.--For the first time, as stated before, I attempted the
+rearing of a small number of Atlas larvæ in the open air on the ailantus
+tree, but had to remove the last two remaining larvæ in September; the
+others had all disappeared in consequence of the heavy and incessant
+rains. These larvæ were from eggs sent to me by one of my German
+correspondents. The pairing of the moths had taken place on the 17th of
+July, and the eggs had commenced to hatch on the 4th of August.
+
+I had about eighty cocoons of another and larger race of Atlas imported
+from the Province of Kumaon, but only eight moths emerged at intervals
+from the 31st of July to the 30th of September. Not only did the moths
+emerge too late in the season, but there never was a chance of obtaining
+a pairing. In my report on Indian silkworms, published in the November
+number of the "Bulletin de la Societe d'Acclimatation," for the year
+1881, compiled from the work of Mr. J. Geoghegan, I reproduce the first
+appendix of Captain Thomas Hutton to Mr. Geoghegan's work, in which are
+given the names of all the Indian silkworms known by him up to the year
+1871.
+
+Of _Attacus atlas_, Captain Hutton says: "It is common at 5,500 feet at
+Mussoorie, and in the Dehra Doon; it is also found in some of the deep
+warm glens of the outer hills. It is also common at Almorah, where the
+larva feeds almost exclusively upon the 'Kilmorah' bush or _Berberis
+asiatica_; while at Mussoorie it will not touch that plant, but feeds
+exclusively upon the large milky leaves of _Falconeria insignis_.
+The worm is, perhaps, more easily reared than any other of the wild
+bombycidæ."
+
+I will now quote from letters received from one of my correspondents in
+Ceylon, a gentleman of great experience and knowledge in sericulture.
+
+In a letter dated 24th August, 1881, my correspondent says: "The Atlas
+moth seems to be a near relation of the Cynthia, and would probably feed
+on the Ailantus. Here it feeds on the cinnamon and a great number of
+other trees of widely different species; but the tree on which I
+have kept it most successfully in a domestic state is the _Milnea
+roxburghiana_, a handsome tree, with dark-green ternate leaves, which
+keep fresh long after being detached from the tree. I do not think the
+cocoon can ever be reeled, as the thread usually breaks when it comes
+to the open end. I have tried to reel a great many Atlas cocoons, but
+always found the process too tedious and troublesome for practical use.
+
+"The Mylitta (Tusser) is a more hardy species than the Atlas, and I have
+had no difficulty in domesticating it. Here it feeds on the cashew-nut
+tree, on the so-called almond of this country (_Terminalia catappa_),
+which is a large tree entirely different from the European almond, and
+on many other trees. Most of the trees whose leaves turn red when about
+to fall seem to suit it, but it is not confined to these. In the case of
+the Atlas moth, I discovered one thing which may be well worth knowing,
+and that was, that with cocoons brought to the seaside after the larvæ
+had been reared in the Central Provinces, in a temperature ten or twelve
+degrees colder, the moths emerged in from ten to twenty days after the
+formation of the cocoon. The duration of the _pupa_ stage in this, and
+probably in other species, therefore, depends upon the temperature in
+which the larvæ have lived, as well as the degree of heat in which the
+cocoons are kept; and in transporting cocoons from India to Europe, I
+think it will be found that the moths are less liable to be prematurely
+forced out by the heat of the Red Sea when the larvæ have been reared in
+a warm climate than when they have been reared in a cold one.
+
+"I do not agree with the opinion expressed in one of your reports, that
+the short duration of the larva stage, caused by a high temperature, has
+the effect of diminishing the size of the cocoons, because the Atlas
+and Tusser cocoons produced at the sea-level here are quite as large as
+those found in the Central Provinces at elevations of three thousand
+feet or more. According to the treatise on the "Silk Manufacture," in
+"Lardner's Cyclopedia," the Chinese are of opinion that one drachm
+of mulberry silkworms' eggs will produce 25 ounces of silk if the
+caterpillars attain maturity within twenty-five days; 20 ounces if the
+commencement of the cocoons be delayed until the twenty-eighth day; and
+only 10 ounces if it be delayed until between the thirtieth and fortieth
+day. If this is correct, a short-lived larva stage must, instead of
+causing small cocoons, produce just the contrary effect."
+
+In another letter, dated November 25, 1881, my correspondent says: "I am
+sorry that you have not had better success in the rearing of your
+larvæ, but you should not despair. It is possible that the choice of an
+improper food-plant may have as much to do with failures as the coldness
+and dampness of the English climate. I lost many thousands of Atlas
+caterpillars before I found out the proper tree to keep them on in a
+domesticated state; and when I did attain partial success, I could
+not keep them for more than one generation, till I found the _Milnea
+roxburghiana_ to be their proper food plant. I do not know the proper
+food-plant of the Mylitta (Tusser), but I have succeeded very well with
+it, as it is a more hardy species than the Atlas. Though a Bombyx be
+polyphagous in a state of nature, yet I think most species have a tree
+proper to themselves, on which they are more at home than on any
+other plant. I should like, if you could find out from some your
+correspondents in India, on what species of tree Mylitta cocoons are
+found in the largest numbers, and what is about the greatest number
+found on a single tree. The Mylitta is common enough here, but there
+does not seem to be any kind of tree here on which the cocoons are to be
+found in greater numbers than twos and threes; and there must be some
+tree in India on which the cocoons are to be found in much greater
+plenty, because they could not otherwise be collected in sufficient
+quantity for manufacturing purposes. The Atlas is here found on twenty
+or more different kinds of trees, but a hundred or a hundred and fifty
+cocoons or larvæ may be found on a single tree of _Milnea roxburghiana_,
+while they are to be found only singly, or in twos and threes, on any
+other tree that I know of. The Atlas and Mylitta seem to be respectively
+the Indian relations of the Cynthia and Pernyi. It is, therefore,
+probable that the Ailantus would be the most suitable European tree for
+the Atlas, and the oak for the Mylitta."
+
+_Attacus mylitta_ (_Antheræa paphia_).--I did not receive a single
+cocoon of this species for the season 1881. My stock consisted of seven
+cocoons, from the lot received from Calcutta at the end of February,
+1880. Five were female, and two male cocoons; one of the latter died,
+thus reducing the number to six. The moths emerged as follows: One
+female on the 21st of June, one female on the 26th, one female on the
+28th, one female on the 1st of July, and one male on the 3d of August;
+the latter emerging thirty-four days too late to be of any use for
+rearing purposes. The last female moth emerged, I think, about the end
+of September. These cocoons had hibernated twice, as has been the case
+with other Indian species. I had Indian cocoons which hibernated even
+three times.
+
+_Attacus cynthia_, from the province of Kumaon.--With the Atlas cocoons,
+a large quantity of Cynthia cocoons were collected in the province
+of Kumaon. Both species had, no doubt, fed on the same trees; as the
+Cynthia, like the Atlas cocoons, were all inclosed in leaves of the
+_Berberis vulgaris_, which shows that Cynthia is also a polyphagous
+species. It is already known that it feeds on several species of trees,
+besides the ailantus, such as the laburnum, lilac, cherry, and, I think,
+also on the castor-oil plant; the common barberry has, therefore, to be
+added to the above food plants.
+
+These Kumaon Cynthia cocoons were somewhat smaller and much darker in
+color than those of the acclimatized Cynthia reared on the ailantus. The
+moths of this wild Indian Cynthia were also of a richer color than those
+of the cultivated species in Europe.
+
+During the summer 1881, I saw cocoons of my own Cynthia race obtained
+from worms which had been reared on the laburnum tree. These cocoons
+were, as far as I can remember, of a yellowish or saffron color; which
+I had never seen before. This difference in the color of the cocoon was
+very likely produced by the change of food, although it has been stated,
+and I think it may be quite correct, that with many species of native
+lepidoptera the change of food-plants does not produce any difference of
+color in the insects obtained. With respect to the Cynthia worms reared
+on the laburnum instead of the ailantus, it may be that the moths, which
+will emerge from the yellow cocoons, will be similar to those obtained
+from cocoons spun by worms bred on the ailantus, and that the only
+difference will be in the color of the cocoons.
+
+The Kumaon Cynthia cocoons, as I found it to be the case with Indian
+species introduced for the first time into Europe, did not produce moths
+at the same time, nor as regularly as the acclimatized species. The
+moths emerged as follows: One female on the 22d of July; one female on
+the 25th; one male on the 3d August; one female on the 19th; one male on
+the 28th of August; one male on the 2d September; one female on the 3d.
+A pairing was obtained with the latter two. Two males emerged on the 4th
+of September; one male on the 6th; one male and one female on the 22d;
+one female on the 23d; and one female on the 25th of September. Five
+cocoons, which did not produce any moths, contain pupæ, which are still
+in perfect condition; and the moths will no doubt emerge next summer
+(1882). As seen in my note, a pairing of this wild Indian Cynthia took
+place; this was from the evening of the 4th to the 5th of September. The
+eggs laid by the female moth were deposited in a most curious way, in
+smaller or larger quantities, but all forming perfect triangles. These
+eggs I gave to a florist who has been very successful in the rearing
+of silk-producing and other larvæ; telling him to rear the Cynthia on
+lilacs grown in pots and placed in a hot-house, which was done. The
+worms, which hatched in a few days, as they were placed in a hot-house,
+thrived wonderfully well, and I might say they thrived too well, as they
+grew so fast and became so voracious that the growth of the lilac trees
+could not keep pace with the growth of the worms. These, at the fourth
+stage, became so large that the foliage was entirely devoured, and, of
+course, the consequence was that all the worms were starved. I only
+heard of the result of that experiment long after the death of the
+larvæ; otherwise I should have suggested the use of another plant after
+the destruction of the foliage of the lilacs; the privet (_Ligustrum
+vulgare_) might have been tried, and success obtained with it.
+
+Of such species as _Attacus pyri_, of Central Europe, and _Attacus
+pernyi_, the North Chinese oak silkworm, which I have mentioned in my
+previous reports, and bred every season for several years, I shall only
+say that I never could rear Pyri in the open air in London, up to the
+formation of the cocoon. As to Pernyi, I had, in 1881, an immense
+quantity of splendid moths, from which I obtained the largest quantity
+of ova I ever had of this species. I had many thousands of fertile ova
+of Pernyi, which I was unable to distribute. Many schoolboys reared
+Pernyi worms, but with what success I do not yet know. The number of
+fertile ova obtained from Pyri moths was also more considerable than in
+former years, which was due partly to the good quality of the pupæ, and
+partly to the very favorable weather in June, at the time the pairings
+of the moths took place.
+
+Leaving these, I now come to the North American species.
+
+_Telea polyphemus_.--As I have stated in former years, this is the best
+North American silkworm, producing a closed cocoon, somewhat smaller
+than that of Pernyi, but the silk seems as good as that of Pernyi.
+
+The cocoons of Polyphemus I had in 1881 were smaller and inferior in
+quality to those I had before. Those received in 1878 and 1879 were
+considerably finer and larger than those which were sent in 1880 and
+1881; besides, they were sent in much larger quantities. The cocoons
+received this year (1882) are finer than those of 1881, but yet they
+cannot be compared with those of 1878 and 1879.
+
+With about sixty cocoons of _Telea polyphemus_ I only obtained three
+pairings, which I attribute solely to the weakness of the moths, as
+the weather was all that could be desired for the pairings. The moths
+emerged from the 1st of June to the 20th of July. One male moth emerged
+on the 7th September. This latter was one from a small number of cocoons
+received from Alabama; the other cocoons of the same race had emerged at
+the same time as the cocoons from the Northern States. In the Northern
+States the species is single-brooded; in the Southern States it is
+double-brooded.
+
+The larvæ of Polyphemus can be bred in the open air in England, almost
+as easily as those of Pernyi, and even Cynthia; they will pass through
+their five stages and spin their cocoons on the trees, unless the
+weather should be unexceptionally cold and wet, as was the case during
+the month of August, 1881, when the larvæ had reached their full size;
+they were reared this year on the nut-tree, and some on the oak. The
+species is extremely polyphagous, and will feed well on oak, birch,
+chestnut, beech, willow, nut, etc.
+
+The moth of Polyphemus is very beautiful, and, as in some other species,
+varies in its shades of color. The larva is of a transparent green, of
+extreme beauty; the head is light brown; without any black dots, as in
+Pernyi; the spines are pink, and at the base of each of them there is a
+brilliant metallic spot. When the sun shines on them the larvæ seem to
+be covered with diamonds. These metallic spots at the base of the spines
+are also seen on Pernyi, Yama mai, Mylitta, and other species of the
+genus Antheræa, all having a closed cocoon, but none of these have so
+many as Polyphemus.
+
+The cocoons of the species of the genus Actias are closed, but the larvæ
+have not the metallic spots of the species of the genus Antheræa.
+
+_Samia Gloveri_.--Three North American silk-producing bombyces, very
+closely allied, have been mentioned in my previous reports; they are;
+_Samia ceanothi_, from California; _Samia gloveri_, from Utah and
+Arizona; and _Samia cecropia_, commonly found in most of the Northern
+States--the latter is the best and largest silk producer. Crossings of
+these species took places in 1880, and, as I stated before, the ova
+obtained from a long pairing between a Ceanothi female with a Gloveri
+male, were the only ones which were fertile. The Gloveri cocoons
+received in 1880 were of a very inferior quality, and produced moths
+from which no pairings could be obtained, although some crossings took
+place. In 1881, the Gloveri cocoons, on the contrary, produced fine,
+healthy moths; yet only five pairings could be obtained, with about one
+hundred cocoons. Besides these five pairings, a quantity of fertile
+ova were obtained by the crossings of _S. gloveri_ (female) with _S.
+cecropia_ (male), and Cecropia (female) with Gloveri (male). No success,
+so far as I know, was obtained with the rearing of the hybrid larvæ; the
+rearings of the larvæ of pure Gloveri were also, I think, a failure,
+only one correspondent having been successful; but some correspondents
+have not yet made the result of their experiments known to me. The larvæ
+of _Samia cecropia, S. gloveri_, and _S. ceanothi_, are very much alike;
+and hardly any difference can be observed in the first two stages. In
+the third and fourth stages, the larvæ of _S. cecropia_ and _S. gloveri_
+are also nearly alike; the principal difference between these two
+species and _S. cecropia_ being that the tubercles on the back are of a
+uniform color--orange-red, or yellow--while on Cecropia the first four
+dorsal tubercles are red, and the rest yellow. The tubercles on the
+sides are blue on the three species.
+
+The larvæ of the hybrids _Gloveri-cecropia_ were, as far as I could
+observe, like those of Cecropia, but I noticed some with six red
+tubercles on the back instead of four, as on Cecropia. They were reared
+on plum, apple, and _Salix caprea_; in the open air.
+
+The larvæ of _Samia gloveri_ were reared, during the first four stages
+on a wild plum-tree, then on _Salix, caprea_, and I reproduce the notes
+taken on this species, which I bred this year (1881) for the first time.
+
+Gloveri moths emerged from the 15th of May to the end of June; five
+pairings took place as follows: 1st, 4th, 9th, 24th, and 26th of June.
+First stage--larvæ quite black. Second stage--larvæ orange, with black
+spines. Third stage--dorsal spines, orange-red; spines on sides blue.
+Fourth stage--dorsal spines, orange or yellow, spines on the sides blue;
+body light blue on the back, and greenish yellow on the sides; head,
+green; legs, yellow. Fifth and sixth stage--larvæ nearly the same;
+tubercles on the back yellow, the first four having a black ring at the
+base; side tubercles ivory-white, with a dark-blue base.
+
+The above-mentioned American species, like most other silk-producing
+bombyces, were bred in the open air; but besides these, I reared three
+other species of American bombyces in the house, under glass, and with
+the greatest success. These are: _Hyperchiria io_, a beautiful species
+mentioned in my report for the year 1879; _Orgyia leucostigma_, from ova
+received on December 29, 1880, from Madison, Wis., which hatched on the
+27th of May, 1881.
+
+The third American species reared under glass is the following very
+interesting bombyx: _Ceratocampa (Eacles) imperialis_. The pupæ of
+this species are rough, and armed with small, sharp points at all the
+segments; the last segment having a thick, straight, and bifid tail. The
+moths, which measure from four to about six inches in expanse of wings,
+are bright yellow, with large patches and round spots of reddish-brown,
+with a purple gloss; besides these patches and round spots, the wings
+are covered with small dark dots. The male moth is much more blotched
+than the female, and although of a smaller size, is much more showy than
+the female.
+
+With twenty-four pupæ of Imperialis I obtained nineteen moths from the
+21st of June to the 19th of July; five pupæ died. Two pairings took
+place; the first from the evening of the 13th to the morning of the
+14th; the second from the evening of the 15th to the morning of the 16th
+of July.
+
+The ova, which are about the size of those of Yama-mai, Pernyi, or
+Mylitta, are rather flat and concave on one side, of an amber-yellow
+color and transparent, like those of sphingidæ. When the larvæ have
+absorbed the yellow liquid in the egg, and are fully developed; they can
+be seen through the shell of the egg, which is white or colorless when
+the larva has come out.
+
+The larvæ of Imperialis, which have six stages, commenced to hatch on
+the 31st of July; the second stage commenced on the 7th of August; the
+third, on the 17th; the fourth, on the 29th of August; the fifth, on
+the 18th of September; and the sixth, on the 1st of October. The larvæ
+commenced to pupate on 13th of October.
+
+The larvæ of this curious species vary considerably in color. Some are
+of a yellowish color, others are brown and tawny, others are black or
+nearly black. My correspondent in Georgia, who bred this species the
+same season as I did, in 1881, had some of the larvæ that were green. In
+all the stages the larvæ have five conspicuous spines or horns; two on
+the third segment, two on the fourth, and one on the last segment but
+one; this is taking the head as the first segment with regard to the
+first four spines These spines are rough and covered with sharp points
+all round, and their extremities are fork-like. In the first three
+stages they are horny; in the last three stages these spines are fleshy,
+and much shorter in proportion than they are in the first three
+stages. The color of the spines in the last three stages is coral-red,
+yellowish, or black. In the fifth and sixth stages the spine on the last
+segment but one is very short.
+
+Here are a few and short notes from my book:
+
+1st stage. Larvæ, about one-third of an inch; head, brown, shiny, and
+globulous.
+
+2d stage. Larvæ, dark-brown, almost black; spines, white at the base,
+and black at the extremities; head shiny and light brown.
+
+3d stage. Larve, fine black; head black; white hairs on the back;
+spines, whitish, buff, or yellowish at the base, and black at the
+extremities; other larvæ of a brown color.
+
+4th stage. Larvæ, black granulated with white; long white hairs; horns,
+brown-orange with white tips; on each segment two brown spots. Spiracles
+well marked with outer circle, brown, then black; white and black dot in
+the center. Anal segment with brown ribs, the intervals black with white
+dots; head shining, black with two brown bands on the face, forming a
+triangle. Other larvæ in fourth stage, velvety black, with coral-red
+spines; others with black spines.
+
+5th stage. Larvæ, entirely black, with showy eye-like spiracles,
+polished black head; other larvæ having the head brown and black. Larvæ
+covered with long white hair; spines black or red. No difference noticed
+between the fifth and sixth stages.
+
+One larva on fourth stage was different from all others, and was
+described at the British Museum by Mr. W. F. Kirby as follows: "Larva
+reddish-brown, sparingly clothed with long slender white hairs, with
+four reddish stripes on the face, two rows of red spots on the back,
+spiracles surrounded with yellow, black and red rings; legs red, prolegs
+black, spotted with red. On segments three and four are four long
+coral-red fleshy-branched spines, two on each segment, below which, on
+each side, are two rudimentary ones just behind the head; in front of
+segment two are four similar rudimentary orange spines or tubercles;
+last segment black, strongly granulated and edges triangularly above and
+at the sides, with coral-red; several short rudimentary fleshy spines
+rising from the red portion; the last segment but one is reddish above,
+with a short red spine in the middle, and the one before it has a long
+coral-red spine in the middle similar to those of segments three and
+four, but shorter"
+
+As soon as my Imperialis larvæ had hatched, I gave them various kinds of
+foliage, plane-tree, oak, pine, sallow, etc. At first they did not touch
+any kind of foliage, or they did not seem to touch any; and I was afraid
+I should be unable to rear them; but on the second or third day of their
+existence, they made up their minds and decided upon eating the foliage
+of some of the European trees I had offered them. They attacked oak,
+sallow, and pine, but did not touch the plane-tree leaves. In America,
+the larvæ of Imperialis feed on button-wood, which is the American
+plane-tree (_Platanus occidentalis_), yet they did not take to _Platanus
+orientalis_. After a little time I reduced the foliage to oak and sallow
+branches, and ultimately gave them the sallow (_Salix caprea_) only, on
+which they thrived very well. I was pleased with this success; as I had
+previously read in a volume of the "Naturalist's Library" a description
+of _Ceratocampa imperialis_, which ends as follows: "The caterpillars
+are not common, and are the most difficult to bring to perfection in
+confinement, as they will not eat in that situation; and, even if they
+change into a chrysalis, they die afterward."
+
+Before I finish with _C. imperialis_, I must mention a peculiar fact.
+During the first stage, and, I think, also during the second, several
+larvæ disappeared without leaving any traces. I also saw two smaller
+larvæ held tight by the hind claspers of two larger ones. The larvæ thus
+held and pressed were perfectly dead when I observed them, and I removed
+them. My impression then was that these larvae were carnivorous, not
+from this last fact alone, as I had previously observed it with larvæ
+of Catocalæ when they are too crowded, but from the fact that some had
+disappeared entirely from the glass under which they were confined. I
+began to reduce their numbers, and put six only under each glass, so as
+to be able to watch them better. Whether I had made a mistake or not
+previously to this I do not exactly know; but from this moment the
+larvae behaved in a most exemplary manner, especially when they became
+larger. They crawled over each other's backs without the least sign of
+spite or animosity, even when they were in sleep, in which case larvæ
+are generally very sensitive and irritable, all were of a most pacific
+nature. It is, therefore, with the greatest pleasure that, for want of
+sufficient evidence, I withdraw this serious charge of cannibalism which
+I first intended to bring against them.
+
+From what has been said respecting the rearing of exotic silk-producing
+bombyces, especially tropical species, it must have been observed
+that several difficulties, standing in the way of success, have to be
+overcome. The moths of North American species emerge regularly enough
+during the months of May, June, or July, but Indian and other tropical
+species may emerge at any time of the year, if the weather is mild, as
+has been the case during this unusually mild winter of 1881-1882. From
+the end of December to the present time (March 14, 1882) moths of four
+species of Indian silk-producers, especially _Antheræa roylei_ and
+_Actias selene_, have constantly emerged, but only one or two at a time.
+These moths emerged from cocoons received in December and January last.
+
+It is only when these tropical species shall have been already reared in
+Europe that the emergence of the moths will be regular; then they will
+be single-brooded in Northern or Central Europe, and some will very
+likely become double-brooded in Southern Europe. But when just imported
+the moths of these tropical species will always be uncertain and
+irregular in their emergence; hence the importance of having a
+sufficient number of cocoons so as to meet this difficulty, i.e., the
+loss of the moths that emerge prematurely or irregularly.
+
+Before I conclude, I shall repeat what I already stated in a previous
+report, that the sending of live cocoons and pupæ from India and other
+distant countries to Europe, can easily be done, so that they will
+arrive alive and in good condition, if care be taken that the boxes
+containing these live cocoons and pupæ should not be left in the sun or
+near a fire (which has been the case before), and that they should at
+once be put in a cool place or in the ice-room of the steamer. The
+cocoons and pupæ should be sent from October to March or April,
+according to distance, and it is most important to write on the cases,
+"Living silkworm cocoons or pupæ, the case to be placed in the ice
+room."
+
+By taking this simple precaution, live cocoons and pupæ, when newly
+formed, can be safely sent from very distant countries of Europe.
+
+To continue these interesting and useful studies, I shall always be glad
+to buy any number of live cocoons, or exchange them for other species,
+if preferable.
+
+ALFRED WAILLY.
+
+110 Clapham Road, London, S.W.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MOSQUITO OIL.
+
+
+A correspondent from Sheepshead Bay, a place celebrated for the size of
+its mosquitoes and the number of its amateur fishermen, recommends the
+following as a very good mixture for anointing the face and hands while
+fishing:
+
+  Oil of tar.           1 ounce.
+  Olive oil.            1 ounce.
+  Oil of pennyroyal.    ½ ounce.
+  Spirit of camphor.    ½ ounce.
+  Glycerine.            ½ ounce.
+  Carbolic acid.        2 drachms.
+
+Mix. Shake well before using.--_Drug. Circular_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS.
+
+
+This most remarkable structure, in the province of the same name, adorns
+the city of Burgos, 130 miles north of Madrid. The corner stone was laid
+July 20, A.D. 1221, by Fernando III., and his Queen Beatrice, assisted
+by Archbishop Mauricio. The world is indebted to Mauricio for the
+selection of the site, and for the general idea and planning of what he
+intended should be, and in fact now is, the finest temple of worship in
+the world. This immense stone structure, embellished with airy columns,
+pointed arches, statues, inscriptions, delicate crestings, and flanked
+by two needles or aerial arrows, rises toward the heavens, a sublime
+invocation of Christian genius.
+
+Illuminated by the morning sun it appears, at a certain distance, as if
+the pyramids were floating in space; further on is seen the marvelous
+dome of the transept, crowned with eight towers of chiseled lace-work,
+over the center of the church.
+
+Pubic worship was held in a portion of the edifice nine years after the
+work was begun; from that time onward for three hundred years, various
+additional portions were completed. On March 4, 1539, the great
+transept, built fifty years previous, fell down; but was soon restored.
+August 16, 1642, at 6½ o'clock, P.M., a furious hurricane overthrew the
+eight little towers that form the exterior corner of the dome; but in
+two years they were replaced, namely July 19, 1644: the same night the
+great bells sounded an alarm of fire, the transept having in some way
+become ignited. The activity of the populace, however, prevented the
+loss of the edifice, which for a time was in great danger.
+
+The first architect publicly mentioned in the archives of the edifice
+was the Master Enrique. He also directed the work of the Cathedral of
+Leon. He died July 10, 1277. The second architect was Juan Perez, who
+died in 1296, and was buried in the cloister, under the cathedral. He is
+believed to have been either the son or brother of the celebrated Master
+Pedro Perez, who designed the Cathedral of Toledo, and who died in 1299.
+The third architect of the Cathedral of Burgos was Pedro Sanchez, who
+directed the work in 1384; after him followed Juan Sanchez de Molina,
+Martin Fernandez, the three Colonias, Juan de Vallejo, Diego de Siloe,
+the elder Nicolas de Vergara, Matienzo, Pieredonda, Gil, Regines, and
+others. It is worthy of note that a number of Moorish architects were
+employed on the work during the 14th and 15th centuries, such as
+Mohomad, Yunce, the Master Hali, the Master Mahomet de Aranda, the
+Master Yunza de Carrion, the Master Carpenter Brahen. Among the figure
+sculptors employed were Juan Sanchez de Fromesta, the Masters Gil and
+Copin, the famous Felipe de Vigardi, Juan de Lancre, Anton de Soto, Juan
+de Villareal, Pedro de Colindres, and many others. Our engraving is from
+a recent number of _La Ilustracion Espanola y Americana_.
+
+[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS, SPAIN.--PHOTOGRAPH BY DE
+LAURENT.--DRWAWING BY M. HEBERT.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PANAMA CANAL.
+
+By MANUEL EISSLER, M.E., of San Francisco, Cal.
+
+I.
+
+HISTORICAL NOTES.
+
+
+When Cortez, in the year 1530, made the observation that the two great
+oceans could be seen from the peaks of mountains, he, in those remote
+days, preoccupied himself with the question to cut through the
+Cordilleras.
+
+Therefore, the idea of an interoceanic canal is by no means a modern
+one, as travelers and navigators observed that there was a great
+depression among the hills of the Isthmus of Panama. As Professor T.E.
+Nurse, of the U.S.N., says in his memoirs:
+
+"This problem of interoceanic communication has been justly said to
+possess not only practical value, but historical grandeur. It clearly
+links itself back to the era of the conquest of Cortez, three and a half
+centuries." [1] It is a problem which has been left for our modern era
+to solve, but nevertheless its history is thereby rendered still more
+interesting, having needed so many centuries to bring it to an issue.
+
+[Footnote 1: From Prof. Nurse's historical essay. See Survey of
+Nicaragua Canal, by Com. Lull.]
+
+Spain, which acquired through her Columbus a new empire, lying near, as
+it was supposed, to the riches of Asia, could not be indifferent, from
+the moment of her discoveries, to the means of crossing these lands to
+yet richer ones beyond.
+
+India, from the days of Alexander and of the geographers, Mela, Strabo,
+and Ptolemy, was the land of promise, the home of the spices, the
+inexhaustible fountain of wealth. The old routes of commerce thither had
+been closed one by one to the Christians; the overland trade had fallen
+into the hands of the Arabs; and at the fall of Constantinople, 1453,
+the commerce of the Black Sea and of the Bosphorus, the last of the old
+routes to the East, finally failed the Christian world. Yet even beyond
+the fame of the East, which tradition had brought down from Greek and
+Roman, much more had the crusaders kindled for Asia (Cathay) and its
+riches an ardor not easily suppressed in men's minds.
+
+The error of the Spanish Admiral in supposing that the eastern shores
+of Asia extended 240 degrees east of Spain, or to the meridian of
+the modern San Diego, in California--this error, insisted on in his
+dispatches and adopted and continued by his followers, still further
+animated the earlier Spanish sovereigns and the men whom they sent into
+the New World to reach Asia by a short and easy route.
+
+Nobody in Europe dreamt that Columbus had discovered a new continent,
+and when Balbao, in 1513, discovered the South Sea, then it was known
+that Asia lay beyond, and navigators directed their course there. On
+his deathbed, in 1506, Columbus still held to his delusion that he had
+reached Zipanga, Japan. In 1501 he was exploring the coast of Veragua,
+in Central America, still looking for the Ganges, and announcing his
+being informed on this coast of a sea which would bear ships to the
+mouth of that river, while about the same time the Cabots, under Henry
+VII., were taking possession of Newfoundland, believing it to be part of
+the island coast of China.
+
+Although these were grave blunders in geography and in navigation, the
+discoveries really made in the rich tropical zones, the acquirement of
+a new world, and the rich products continually reaching Europe from it,
+for a time aroused Spain from her lethargy. The world opened east and
+west. The new routes poured their spices, silks, and drugs through new
+channels into all the Teutonic countries. The strong purposes of having
+near access to the East were deepened and perpetuated doubly strong, by
+the certainties before men's eyes of what had been attained.
+
+Balbao, in 1513, gained from a height on the Isthmus of Panama the first
+proof of its separation from Asia; and Magellan enters the South Sea
+at the southern extremity of the country, now first proven to be thus
+separate and a continent. Men in those days began to think that creation
+was doubled, and that such discovered lands must be separate from India,
+China, and Japan. And the very successes of the Portuguese under Vasco
+da Gama, bringing from their eastern course the expectancy of Asia's
+wealth, intensely excited the Spaniards to renew their western search.
+
+The Portuguese, led around the Cape of Good Hope, had brought home vast
+treasures from the East, while the Spanish discoverers, as yet, had not
+reached the countries either of Montezuma or of the Inca. Their success
+"troubled the sleep of the Spaniards."
+
+Everything, then, of personal ambition and national pride, the thirst
+for gold, the zeal of religious proselytism, and the cold calculations
+of state policy, now concurred in the disposition to sacrifice what
+Spain already had of most value on the American shores in order to seize
+upon a greater good, the Indies, still supposed to be near at hand. And
+since it was now certain that the new lands were not themselves Asia,
+the next aim was to find the secret of the narrow passage across
+them which must lead thither. The very configuration of the isthmus
+strengthened the belief in the existence of such a passage by the number
+of its openings, which seemed to invite entrance in the expectancy that
+some one of them must extend across the narrow breadth of land.
+
+For this the Spanish government, in 1514, gave secret orders to
+D'Avilla, Governor of Castila del Oro, and to Juan de Solis, the
+navigator, to determine whether Castila del Oro were an island, and to
+send to Cuba a chart of the coast, if any strait were possible. For
+this, De Solis visited Nicaragua and Honduras; and later, led far to the
+south, perished in the La Plata. For this, Magellan entered the straits,
+which, strangely enough, he affirmed before setting out, that he "would
+enter," since he "had seen them marked out on the geographer Martin
+Behaim's globe." For this, Cortez sent out his expeditions on both
+coasts, exposing his own life and treasure, and sending home to the
+emperor, in his second relation, a map of the entire Gulf of Mexico
+(Dispatch from Cortez to Charles V., October 15, 1524). For this great
+purpose, and in full expectancy of success in it, the whole coast of
+the New World on each side, from Newfoundland on the northeast, curving
+westward on the south, around the whole sweep of the Gulf of Mexico,
+thence to Magellan's Straits, and thence through them up the Pacific to
+the Straits of Behring, was searched and researched with diligence.
+"Men could not get accustomed," says Humboldt, "to the idea that the
+continent extended uninterruptedly both so far north and south." Hence
+all these large, numerous, and persevering expeditions by the European
+powers.
+
+Among them, by priority of right and by her energy, was Spain. The great
+emperor was urgent on the conqueror of Mexico, and on all in subordinate
+positions in New Spain, to solve the secret of the strait. All Spain was
+awakened to it. "How majestic and fair was she," says Chevalier, "in the
+sixteenth century; what daring, what heroism and perseverance! Never had
+the world seen such energy, activity, or good fortune. Hers was a will
+that regarded no obstacles. Neither rivers, deserts, nor mountains far
+higher than those in Europe, arrested her people. They built grand
+cities, they drew their fleets, as in a twinkling of the eye, from the
+very forests. A handful of men conquered empires. They seemed a race of
+giants or demi-gods. One would have supposed that all the work necessary
+to bind together climates and oceans would have been done at the word of
+the Spaniards as by enchantment, and since nature had not left a passage
+through the center of America, no matter, so much the better for
+the glory of the human race; they would make it up by artificial
+communication. What, indeed, was that for men like them? It were done
+at a word. Nothing else was left for them to conquer, and the world was
+becoming too small for them."
+
+Certainly, had Spain remained what she then was, what had been in vain
+sought from nature would have been supplied by man. A canal or several
+canals would have been built to take the place of the long-desired
+strait. Her men of science urged it. In 1551, Gomara, the author of the
+"History of the Indies," proposed the union of the oceans by three of
+the very same lines toward which, to this hour, the eye turns with hope.
+
+"It is true," said Gomara, "that mountains obstruct these passes, but if
+there are mountains there are also hands; let but the resolve be made,
+there will be no want of means; the Indies, to which the passage will
+be made, will supply them. To a king of Spain, with the wealth of the
+Indies at his command, when the object to be obtained is the spice
+trade, what is possible is easy.
+
+But the sacred fire suddenly burned itself out in Spain. The peninsula
+had for its ruler a prince who sought his glory in smothering free
+thought among his own people, and in wasting his immense resources in
+vain efforts to repress it also outside of his own dominions through all
+Europe. From that hour, Spain became benumbed and estranged from all
+the advances of science and art, by means of which other nations, and
+especially England, developed their true greatness.
+
+Even after France had shown, by her canal of the south, that boats could
+ascend and pass the mountain crests, it does not appear that the
+Spanish government seriously wished to avail itself of a like means of
+establishing any communication between her sea of the Antilles and the
+South Sea. The mystery enveloping the deliberations of the council of
+the Indies has not always remained so profound that we could not know
+what was going on in that body. The Spanish government afterward opened
+up to Humboldt free access to its archives, and in these he found
+several memoirs on the possibility of a union between the two oceans;
+but he says that in no one of them did he find the main point, the
+height of the elevations on the isthmus, sufficiently cleared up, and
+he could not fail to remark that the memoirs were exclusively French or
+English. Spain herself gave it no thought. Since the glorious age of
+Balbao among the people, indeed, the project of a canal was in every
+one's thoughts. In the very wayside talks, in the inns of Spain, when a
+traveler from the New World chanced to pass, after making him tell of
+the wonders of Lima and Mexico, of the death of the Inca, Atahualpa,
+and the bloody defeat of the Aztecs, and after asking his opinion of El
+Dorado, the question was always about the two oceans, and what great
+things would happen if they could succeed in joining them.
+
+During the whole of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Spain
+had need of the best mode of conveyance for her treasures across the
+isthmus. Yet those from Peru came by the miserable route from Panama to
+the deadliest of climates. Porto Bello and her European wares for
+her colonies toiled up the Chagres river, while the roughest of
+communication farther north connected the Chimalapa and the Guasacoalcos
+in Mexico, and the trade there was limited sternly to but one port on
+each side. As late as Humboldt's visit, in 1802, when remarking upon the
+"unnatural modes of communication" by which, through painful delays, the
+immense treasures of the New World passed from Acapulco, Guayaquil,
+and Lima, to Spain, he says: "These will soon cease whenever an active
+government, willing to protect commerce, shall construct a good road
+from Panama to Porto Bello. The aristocratic nonchalance of Spain, and
+her fear to open to strangers the way to the countries explored for her
+own profit, only kept those countries closed." The court forbade, on
+pain of death, the use of plans at different times proposed. They
+wronged their own colonies by representing the coasts as dangerous and
+the rivers impassable. On the presentation of a memoir for improving the
+route through Tehuantepec, by citizens of Oaxaca, as late as 1775,
+an order was issued forbidding the subject to be mentioned. The
+memorialists were censured as intermeddlers, and the viceroy fell under
+the sovereign's displeasure for having seemed to favor the plans.
+
+The great isthmus was, however, further explored by the Spanish
+government for its own purposes; the recesses were traversed, and the
+lines of communication which we know to-day were then noted.
+
+In addition to the fact that comparatively little was explored north or
+south of that which early became the main highway, the Panama route,
+there is confirmation here of the truth that Spain concealed and even
+falsified much of her generally accurately made surveys. No stronger
+proof of this need be asked than that which Alcedo gives in connection
+with the proposal by Gogueneche, the Biscayan pilot, to open
+communication by the Atrato and the Napipi. "The Atrato," says the
+historian, "is navigable for many leagues, but the navigation of it is
+prohibited under pain of death, without the exception of any person
+whatever."
+
+The Isthmus of Nicaragua has always invited serious consideration for
+a ship canal route by its very marked physical characteristics, among
+which is chiefly its great depression between two nearly parallel ranges
+of hills, which depression is the basin of its large lake, a natural and
+all-sufficient feeder for such a canal.
+
+In 1524 a squadron of discovery sent out by Cortez on the coast of the
+South Sea, announced the existence of a fresh water sea at only
+three leagues from the coast; a sea which, they said, rose and fell
+alternately, communicating, it was believed, with the Sea of the North.
+Various reconnoissances were therefore made, under the idea that here
+the easy transit would be established between Spain and the spice lands
+beyond.
+
+It was even laid down on some of the old maps, that this open
+communication by water existed from sea to sea; while later maps
+represented a river, under the name of Rio Partido, as giving one of
+its branches to the Pacific Ocean and the other to Lake Nicaragua. An
+exploration by the engineer, Bautista Antonelli, under the orders of
+Philip II., corrected the false idea of an open strait.
+
+In the eighteenth century a new cause arose for jealousy of her
+neighbors and for keeping her northern part of the isthmus from their
+view. In the years 1779 and 1780 the serious purposes of the English
+government for the occupancy of Nicaragua, awakened the solicitudes of
+the Spanish government for this section. The English colonels, Hodgson
+and Lee, had secretly surveyed the lake and portions of the country,
+forwarding their plans to London, as the basis of an armed incursion,
+to renew such as had already been made by the superintendent of the
+Mosquito coast, forty years before, when, crossing the isthmus, he took
+possession of Realejo, on the Pacific, seeking to change its name to
+Port Edward. In 1780, Captain, afterward Lord Nelson, under orders from
+Admiral Sir Peter Parker, convoyed a force of two thousand men to San
+Juan de Nicaragua, for the conquest of the country.
+
+In his dispatches, Nelson said: "In order to give facility to the great
+object of government, I intend to possess the lake of Nicaragua, which,
+for the present, may be looked upon as the inland Gibraltar of Spanish
+America. As it commands the only water pass between the oceans, its
+situation must ever render it a principal post to insure passage to the
+Southern Ocean, and by our possession of it Spanish America is severed
+into two."
+
+The passage of San Juan was found to be exceedingly difficult; for the
+seamen, although assisted by the Indians from Bluetown, scarcely forced
+their boats up the shoals. Nelson bitterly regretted that the expedition
+had not arrived in January, in place of the close of the dry season. It
+was a disastrous failure, costing the English the lives of one thousand
+five hundred men, and nearly losing to them their Nelson.
+
+At this period, Charles III., of Spain, sent a commission to explore the
+country. These commissioners reported unfavorably as regarded the route;
+but fearing further intrusion from England, forbade all access to the
+coast; even falsifying and suppressing its charts and permanently
+injuring the navigation of the San Juan and the Colorado by obstructions
+in their beds.
+
+It is, however, a relief here to learn that when Humboldt visited the
+New World, he could say: "The time is passed when Spain, through a
+jealous policy, refused to other nations a thoroughfare across the
+possessions of which they kept the whole world so long in ignorance.
+Accurate maps of the coasts, and even minute plans of military
+positions, are published." It is also true that the Spanish Cortes,
+in 1814, decreed the opening of a canal, a decree deferred and never
+executed.
+
+It was reserved for our century to see this great project carried into
+execution, and it is but just that as a chronicler of events I should
+connect with the Canal of Panama the name of a family who have done much
+to bring the scheme, so to say, into practical execution.
+
+As early as the year 1836, Mr. Joly de Sabla turned his views toward the
+cutting of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. He resided at the time
+on the Island of Guadeloupe, one of the French West India Islands,
+where he possessed large estates. Of a high social position, the
+representative of one of France's ancient and noble families, with large
+means at his disposal and of an enterprising spirit much in advance of
+his time, he was well calculated to carry out such a grand scheme.
+
+He soon set about procuring from the Government of New Granada (now
+Colombia) the necessary grants and concessions, but much time and many
+efforts were spent before these could be brought to a satisfactory
+condition, and it was not until the year 1841 that he could again visit
+the Isthmus, bringing with him this time, on a vessel chartered by him
+for the purpose, a corps of engineers and employes, medical staff, etc.,
+etc. After two years spent in exploring and surveying a country at that
+time very imperfectly known, he returned to Guadeloupe to find his
+residence and most of his estates destroyed by the terrible earthquake
+that visited the island in February, 1843.
+
+Undaunted by this unexpected and severe blow, Mr. De Sabla persisted in
+his efforts, and in the same year obtained from the French government
+the establishment of a Consulate at Panama to insure protection to the
+future canal company, and also the sending of two government engineers
+of high repute (Messrs. Garella and Courtines), to verify the surveys
+already made and complete them.
+
+After receiving the respective reports of Garella and Courtines, Mr.
+De Sabla decided upon first constructing a railway across the Isthmus,
+postponing the cutting of the canal until this indispensable auxiliary
+should have rendered it practicable and profitable. He then presented
+the scheme in that shape to his friends in Paris and London, and formed
+a syndicate of thirteen members, among whom we may recall the names of
+the well known Bankers Caillard of Paris, and Baimbridge of London,
+of Sir John Campbell, then Vice President of the Oriental Steamship
+Company, of Viscount Chabrol de Chameane, and of Courtines, the
+exploring engineer.
+
+A new contract was then entered upon with New Granada in June, 1847, and
+early in 1848, the Syndicate was about to forward to the Isthmus the
+expedition which was to execute the preliminary works, while the company
+was being finally organized in Paris, and its stock placed.
+
+The success of the undertaking seemed to be assured beyond peradventure,
+when the unexpected breaking out of the French revolution in February,
+1848, dashed all hopes to the ground. Several of the prominent
+financiers engaged in the affair, taken by surprise by the suddenness of
+the revolution, had to suspend their payments and of course to withdraw
+from the Panama Canal and railroad scheme. Others withdrew from
+contagious fear and timidity. Finally the term fixed for carrying out
+certain obligations of the contract expired without their fulfillment
+by the company, and the concession was forfeited. Another contract was
+almost immediately applied for and granted with unseemly haste by the
+President of New Granada to Messrs. Aspinwall, Stephens and Chauncey,
+which resulted in the construction of the actual Panama Railroad.
+
+These gentlemen acted fairly in the matter, and in 1849, calling Mr.
+De Sabla to New York, offered him to join them in the new scheme.
+Unfortunately they had decided upon placing the Atlantic terminus of the
+railroad upon the low and swampy mud Island of Manzanillo, while Mr.
+De Sabla insisted on having it on the mainland on the dry and healthy
+northern shore of the Bay of Limon. They could not come to an
+understanding on this point, and Mr. De Sabla, whose experience and
+foresight taught him the dangers that would result to the shipping from
+the unprotected situation of the projected part (now Colon--Aspinwall),
+and who well knew the insalubrity of the malarial swamp constituting
+the Island of Manzanillo, withdrew forever from the undertaking, after
+having devoted to it without any benefit to himself, the best years of
+his life and a large portion of his private means.
+
+One of his sons, Mr. Theodore J. de Sabla, after having actively
+co-operated with Lieutenant Commander Wyse, in the original scheme
+of the present canal company, is now one of Count de Lesseps's
+representatives in the City of New York, and a director of the Panama
+Railroad Company.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED AVERAGING MACHINE.
+
+
+At the recent meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers, in
+this city, a paper on an improved form of the averaging machine was read
+by its inventor, Mr. Wm. S. Auchincloss.
+
+The ingenious method by which the weight of the platform is eliminated
+from the result of the work of the machine was exhibited and explained.
+This is accomplished by counterweights sliding automatically in tubes,
+so that in any position the unloaded platform is always in equilibrium.
+Any combination of representative weights can then be placed on this
+platform at the proper points of the scale. By then drawing the platform
+to its balancing point, the location of the center of gravity will at
+once be indicated on the scale by the pointer over the central trunnion.
+
+The weights may be arranged on a decimal system, with intermediate
+weights for closer working, or they may be made so as to express
+multiples or factors.
+
+Each machine is provided with a number of differing scales, divided
+suitably for various purposes. When the problem is one of time, the
+scale represents months and days; for problems of proportion, the zero
+of the scale is at the center of its length; for problems for the
+location of center of gravity of a system from a fixed point, the zero
+is at the extremity of the scale, etc.
+
+The machine exhibited has sixty-three transverse grooves, which, by
+arrangement of weights, can be made to serve the purposes of two hundred
+and fifty-two grooves.
+
+The machine is 29 inches in length, 9 inches in width, and weighs about
+13 pounds.
+
+With the machine can be found average dates, as, for instance, of
+purchases and of payments extending over irregular periods; also average
+prices, as for "futures," in comman use among cotton brokers. The
+problem of average haul, so often presented to the engineer, can be
+solved with ease and great celerity. Practical examples of the solution
+of these and a number of other problems involving proportions or
+averages were given by the author.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+COMPOUND BEAM ENGINE.
+
+
+The engine represented in Figs. 1 to 4 herewith is intended for a mill,
+and is of 530 to 800 indicated horse-power, the pressure being seven
+atmospheres, and the number of revolutions forty-five per minute. As
+will be seen by the drawing each cylinder is placed in a separate
+foundation plate, the two connecting rods acting upon cranks keyed
+at right angles upon the shaft, W, which carries the drum, T. The
+high-pressure cylinder, C, is 760 mm diameter, the low pressure cylinder
+being 1,220 mm. diameter, and the piston speed 2.28 m. The drum, which
+also fulfills the purpose of a fly wheel, is provided with twenty-eight
+grooves for ropes of 50 mm. diameter. With the exception of the
+cylinders, pistons, valves, and valve chests, the engines are of the
+same size, corresponding to the equal maximum pressures which come into
+action in each cylinder, and in this respect alone the engine differs in
+principle from an ordinary twin machine.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 1]
+
+The steam passes from the stop-valve, A, Fig. 4, through the steam pipe,
+D, to the high pressure cylinder, C, and having done its work, goes into
+the receiver, R, where it is heated. From the receiver it is led into
+the low-pressure cylinder, C1, and thence into the condenser. Provision
+is made for working both engines independently with direct steam when
+desired, suitable gear being provided for supplying steam of the proper
+pressure to the condensing engine, so that each engine shall perform
+exactly the same amount of work. The starting gear consists of a
+hand-wheel, H, which controls the stop valve, A, and of another h, which
+opens the valves for the jackets of the cylinders and receiver. The
+hand-wheel, h1 and h2, govern the valves, which turn the steam direct
+into the two cylinders. There are also lever, g, which opens the
+principal injection cock, H1, and the auxiliary injection cock, H2, the
+function of which is to assist in forming a speedy vacuum, when the
+engine has been standing for some time.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 2]
+
+The drum is 6.08 m. diameter, the breadth being 2.04 m., with a total
+weight of 33,000 kilos. The beams are of cast iron with balance weights
+cast on. The connecting rods and cross beams are of wrought iron, and
+the cranks, crank shaft, piston rods, valve rods, etc., of steel. The
+bed-plate for the main shaft bearings are cast in one piece with the
+standards for the beam, which are connected firmly together by the
+center bearing, M M1, which is cast in one piece, and also by the
+diagonal bracing piece, N N1. The construction of the cylinder and valve
+chests is shown in Fig. 1. The working cylinder is in the form of a
+liner to the cylinder, thus forming the steam jacket, with a view to
+future renewal. This lining has a flange at the lower part for bolting
+it down, being made steam-tight by the intervention of a copper packing
+ring. There is a similar ring at the upper part which is pressed down by
+the cylinder cover. The latter is cast hollow and strengthened by ribs.
+The pistons are provided with cast iron double self-expanding packing
+rings. For preventing accidents by condensed water, spring safety
+valves, ss and s1 s1, are connected to the valve chests. The valve gear,
+which is arranged in the same manner for both cylinders, is actuated
+by shafts, w and w1, rotated by toothed wheels as shown. Motion is
+communicated from the way-shafts, w and w1, by the eccentrics, and the
+eccentric rods, e1 e2 e3 e4, and the levers and rods belonging thereto,
+to the short steam valve rocking shafts levers, f1 f2 f3 f4, and the
+exhaust valve rocking shafts, k1 k2 k3 k4, the bearings of which are
+carried on brackets above the valve chests, which, being furnished with
+tappet levers, raise and lower the valves.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 3]
+
+The valves are conical, double-seated, and of cast iron, and the inlet
+and outlet valves are placed the one above the other, the seats being
+also conically ground and inserted through the cover of the valve chest.
+Both inlet and outlet valves are actuated from above, and are removable
+upward, an arrangement which admits of the valves being more easily
+examined than when the two are actuated from different sides of the
+valve chest. To carry out this idea the inlet valves are furnished with
+two guides, which, passing upward through the stuffing-box, are attached
+to a hard steel cross piece, which receives the action of a bent catch
+turning on a pin attached to the levers, t1, t2, t3, t4. The exhaust
+valves, on the contrary, have only one guide each, which passes upward
+through the seat of the admission valve, through the valve itself by
+means of a collar, and through the stuffing-box. It is furnished with
+hard steel armatures, through which the levers, z1 z2, Fig. 3, act upon
+the exhaust valves.
+
+[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 4]
+
+The governor effects the acceleration or retardation of the loosening of
+the catch actuating the steam valve by means of hard steel projections
+on the shaft, v1, the position of which, by means of levers, is
+regulated by the governor, which in its highest position does not allow
+the lifting of the inlet valve at all. The regulation of the expansion
+by the governor from 0 to 0.45 takes place generally only in the case of
+the high-pressure cylinder, while the low-pressure cylinder has a fixed
+rate of expansion. Only when the low-pressure cylinder is required
+to work with steam direct from the boiler is the governor applied to
+regulate the expansion in it. An exact action in the valve guides and
+a regular descent is secured by furnishing them with small dash pot
+pistons working in cylinders. Into them the air is readily admitted by
+a small India-rubber valve, but the passage out again is controlled at
+pleasure.--_The Engineer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TO DETECT ALKALIES IN NITRATE OF SILVER--Stolba recommends the salt
+to be dissolved in the smallest quantity of water, and to add to
+the filtered solution hydrofluosilicic acid, drop by drop. Should a
+turbidity appear an alkaline salt is present. But should the liquid
+remain limpid, an equal volume of alcohol is to be added, which will
+cause a precipitate in case the slightest trace of an alkali be present.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POWER HAMMERS WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.
+
+[Footnote: Paper read before the Institution of Mechanical
+Engineers.--_Engineering_.]
+
+By DANIEL LONGWORTH, of London.
+
+
+The movable-fulcrum power hammer was designed by the writer about five
+and a half years ago, to meet a want in the market for a power hammer
+which, while under the complete control of only one workman, could
+produce blows of varying forces without alteration in the rapidity with
+which they were given. It was also necessary that the vibration and
+shock of the hammer head should not be transmitted to the driving
+mechanism, and that the latter should be free from noise and liability
+to derangement. The various uses to which the movable fulcrum hammers
+have been put, and their success in working[1]--as well as the
+importance of the general subject which includes them, namely, the
+substitution of stored power for human effort--form the author's excuse
+for now occupying the time of the meeting.
+
+[Footnote 1: The hammers have been for some years used by A. Bamlett, of
+Thirsk; the American Tool Company, of Antwerp; Messrs. W.&T. Avery, of
+Birmingham; Pullar & Sons, of Perth; Salter & Co., of West Bromwich;
+Vernon Hope & Co., of Wednesbury, etc.; and also for stamps by Messrs.
+Collins & Co., of Birmingham, etc.]
+
+Until these hammers were introduced, no satisfactory method had been
+devised for altering the force of the blow. The plan generally adopted
+was to have either a tightening pulley acting on the driving belt, a
+friction driving clutch, or a simple brake on the driving pulley, put in
+action by the hand or foot of the workman. Heavy blows were produced
+by simply increasing the number of blows per minute (and therefore the
+velocity), and light blows by diminishing it--a plan which was quite
+contrary to the true requirements of the case. To prevent the shock
+of the hammer head being communicated to the driving gear, an elastic
+connection was usually formed between them, consisting of a steel spring
+or a cushion of compressed air. With the steel spring, the variation
+which could be given in the thickness of the work under the hammer was
+very limited, owing to the risk of breaking the spring; but with the
+compressed air or pneumatic connection the work might vary considerably
+in thickness, say from 0 to 8 in. with a hammer weighing 400lb. The
+pneumatic hammers had a crank, with a connecting rod or a slotted
+crossbar on the piston-rod, a piston and a cylinder which formed the
+hammer-head. The piston-rod was packed with a cup leather, or with
+ordinary packing, the latter required to be adjusted with the greatest
+nicety, otherwise the piston struck the hammer before lifting it, or
+else the force of the blow was considerably diminished. As the piston
+moved with the same velocity during its upward and downward strokes,
+and, in the latter, had to overtake and outrun the hammer falling under
+the action of gravity, the air was not compressed sufficiently to give
+a sharp blow at ordinary working speeds, and a much heavier hammer was
+required than if the velocity of the piston had been accelerated to a
+greater degree.
+
+As it is impossible in the limits of this paper to describe all the
+forms in which the movable fulcrum hammers have been arranged, two types
+only will be selected taken from actual work; namely, a small planishing
+hammer, and a medium-sized forging hammer.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: To the makers, Messrs. J. Scott Rawlings & Co, of
+Birmingham, the author is indebted for the working drawings of these
+hammers.]
+
+The small planishing hammer, Figs. 1 to 3, next page, is used for
+copper, tin, electro, and iron plate, for scythes, and other thin work,
+for which it is sufficient to adjust the force of the blow once for all
+by hand, according to the thickness and quality of the material before
+commencing to hammer it. The hammer weighs 15 lb., and has a stroke
+variable from 2½ in. to 9½ in., and makes 250 blows per minute. The
+driving shaft, A, is fitted with fast and loose belt pulleys, the belt
+fork being connected to the pedal, P, which when pressed down by the
+foot of the workman, slides the driving belt on to the fast pulley and
+starts the hammer; when the foot is taken off the pedal, the weight on
+the latter moves the belt quickly on to the loose pulley, and the hammer
+is stopped. The flywheel on the shaft, A, is weighted on one side,
+so that it causes the hammer to stop at the top of its stroke after
+working; thus enabling the material to be placed on the anvil before
+starting the hammer. The movable fulcrum, B, consists of a stud, free to
+slide in a slot, C, in the framing, and held in position by a nut and
+toothed washer. On the fulcrum is mounted the socket, D, through which
+passes freely a round bar or rocking lever, E, attached at one end to
+the main piston, F, of the hammer, G, and having at the other extremity
+a long slide, H, mounted upon it. This slide is carried on the
+crank-pin, I, fastened to the disk, J, attached to the driving shaft, A.
+The crank-pin, in revolving, reciprocates the rocking lever, E, and
+main piston, F, and through the medium of the pneumatic connection, the
+hammer, G. The slide, H, in revolving with the crank-pin, also moves
+backward and forward along the rocking lever, approaching the fulcrum,
+B, during the down-stroke of the hammer, and receding from it during
+the up-stroke. By this means the velocity of the hammer is considerably
+accelerated in its downward stroke, causing a sharp blow to be given
+while it is gently raised during its upward stroke.
+
+To alter the force of the blow, the hammer, G, is made to rise and fall
+through a greater or less distance, as may be required, from the fixed
+anvil block, K, after the manner of the smith giving heavy or light
+blows on his anvil. It is evident that this special alteration of the
+stroke could not be obtained by altering the throw of a simple crank and
+connecting rod; but by placing the slot, C, parallel with the direction
+of the rocking lever, E, when the latter is in its lowest position, with
+the hammer resting on the anvil, and with the crank at the top of its
+stroke, this lowest position of the rocking lever and hammer is made
+constant, no matter what position the fulcrum, B, may have in the slot,
+C. To obtain a short stroke, and consequently a light blow, the fulcrum
+is moved in the slot toward the hammer, G; and to produce a long stroke
+and heavy blow the fulcrum is moved in the opposite direction.
+
+Fig. 3 gives the details of the pneumatic connection between the main
+piston and the hammer, in which packing and packing glands are dispensed
+with. The hammer, G, is of cast steel, bored out to fit the main piston,
+F, the latter being also bored out to receive an internal piston, L. A
+pin, M, passing freely through slots in the main piston, F, connects
+rigidly the internal piston, L, with the hammer, G. When the main piston
+is raised by the rocking lever, the air in the space, X, between the
+main and internal pistons, is compressed, and forms an elastic medium
+for lifting the hammer; when the main piston is moved down, the air in
+the space, Y, is compressed in its turn, and the hammer forced down to
+give the blow. Two holes drilled in the side of the hammer renew the air
+automatically in the spaces, X and Y, at each blow of the hammer.
+
+Figs. 4 to 6, on the next page, represent the medium size forging
+hammer, for making forgings in dies, swaging and tilting bars, and
+plating edged tools, etc.
+
+The hammer weighs 1 cwt., has a stroke variable from 4 in. to 14½ in.,
+and gives 200 blows per minute; the compressed air space between the
+main piston and the hammer is sufficiently long to admit forgings up to
+3 in. thick under the hammer.
+
+To make forgings economically, it is necessary to bring them into the
+desired form by a few heavy blows, while the material is still in a
+highly plastic condition, and then to finish them by a succession of
+lighter blows. The heavy blows should be given at a slower rate than the
+lighter ones, to allow time for turning the work in the dies or on the
+anvil, and so to avoid the risk of spoiling it. In forging with the
+steam hammer the workman requires an assistant, who, with the lever
+of the valve motion in hand, obeys his directions as to starting and
+stopping, heavy or light blows, slow or quick blows, etc; the quickest
+speed attainable depending on the speed of the arm of the assistant.
+In the movable-fulcrum forging hammer the operations of starting and
+stopping, and the giving of heavy or light blows, are under the complete
+control of one foot of the workman, who requires therefore no assistant;
+and by properly proportioning the diameter of the driving pulley and
+size of belt to the hammer, the heavy blows are given at a slower rate
+than the light ones, owing to the greater resistance which they offer to
+the driving belt.
+
+In this hammer the pneumatic connection, the arrangements for the
+starting, stopping, and holding up of the hammer, as well as those for
+communicating the motion of the crank-pin to the hammer by means of
+a rocking lever and movable fulcrum, are similar to those in the
+planishing hammer, differing only in the details, which provide double
+guides and bearings for the principal working parts.
+
+[Illustration: LONGWORTH'S POWER HAMMER WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.]
+
+The movable fulcrum, B, Figs. 4 and 5, consists of two adjustable steel
+pins, attached to the fulcrum lever, Q, and turned conical where they
+fit in the socket, D. The fulcrum lever is pivoted on a pin, R, fixed in
+the framing of the machine, and is connected at its lower extremity
+to the nut, S, in gear with the regulating screw, T. The to-and-fro
+movement of the fulcrum lever, Q, by which heavy or light blows are
+given by the hammer, is placed under the control of the foot of the
+workman, in the following manner: U is a double-ended forked lever,
+pivoted in the center, and having one end embracing the starting pedal,
+P, and the other end the small belt which connects the fast pulley
+on the driving shaft, A, with the loose pulley, V, or the reversing
+pulleys, W and X. These are respectivly connected with the bevel wheels,
+W_{1}, and X_{1}, gearing into and placed at opposite sides of the bevel
+wheel, Z, on the regulating screw in connection with the fulcrum lever.
+When the workman places his foot on the pedal, P, to start the hammer,
+he finds his foot within the fork of the lever, U; and by slightly
+turning his foot round on his heel he can readily move the forked
+lever to right or left, so shifting the small belt on to either of the
+reversing pulleys, W or X, and causing the regulating screw, T, to
+revolve in either direction. The fulcrum lever is thus caused to move
+forward or backward, to give light or heavy blows. By moving the forked
+lever into mid position, the small belt is shifted into its usual place
+on the loose pulley, V, and the fulcrum remains at rest. To fix the
+lightest and heaviest blow required for each kind of work, adjustable
+stops are provided, and are mounted on a rod, Y, connected to an arm of
+the forked lever. When the nut of the regulating screw comes in contact
+with either of the stops, the forked lever is forced into mid position,
+in spite of the pressure of the foot of the workman, and thus further
+movement of the fulcrum lever, in the direction which it was taking,
+is prevented. The movable fulcrum can also be adjusted by hand to any
+required blow, when the hammer is stopped, by means of a handle in
+connection with the regulating screw.
+
+In conclusion the author wishes to direct attention to the fact, that in
+many of our largest manufactories, particularly in the midland counties,
+foot and hand labor for forging and stamping is still employed to an
+enormous extent. Hundreds of "Olivers," with hammers up to 60 lb. in
+weight, are laboriously put in motion by the foot of the workman, at a
+speed averaging fifty blows per minute; while large numbers of stamps,
+worked by hand and foot, and weighing up to 120 lb., are also employed.
+The low first cost of the foot hammers and stamps, combined with the
+system of piece work, and the desire of manufacturers to keep their
+methods of working secret, have no doubt much to do with the small
+amount of progress that has been made; although in a few cases
+competition, particularly with the United States of America, has forced
+the manufacturer to throw the Oliver and hand-stamp aside, and to employ
+steam power hammers and stamps. The writer believes that in connection
+with forging and stamping processes there is still a wide and profitable
+field for the ingenuity and capital of engineers, who choose to
+occupy themselves with this minor, but not the less useful, branch of
+mechanics.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACES APPLIED TO THE PUDDLING OF IRON.
+
+
+Since the year 1872, the large iron works at Ougrée, near Liege, have
+applied the Bicheroux system of furnaces to heating, and, since the
+year 1877, to puddling. The results that have been obtained in this
+last-named application are so satisfactory that it appears to us to be
+of interest to speak of the matter in some detail.
+
+The apparatus, which is shown in the opposite page, consists of three
+distinct parts: (1) a gas generator; (2) a mixing chamber into which
+the gases and air are drawn by the natural draught, and wherein the
+combustion of the gases begins; and (3) a furnace, or laboratory (not
+represented in the figure), wherein the combustion is nearly finished,
+and wherein take place the different reactions of puddling. These three
+parts are given dimensions that vary according to the composition of the
+different coals, and they may be made to use any sort of coal, even
+the fine and schistose kinds which would not be suitable for ordinary
+puddling. The gases and the air necessary for the combustion of these
+being brought together at different temperatures, and being drawn into
+the mixing chamber through the same chimney, it will be seen that the
+dimensions of the flues that conduct them should vary with the kind of
+coal used; and the manner in which the gases are brought together is not
+a matter of indifference.
+
+[Illustration: THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACE.
+
+Vertical Section, and Horizontal Section through MNOPQR]
+
+The gas generator consists of a hopper, A, into which drops, through
+small apertures a, the coal piled up on the platform, D. These apertures
+are closed with coal or bricks. The bottom of the generator is formed of
+a small standing grate. The coal, on falling upon a mass in a state of
+ignition, distills and becomes transformed into coke, which gradually
+slides down over a grate to produce afterward, through its own
+combustion, a distillation of the coal following it. But as these are
+features found in all generators we will not dwell upon them.
+
+The gases that are produced flow through a long horizontal flue, B, into
+a vertical conduit, E, into which there debouches at the upper part a
+series of small orifices, F, that conduct the air that has been heated.
+The gases are inflamed, and traverse the furnace c (not shown in the
+cut), from whence they go to the chimney. Before the air is allowed to
+reach the intervening chamber it is made to pass into the sole of the
+furnace and into the walls of the chamber, so that to the advantage of
+having the air heated there is joined the additional one of having those
+portions of the furnace cooled that cannot be heated with impunity.
+
+The incompletely burned gases that escape from the furnace are utilized
+in heating the boilers of the establishment. The dimensions given these
+furnaces vary greatly according to the charge to be used. All the
+results at Ougrée have been obtained with 400 kilogramme charges,
+and the dimensions of the gas generators have been calculated for
+Six-Bonniers coal, which does not yield over 20 per cent. of gas.
+
+The advantages of this system, which permits of expediting all the
+operations of puddling, are as follows:
+
+1. A notable economy in fuel, both as regards quantity and quality.
+
+2. Economy resulting from diminution in the waste of metal, with a
+consequent improvement in the quality of the products obtained.
+
+3. Diminution in cost of repairs.
+
+4. Less rapid wear in the grates.
+
+5. Improvement in the conditions of the work of puddling.
+
+As regards the first of these advantages, it may be stated that the
+puddling of ordinary Ougrée forge iron, which required with other
+furnaces 900 to 1,000 kilogrammes of coal, is now performed with less
+than 600 kilogrammes per ton of the iron produced. The puddling of fine
+grained iron which required 1,300 to 1,500 kilogrammes of coal is now
+done with 800. So much for quantity; as for quality the system presents
+also a very marked advantage in that it requires no rolling coal--the
+operation of the furnace being just as regular with fine coal, even that
+sifted through screens of 0.02 meter.
+
+The second class of advantages naturally results from the almost
+complete prevention of access of cold air. The saving in wastage amounts
+to 3 or 4 per cent., that is to say, 100 kilogrammes of iron produced is
+accompanied by a loss of only 9 to 10 kilogrammes, instead of 13 to 15
+as ordinarily reckoned.
+
+The diminution in the cost of repairs is due to the fact that the
+furnace doors, of which there are two, permit of easy access to all
+parts of the sole; moreover, the coal never coming in contact with the
+fire-bridges, the latter last much longer than those in other styles of
+furnaces, and can be used for several weeks without the necessity of
+the least repair. The reduced wear of the grates results from the low
+temperature that can be used in the furnace, and the quantity of clinker
+that can be left therein without interfering with its operation, thus
+permitting of having the grates always black. These latter in no wise
+change, and after five months of work the square bars still preserve
+their sharpness of edges.
+
+As for the improvements in the conditions of the work of puddling, it
+may be stated that with a uniform price per 100 kilogrammes for all the
+furnaces, the laborers working at the gas furnaces can earn 25 to 30 per
+cent. more than those working at ordinary furnaces.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GESSNER'S CONTINUOUS CLOTH-PRESSING MACHINE.
+
+
+It is well known that there are several serious drawbacks in the usual
+plan of pressing woolen or worsted cloths and felts with press plates,
+press papers, and presses. Three objections of great weight may be
+mentioned, and events in Leeds give emphasis to a fourth. The three
+objections are--the labor required in setting or folding the cloth,
+the expense of the press papers, and the time required. The fourth
+objection, about which a dispute has occurred between the press-setters
+and the master finishers in Leeds, refers to the inapplicability of the
+common system to long lengths. The men object to these on account of
+the great labor involved in shifting the heavy mass of cloth and press
+plates to and from the presses. A minor drawback of this system is
+that it involves the presence of a fold up the middle of the piece. On
+account of these drawbacks it has long been understood to be desirable
+to expedite the process, and also to dispense with the press papers.
+This is the main purpose of the machine we now illustrate in section, in
+which the pressing is done continuously by what may be termed a species
+of ironing. The machine consists of a central hollow cylinder, C,
+three-quarters of the circumference of which is covered by the hollow
+boxes, M, heated by steam through the pipes shown, and which are
+mounted upon the levers, BB', whose fulcra are at bb. By means of the
+hand-wheel, T, and worm-wheel, n, which closes or opens the levers, BB',
+the pressure of the boxes upon the central roller may be adjusted at
+will, the spring-bolt, F, allowing a certain amount of yield. The faces
+of the press-boxes, MM, are covered by a curved sheet of German silver
+attached to the point, Y. This sheet takes the place of the press papers
+in the ordinary process. The course of the cloth through the machine is
+as follows, and is shown by the arrows: It is placed on the bottom board
+in front, and in its travel it passes over the rails, O, after which it
+is operated on by the brush, Z, leaving which it is conveyed over the
+rails, V and I, the rollers, K and P, and thence between the pressing
+roller, C, and the German silver press plate covering the heated boxes,
+M. Leaving these the piece passes over the roller, P, and is cuttled
+down in the bottom board by the cuttling motion, F, or a rolling-up
+motion may be applied. The maker states that arrangements for brushing
+and steaming may also be attached, so that in one passage through the
+machine a piece may be pressed, brushed, and steamed. The speed of the
+cylinder may be adjusted according to the quality or requirements of
+the goods that are under treatment. At the time of our visit, says the
+_Textile Manufacturer_, printed woolen pieces were being pressed at the
+rate of about four yards a minute, but higher speeds are often obtained.
+Messrs. Taylor, Wordsworth & Co., who have erected many of these
+machines in Leeds, Bradford, and Batley, inform us that they find they
+are adapted for the pressing of a wide variety of cloths, from Bradford
+goods and thin serges to the heavy pieces of Dewsbury and Batley. The
+inventor, Ernst Gessner, of Aue, Saxony, adopts an ingenious expedient
+for pressing goods with thick lists. He provides an arrangement for
+moving the cylinder endwise, according to the different widths of
+the pieces to be treated. One list is left outside at the end of the
+cylinder, and the other at the opposite end of the pressing boxes. The
+machine we saw was 80 in. wide on the roller, and it was one the design
+and construction of which undoubtedly do credit to Mr. Gessner.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVEMENTS IN WOOLEN CARDING ENGINES.
+
+
+Mr. Bolette, who has made a name for himself in connection with strap
+dividers, has experimented in another direction on the carding engine,
+and as his ideas contain some points of novelty we herewith give the
+necessary illustrations, so that our readers can judge for themselves as
+to the merit of these inventions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Fig. 1 represents the feeding arrangement. Here the wool is delivered by
+the feed rollers, A A, in the usual manner. The longer fibers are then
+taken off by a comb, B, and brought forward to the stripper, E, which
+transfers them to the roller, H, and thence to the cylinder. The shorter
+fibers which are not seized by the comb fall down, but as they drop
+they meet a blast of air created by a fan, which throws the lighter and
+cleaner parts in a kind of spray upon the roller, L, whence they pass on
+to the cylinder, while the dirt and other heavier parts fall downwards
+into a box, and are by this means kept off the cylinder. It is evident
+that in this arrangement it is not intended to keep the long and the
+short fibers separate, but to utilize them all in the formation of
+the yarn. The arrangement shown in Fig. 2 refers to the delivery end.
+Instead of the sliver being wound upon the roller in the usual way, it
+runs upon a sheet of linen, P¹, as in the case of carding for felt, with
+a to-and-fro motion in the direction of the axis of the rollers. In this
+way one or more layers of the fleece can be placed on the sheet, which
+in that case passes backwards and forwards from roller S to R, and _vice
+versa_. It is, in fact, the bat arrangement used for felt, only with
+this difference, that the bat is at once rolled up instead of going
+through the bat frame. In the manufacture of felt it is of course of
+importance to have many very thin layers of fleece superposed over
+each other in order to equalize it, and if the same is applied to the
+manufacture of cloth it will no doubt give satisfactory results, but may
+be rather costly.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NOVELTIES IN RING SPINDLES.
+
+
+One of the drawbacks of ring spinning is the uneven pull of the
+traveler, which is the more difficult to counteract as it is exerted
+in jerks at irregular intervals. It is argued that with spindles and
+bearings as usually made the spindle is supported firmly in its bearing,
+and cannot give in case of such a lateral pull when exerted through the
+yarn by the traveler, and the consequence is either a breakage of the
+yarn or an uneven thread. Impressed with this idea, and in order to
+remedy this defect, an eminent Swiss firm has hit upon the notion of
+driving the spindle by friction, and to make it more or less loose in
+the bearings, so that in case of an extra pull by the traveler the
+spindle can give way a little, and thus prevent the breakage of the
+yarn. This idea has been carried out in four different ways, and as this
+seems to be an entirely new departure in ring spinning, we give the
+illustrations of their construction in detail.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.]
+
+Fig. 1 represents Bourcart's recent arrangement of attaching the thread
+guide to the spindle rail and the adjustable spindle. The spindle is
+held by the sleeve, g, which latter is screwed into the spindle rail, S,
+this being moved by the pinion, a; the collar is elongated upwards in a
+cuplike form, c, the better to hold the oil, and keep it from flying;
+d is the wharf, which has attached to it the sleeve, m, and which is
+situated loosely in the space between the spindle and the footstep, e.
+Above the wharf the spindle is hexagonal in shape, and to this part is
+attached the friction plate, a. Between the latter and the upper surface
+of the wharf a cloth or felt washer is inserted, to act as a brake. The
+footstep, e, is filled with oil, in which run the foot of the spindle
+and the sleeve m, the latter turning upon a steel ring situated on the
+bottom of the footstep. As, thus, the foot of the spindle is quite free,
+the upper part of the spindle can give sideways in the direction of any
+sudden pull, and the foot of the spindle can follow this motion in the
+opposite direction, the collar forming the fulcrum for the spindle. By
+this alteration of the vertical position of the spindle into an inclined
+one (though ever so trifling), the contact of the friction plate, a, and
+the wharf is interrupted, and thus the speed of the spindle reduced.
+This will cause less yarn to be wound on, and the pull thus to be
+neutralized; but as the wharf keeps turning at the same speed, its
+centrifugal force will act again upon the friction plate, and thus bring
+the spindle back to its vertical position as soon as the extra drag has
+been removed.
+
+In Fig. 2 the footstep, e, has the foot of the spindle more closely
+fitting at the bottom, but the upper part of the step opens out
+gradually, and forms a conical cavity of a little larger diameter than
+the spindle, so that the latter has a considerable play sideways. The
+wharf carries in its lower part the sleeve, g, which runs upon a steel
+ring as above. The upper surface of the wharf is arched, and upon this
+is fitted the correspondingly arched friction plate, a, which latter
+is attached to the spindle by a screw. The position of the spindle is
+maintained by the collar, m. This collar is loose in the spindle rail,
+and only held by the spring, m'. If now, a lateral drag is exerted upon
+the upper part of the spindle, the collar car follows the direction of
+this drag, and the spindle thus be brought out of the vertical position,
+the friction plate slipping at the same time. The force of the spring
+conjointly with the centrifugal force will then bring back the spindle
+into its normal position as soon as the drag is again even.
+
+Fig. 3 shows a spindle with a very long conical oil vessel, B, resting
+upon a disk, e", in cup, e', with a cover, e"'. The wharf, d, is here
+situated high up the spindle, has the same sleeve as in the preceding
+case, and runs round the bush, g, upon the ring, z. The friction plate
+resting upon the wharf is joined to the collar, a, running out into a
+cup shape, which is fixed to the spindle, which here has a hexagonal
+form. In this case the collar gives with the spindle, which latter
+has the necessary play in the long footstep; and as the collar and
+friction-plate are one, it is brought back to its normal place by
+centrifugal force.
+
+A peculiar arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. Here the ring and traveler,
+f, are placed as usual, but the spindle carries at the same time an
+inverted flier, t. The spindle turns loosely in the footstep, e, the
+oil chamber being carried up to the middle of its height. The wharf
+is placed in the same position as in the previous case, having also
+a sleeve running in the oil chamber, c, upon a steel ring, z. The
+friction-plate a, on the top of the wharf carries the flier, and on its
+upper surface is in contact with the inverted cup, a, which is attached
+to the spindle by a pin or screw. In order to limit at will the lateral
+motion of the spindle there is attached to the latter, between the
+footstep and the collar, a split ring, i, which can be closed more
+or less by a small set screw. The spindle is thus only held in the
+perpendicular position by its own velocity, which will facilitate a
+high degree of speed, through the entire absence of all friction in the
+bearings, this vertical position being assisted by the friction motion
+whenever the spindle has been drawn on one side. Although the notion of
+mounting spindles so that they can yield in order to center themselves
+is not new, it is evident that considerable ingenuity has been brought
+to bear upon the arrangement of the spindles we have described, but we
+are not in a position to say to what extent practice has in this case
+coincided with theory.--_Textile Manufacturer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTO-ENGRAVING ON ZINC OR COPPER.
+
+By LEON VIDAL.
+
+
+This process is similar in many respects to the one which was some
+time ago communicated to the Photographic Society of France by M.
+Stronbinsky, of St. Petersburg, but in a much improved and complete
+form. An account of it was given by M. Gobert, at the meeting of the
+same society, on the 2d December, 1882. The following are the details,
+as demonstrated by me at the meeting of the 9th of May last:
+
+Sheets of zinc or of copper of a convenient size are carefully planished
+and polished with powdered pumice stone. The sensitive mixture is
+composed of:
+
+  The whites of four fresh eggs beaten
+  to a froth......................... 100    parts
+  Pure bichromate of ammonia.........   2.50   "
+  Water..............................  50      "
+
+After this mixture has been carefully filtered through a paper filter, a
+few drops of ammonia are added. It will keep good for some time if well
+corked and preserved from exposure to the light. Even two months after
+being prepared I have found it to be still good; but too large a
+quantity should not be prepared at a time, as it does not improve with
+keeping.
+
+I find that the dry albumen of commerce will answer as well as the
+fresh. In that case I employ the following formula:
+
+  Dry albumen from eggs.............. 15 to 20    parts
+  Water..............................      100      "
+  Ammonia bichromate.................        2.50   "
+
+Always add some drops of ammonia, and keep this mixture in a well corked
+bottle and in a dark place.
+
+To coat the metal plate, place it on a turning table, to which it is
+made fast at the center by a pneumatic holder; to assure the perfect
+adhesion of this holder, it is as well to wet the circular elastic ring
+of the holder before applying it to the metallic surface. When this is
+done, the table may be made to rotate quickly without fear of detaching
+the plate by the rapidity of the movement. The plate is placed in a
+perfectly horizontal position, where no dust can settle on it; the
+mixture is then poured on it, and distributed by means of a triangular
+piece of soft paper, so as to cover equally all the parts of the plate.
+Care should be taken not to flow too much liquid over the plate, and
+when the latter is everywhere coated, the excess is poured off into a
+different vessel from that which contains the filtered mixture, or else
+into a filter resting on that vessel. The turning table should now be
+inverted so that the sensitive surface may be downwards, and it is made
+to rotate at first slowly, afterwards more rapidly, so as to make the
+film, which should be very thin, quite smooth and even. The whole
+operation should be carried out in a subdued light, as too strong a
+light would render insoluble the film of bichromated albumen.
+
+When the film is equalized the plate must be detached from the turning
+table and placed on a cast iron or tin plate heated to not more than 40°
+or 50° C. A gentle heat is quite sufficient to dry the albumen quickly;
+a greater heat would spoil it, as it would produce coagulation. So soon
+as the film is dry, which will be seen by the iridescent aspect it
+assumes, the plate is allowed to cool to the ordinary temperature,
+and is then at once exposed either beneath a positive, or beneath an
+original drawing the lines of which have been drawn in opaque ink, so as
+to completely prevent the luminous rays from passing through them; the
+light should only penetrate through the white or transparent ground of
+the drawing.
+
+I say a _positive_ because I wish to obtain an engraved plate; if I
+wanted to have a plate for typographic printing, I should have to take a
+_negative_. After exposure the plate must be at once developed, which is
+effected by dissolving in water those parts of the bichromated gelatine
+which have been protected from the action of light by the dark spaces
+of the cliché; these parts remain soluble, while the others have been
+rendered completely insoluble. If the plate were dipped in clear water
+it would be difficult to observe the picture coming out, especially on
+copper. To overcome this difficulty the water must be tinged with some
+aniline color; aniline red or violet, which are soluble in water,
+answers the purpose very well. Enough of the dye must be dissolved in
+the water to give it a tolerably deep color. So soon as the plate is
+plunged into this liquid the albumen not acted on by light is dissolved,
+while the insoluble parts are colored by absorbing the dye, so that the
+metal is exposed in the lines against a red or violet ground, according
+to the color of the dye used.
+
+When the drawing comes out quite perfect, and a complete copy of the
+original, the plate with the image on it is allowed to dry either of its
+own accord, or by submitting it to a gentle heat. So soon as it is dry
+it is etched, and this is done by means of a solution of perchloride
+of iron in alcohol. Both alcohol and iron perchloride will coagulate
+albumen; their action, therefore, on the image will not be injurious,
+since they will harden the remaining albumen still further. But to get
+the full benefit of this, the alcohol and the iron perchloride must
+both be free from water; it is therefore advisable to use the salt in
+crystals which have been thoroughly dried, and the alcohol of a strength
+of 95°.
+
+The following is the formula:
+
+  Perchloride of iron, well dried     50 gr.
+  Alcohol at 95°                     100 "
+
+This solution must be carefully filtered so as to get rid of any deposit
+which may form, and must be preserved in a well-corked bottle, when it
+will keep for a long time. The plate is first coated with a varnish of
+bitumen of Judea on the edges (if those parts are not already covered
+with albumen) and on the back, so that the etching liquid can only act
+on the lines to be engraved. It is then placed, with the side to be
+engraved downwards, in a porcelain basin, into which a sufficient
+quantity of the solution of perchloride of iron is poured, and the
+liquid is kept stirred so as to renew the portion which touches the
+plate; but care must be taken not to touch with the brush the parts
+where there is albumen remaining. The length of time that the etching
+must be continued depends on the depth required to be given to
+the engraving; generally a quarter of an hour will be found to be
+sufficient. Should it be thought desirable to extend the action over
+half an hour, the lines will be found to have been very deeply engraved.
+When the etching is considered to have been pushed far enough, the plate
+must be withdrawn from the solution, and washed in plenty of water;
+it must then be forcibly rubbed with a cloth so as to remove all the
+albumen, and after it has been polished with a little pumice, the
+engraving is complete.
+
+It will be seen that this process may be used with advantage instead of
+that of photo-engraving with bitumen, in cases where it is not advisable
+to use acids. One of my friends, Mr. Fisch, suggests the plan--which
+seems to deserve a careful investigation--of combining this process
+with that where bitumen is employed; it would be done somewhat in the
+following way. The plate of metal would be first coated evenly with
+bitumen of Judea on the turning table, and when the bitumen is quite
+dry, it should be again coated with albumen in the manner as described
+above. In full sunlight the exposure need not exceed a minute in length;
+then the plate would be laid in colored water, dried, and immersed in
+spirits of turpentine. The latter will dissolve the bitumen in all
+the parts where it has been exposed by the removal of the albumen not
+rendered insoluble by the action of light. But it remains to be seen
+whether the albumen will not be undermined in this method; therefore,
+before recommending the process, it ought to be thoroughly studied. The
+metal is now exposed in all the parts that have to be etched, while
+all the other parts are protected by a layer of bitumen coated with
+coagulated albumen. Hence we may employ as mordant water acidulated with
+3, 4, or 5 per cent. of nitric acid, according as it is required to have
+the plate etched with greater or less vigor.
+
+By following the directions above given, any one wishing to adopt the
+process cannot fail of obtaining good results, One of its greatest
+advantages is that it is within the reach of every one engaged in
+printing operations.--_Photo News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MERIDIAN LINE.
+
+[Footnote: From Proceedings of the Association of County Surveyors of
+Ohio, Columbus, January, 1882.]
+
+
+The following process has been used by the undersigned for many years.
+The true meridian can thus be found within one minute of arc:
+
+_Directions_.--Nail a slat to the north side of an upper window--the
+higher the better. Let it be 25 feet from the ground or more. Let it
+project 3 feet. Kear the end suspend a plumb-bob, and have it swing in a
+bucket of water. A lamp set in the window will render the upper part of
+the string visible. Place a small table or stand about 20 feet south of
+the plumb-bob, and on its south edge stick the small blade of a pocket
+knife; place the eye close to the blade, and move the stand so as to
+bring the blade, string, and polar star into line. Place the table so
+that the star shall be seen very near the slat in the window. Let this
+be done half an hour before the greatest elongation of the star. Within
+four or five minutes after the first alignment the star will have moved
+to the east or west of the string. Slip the table or the knife a little
+to one side, and align carefully as before. After a few alignments the
+star will move along the string--down, if the elongation is west; up, if
+east. On the first of June the eastern elongation occurs about half-past
+two in the morning, and as daylight comes on shortly after the
+observation is completed, I prefer that time of year. The time of
+meridian passage or of the elongation can be found in almost any work on
+surveying. Of course the observer should choose a calm night.
+
+In the morning the transit can be ranged with the knife blade and
+string, and the proper angle turned off to the left, if the elongation
+is east; to the right, if west.
+
+Instead of turning off the angle, as above described, I measure 200 or
+300 feet northtward, in the direction of the string, and compute the
+offset in feet and inches, set a stake in the ground, and drive a tack
+in the usual way.
+
+Suppose the distance is 250 feet and the angle 1° 40', then the offset
+will be 7,271 feet, or 7 feet 3¼ inches. A minute of arc at the distance
+of 250 feet is seven-eighths of an inch; and this is the most accurate
+way, for the vernier will not mark so small a space accurately.
+
+
+ANGLE OF ELONGATION.
+
+This should be computed by the surveyor for each observation. The
+distance between the star and the pole is continually diminishing, and
+on January 1, 1882, was 1° 18' 48".
+
+There is a slight annual variation in the distance. July 1, 1882, it
+will be 1° 19' 20". If from this latter quantity the observer will
+subtract 16" for 1883, and the same quantity for each succeeding year
+for the next four or five years, no error so great as one-quarter of a
+minute will be made in the position of the meridian as determined in the
+summer months. If winter observations are made, the distance in January
+should be used. The formula for computing the angle of elongation is
+easily made by any one understanding spherical trigonometry, and is
+this:
+
+   R x sin. Polar dist.
+  --------------------- = sin. of angle of elongation.
+        cos. lat.
+
+As an example, suppose the time is July, 1882, and the latitude 40°.
+Then the computation being made, the angle will be found to be 1° 43'
+34". A difference of six minutes in the latitude will make less than
+10" difference in the angle, as one can see by trial. Any good State
+or county map will give the latitude to within one or two miles--or
+minutes.
+
+The facts being as here stated, the absurdity of the Ohio law,
+concerning the establishment of county meridians, becomes apparent. The
+longitude has nothing at all to do With the meridian; and a difference
+of _six miles_ in latitude makes no appreciable error in the meridian
+established as here suggested, whereas the statute requires the latitude
+within _one half a second_, which is _fifty feet_. There are some other
+things, besides the ways of Providence, which may be said to be "past
+finding out." It is not probable that a surveyor would err so much as
+_three_ miles in his latitude, but should he do so, then the error in
+his meridian line, resulting from the mistake, will be _five seconds_,
+and a line _one mile_ long, run on a course 5" out of the way, will vary
+but _an inch and a half_ from the true position. Surveyors well know
+that no such accuracy is attainable. R. W. McFARLAND,
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRO-MANIA.
+
+By W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS.
+
+
+A history of electricity, in order to be complete, must include two
+distinct and very different subjects: the history of electrical science,
+and a history of electrical exaggerations and delusions. The progress of
+the first has been followed by a crop of the second from the time when
+Kleist, Muschenbroek, and Cuneus endeavored to bottle the supposed
+fluid, and in the course of these attempts stumbled upon the "Leyden
+jar."
+
+Dr. Lieberkuhn, of Berlin, describes the startling results which he
+obtained, or imagined, "when a nail or a piece of brass wire is put into
+a small apothecary's phial and electrified." He says that "if, while it
+is electrifying, I put my finger or a piece of gold which I hold in my
+hand to the nail, I receive a shock which stuns my arms and shoulders."
+At about the same date (the middle of the last century), Muschenbroek
+stated, in a letter to Réaumur, that, on taking a shock from a thin
+glass bowl, "he felt himself struck in his arms, shoulders, and breast,
+so that he lost his breath, and was two days before he recovered from
+the effects of the blow and the terror" and that he "would not take a
+second shock for the kingdom of France." From the description Of the
+apparatus, it is evident that this dreadful shock was no stronger than
+many of us have taken scores of times for fun, and have given to
+our school-follows when we became the proud possessors of our first
+electrical machine.
+
+Conjurers, mountebanks, itinerant quacks, and other adventurers operated
+throughout Europe, and were found at every country fair and _fete_
+displaying the wonders of the invisible agent by giving shocks and
+professing to cure all imaginable ailments.
+
+Then came the discoveries of Galvani and Volta, followed by the
+demonstrations of Galvani's nephew Aldini, whereby dead animals were
+made to display the movements of life, not only by the electricity of
+the Voltaic pile, but, as Aldini especially showed, by a transfer of
+this mysterious agency from one animal to another.
+
+According to his experiments (that seem to be forgotten by modern
+electricians) the galvanometer of the period, a prepared frog, could be
+made to kick by connecting its nerve and muscle with muscle and nerve of
+a recently killed ox, with, or without metallic intervention.
+
+Thus arose the dogma which still survives in the advertisements of
+electrical quacks, that "electricity is life," and the possibility of
+reviving the dead was believed by many. Executed criminals were in
+active demand; their bodies were expeditiously transferred from the
+gallows or scaffold to the operating table, and their dead limbs were
+made to struggle and plunge, their eyeballs to roll, and their features
+to perpetrate the most horrible contortions by connecting nerves with
+one pole, and muscles with the opposite pole of a battery.
+
+The heart was made to beat, and many men of eminence supposed that if
+this could be combined with artificial respiration, and kept up for
+awhile, the victim of the hangman might be restored, provided the neck
+was not broken. Curious tales were loudly whispered concerning gentle
+hangings and strange doings at Dr. Brookes's, in Leicester Square, and
+at the Hunterian Museum, in Windmill Street, now flourishing as "The
+Café de l'Etoile." When a child, I lived about midway between these
+celebrated schools of practical anatomy, and well remember the tales of
+horror that were recounted concerning them. When Bishop and Williams (no
+relation to the writer) were hanged for burking, i.e., murdering people
+in order to provide "subjects" for dissection, their bodies were sent to
+Windmill Street, and the popular notion was that, being old and faithful
+servants of the doctors, they were galvanized to life, and again set up
+in their old business.
+
+It is amusing to read some of the treatises on medical galvanism that
+were published at about this period, and contrast their positive
+statements of cures effected and results anticipated with the position
+now attained by electricity as a curative agent.
+
+Then came the brilliant discoveries of Faraday, Ampère, etc.,
+demonstrating the relations between electricity and magnetism, and
+immediately following them a multitude of patents for electro-motors,
+and wild dreams of superseding steam-engines by magneto-electric
+machinery.
+
+The following, which I copy from the _Penny Mechanic_, of June 10, 1837,
+is curious, and very instructive to those who think of investing in any
+of the electric power companies of to-day: "Mr. Thomas Davenport, a
+Vermont blacksmith, has discovered a mode of applying magnetic and
+electro-magnetic power, which we have good ground for believing will be
+of immense importance to the world." This announcement is followed by
+reference to Professor Silliman's _American Journal of Science and the
+Arts_, for April, 1837, and extracts from American papers, of which the
+following is a specimen: "1. We saw a small cylindrical battery, about
+nine inches in length, three or four in diameter, produce a magnetic
+power of about 300 lb., and which, therefore, we could not move with
+our utmost strength. 2. We saw a small wheel, five-and-a-half inches in
+diameter, performing more than 600 revolutions in a minute, and lift a
+weight of 24 lb. one foot per minute, from the power of a battery of
+still smaller dimensions. 3. We saw a model of a locomotive engine
+traveling on a circular railroad with immense velocity, and rapidly
+ascending an inclined plane of far greater elevation than any hitherto
+ascended by steam-power. And these and various other experiments which
+we saw, convinced us of the truth of the opinion expressed by Professors
+Silliman, Renwick, and others, that the power of machinery may be
+increased from this source beyond any assignable limit. It is computed
+by these learned men that a circular galvanic battery about three feet
+in diameter, with magnets of a proportionable surface, would produce at
+least a hundred horse-power; and therefore that two such batteries would
+be sufficient to propel ships of the largest class across the Atlantic.
+The only materials required to generate and continue this power for
+such a voyage would be a few thin sheets of copper and zinc, and a few
+gallons of mineral water."
+
+The Faure accumulator is but a very weak affair compared with this, Sir
+William Thomson notwithstanding. To render the date of the above fully
+appreciable, I may note that three months later the magazine from which
+it is quoted was illustrated with a picture of the London and Birmingham
+Railway Station displaying a first-class passenger with a box seat on
+the roof of the carriage, and followed by an account of the trip to
+Boxmoor, the first installment of the London and North-Western Railway.
+It tells us that, "the time of starting having arrived, the doors of
+the carriages are closed, and, by the assistance of the conductors, the
+train is moved on a short distance toward the first bridge, where it
+is met by an engine, which conducts it up the inclined plane as far as
+Chalk Farm. Between the canal and this spot stands the station-house for
+the engines; here, also, are fixed the engines which are to be employed
+in drawing the carriages up the inclined plane from Euston Square, by
+a rope upwards of a mile in length, the cost of which was upwards of
+£400." After describing the next change of engines, in the same matter
+of course way as the changing of stage-coach horses, the narrative
+proceeds to say that "entering the tunnel from broad daylight to perfect
+darkness has an exceedingly novel effect."
+
+I make these parallel quotations for the benefit of those who imagine
+that electricity is making such vastly greater strides than other
+sources of power. I well remember making this journey to Boxmoor, and
+four or five years later traveling on a circular electro-magnetic
+railway. Comparing that electric railway with those now exhibiting,
+and comparing the Boxmoor trip with the present work of the London and
+North-Western Railway, I have no hesitation in affirming that the rate
+of progress in electro-locomotion during the last forty years has been
+far smaller than that of steam.
+
+The leading fallacy which is urging the electro-maniacs of the present
+time to their ruinous investments is the idea that electro-motors
+are novelties, and that electric-lighting is in its infancy; while
+gas-lighting is regarded as an old, or mature middle-aged business,
+and therefore we are to expect a marvelous growth of the infant and no
+further progress of the adult.
+
+These excited speculators do not appear to be aware of the fact that
+electric-lighting is older than gas-lighting; that Sir Humphry Davy
+exhibited the electric light in Albemarle Street, while London was still
+dimly lighted by oil-lamps, and long before gas-lighting was attempted
+anywhere. The lamp used by Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, at
+the beginning of the present century, was an arrangement of two
+carbon pencils, between which was formed the "electric arc" by the
+intensely-vivid incandescence and combustion of the particles of carbon
+passing between the solid carbon electrodes. The light exhibited by Davy
+was incomparably more brilliant than anything that has been lately shown
+either in London, or Paris, or at Sydenham. His arc was _four inches
+in length_, the carbon pencils were four inches apart, and a broad,
+dazzling arch of light bridged the whole space between. The modern arc
+lights are but pygmies, mere specks, compared with this; a leap of 1/3
+or 1/4 inch constituting their maximum achievement.
+
+Comparing the actual progress of gas and electric lighting, the gas has
+achieved by far the greater strides; and this is the case even when we
+compare very recent progress.
+
+The improvements connected with gas-making have been steadily
+progressive; scarcely a year has passed from the date of Murdoch's
+efforts to the present time, without some or many decided steps having
+been made. The progress of electric-lighting has been a series of
+spasmodic leaps, backward as well as forward.
+
+As an example of stepping backward, I may refer to what the newspapers
+have described as the "discoveries" of Mr. Edison, or the use of an
+incandescent wire, or stick, or sheet of platinum, or platino-iridium;
+or a thread of carbon, of which the "Swan" and other modern lights are
+rival modifications.
+
+As far back as 1846 I was engaged in making apparatus and experiments
+for the purpose of turning to practical account "King's patent electric
+light," the actual inventor of which was a young American, named Starr,
+who died in 1847, when about 25 years of age, a victim of overwork
+and disappointment in his efforts to perfect this invention and a
+magneto-electric machine, intended to supply the power in accordance
+with some of the "latest improvements" of 1881 and 1882.
+
+I had a share in this venture, and was very enthusiastic until after I
+had become practically acquainted with the subject. We had no difficulty
+in obtaining a splendid and perfectly steady light, better than any that
+are shown at the Crystal Palace.
+
+We used platinum, and alloys of platinum and iridium, abandoned them as
+Edison did more than thirty years later, and then tried a multitude of
+forms of carbon, including that which constitutes the last "discovery"
+of Mr. Edison, viz., burnt cane. Starr tried this on theoretical
+grounds, because cane being coated with silica, he predicted that by
+charring it we should obtain a more compact stick or thread, as the
+fusion of the silica would hold the carbon particles together. He
+finally abandoned this and all the rest in favor of the hard deposit of
+carbon which lines the inside of gas-retorts, some specimens of which we
+found to be so hard that we required a lapidary's wheel to cut them into
+the thin sticks.
+
+Our final wick was a piece of this of square section, and about 1/8 of
+an inch across each way. It was mounted between two forceps--one holding
+each end, and thus leaving a clear half-inch between. The forceps were
+soldered to platinum wires, one of which passed upward through the top
+of the barometer tube, expanded into a lamp glass at its upper part.
+This wire was sealed to the glass as it passed through. The lower wire
+passed down the middle of the tube.
+
+The tube was filled with mercury and inverted over a cup of mercury.
+Being 30 inches long up to the bottom of the expanded portion, or lamp
+globe, the mercury fell below this and left a Torricellian vacuum there.
+One pole of the battery, or dynamo-machine, was connected with the
+mercury in the cup, and the other with the upper wire. The stick of
+carbon glowed brilliantly, and with perfect steadiness.
+
+I subsequently exhibited this apparatus in the Town-hall of Birmingham,
+and many times at the Midland Institute. The only scientific difficulty
+connected with this arrangement was that due to a slight volatilization
+of the carbon, and its deposition as a brown film upon the lamp glass;
+but this difficulty is not insuperable.--_Knowledge_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ACTION OF MAGNETS UPON THE VOLTAIC ARC.
+
+
+The action of magnets upon the voltaic arc has been known for a long
+time past. Davy even succeeded in influencing the latter powerfully
+enough in this way to divide it, and since his time Messrs. Grove and
+Quet have studied the effect under different conditions. In 1859, I
+myself undertook numerous researches on this subject, and experimented
+on the induction spark of the Ruhmkorff coil, the results of these
+researches having been published in the last two editions of my notes on
+the Ruhmkorff apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+These researches were summed up in the journal _La Lumière Electrique_
+for June 15, 1879. Recently, Mr. Pilleux has addressed to us some new
+experiments on the same subject, made on the voltaic arc produced by a
+De Meritens alternating current machine. Naturally, he has found the
+same phenomena that I had made known; but he thinks that these new
+researches are worthy of interest by reason of the nature of the arc in
+which he experimented, and which, according to him, is of a different
+nature from all those on which, up to the present time, experiments have
+been made. Such a distinction as this, however, merits a discussion.
+
+With the induction spark, magnets have an action only on the aureola
+which accompanies the line of fire of the static discharge; and this
+aureola, being only a sort of sheath of heated air containing many
+particles of metal derived from the rheophores, represents exactly the
+voltaic arc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+Moreover, although the induced currents developed in the bobbin are
+alternately of opposite direction, the galvanometer shows that the
+currents that traverse the break are of the same direction, and that
+these are direct ones. The reversed currents are, then, arrested during
+their passage; and, in order to collect them, it becomes necessary to
+considerably diminish the gaseous pressure of the aeriform conductor
+interposed in the discharge; to increase its conductivity; or to open to
+the current a very resistant metallic derivation. By this latter means,
+I have succeeded in isolating, one from the other, in two different
+circuits, the direct induced currents and the reversed induced ones.
+As only direct currents can, in air at a normal pressure, traverse
+the break through which the induction spark passes, the aureola that
+surrounds it may be considered as being exactly in the same conditions
+as a voltaic arc, and, consequently, as representing an extensible
+conductor traversed by a current flowing in a definite direction. Such
+a conductor is consequently susceptible of being influenced by all the
+external reactions that can be exerted upon a current; only, by reason
+of its mobility, the conductor may possibly give way to the action
+exerted upon the current traversing it, and undergo deformations that
+are in relation with the laws of Ampère. It is in this manner that I
+have explained the different forms that the aureola of the induction
+spark assumes when it is submitted to the action of a magnet in the
+direction of its axial line, or in that of its equatorial line, or
+perpendicular to these latter, or upon the magnetic poles themselves.
+
+Experiments of a very definite kind have not yet been made as to the
+nature of the arc produced by induced currents developed in alternating
+current machines; but, from the experiments made with electric candles,
+we are forced to admit that the current reacts as if it were alternately
+reversed through the arc, since the carbons are used up to an equal
+degree; and, moreover, Mr. Pilleux's experiments show that effects
+analogous to those of induction coils are produced by the reaction of
+magnets upon the arc. There is, then, here a doubtful point that it
+would be interesting to clear up; and we believe that it is consequently
+proper to introduce in this place Mr. Pilleux's note:
+
+"Having at my disposal," says he, "a powerful vertical voltaic arc of 12
+centimeters in length, kept up by alternately reversed currents, and one
+of the most powerful permanent magnets that Mr. De Meritens employs for
+magneto-electric machines, I have been enabled to make the following
+experiments:
+
+"1. When I caused one of the poles of my magnet to slowly approach the
+voltaic arc, I ascertained that, at a distance of 10 centimeters, the
+arc became flattened so as to assume the appearance of those gas jets
+called 'butterfly.' The plane of the 'butterfly' was parallel with the
+pole that I presented, or, in other words, with the section of the
+magnet. At the same time, the arc began to emit a strident noise, which
+became deafening when the pole of the magnet was brought to within a
+distance of about 2 millimeters. At this moment, the butterfly form
+produced by the arc was _greatly spread out, and reduced to the
+thickness of a sheet of paper_; and then it burst with violence, and
+projected to a distance a great number of particles of incandescent
+carbon.
+
+"2. The magnet employed being a horseshoe one, when I directed it
+laterally so as to present successively, now the north and then the
+south pole to the arc, the 'butterfly' pivoted upon itself so as not to
+present the same surface to each pole of the magnet."
+
+By referring to the accompanying figure, which we extract from our note
+on the Ruhmkorff apparatus, it will be seen that the aureola which
+developed as a circular film from right to left at D, on the north pole
+of the magnet, N.S. (Fig. 1), projected itself in an opposite direction
+at C, upon the south pole, S, of the same magnet; but, between the two
+poles, these two contrary actions being obliged to unite, they gave rise
+in doing so to a very characteristic helicoid spiral whose direction
+depended upon that of the current of discharge through the aureola,
+or upon the polarity of the magnetic poles. On the contrary, when the
+discharge took place in the direction of the equatorial line, as in Fig.
+2, the circular film developed itself in the plane of the neutral line
+above or below the line of discharge, according to the direction of the
+current and the magnetic polarity of the magnet.
+
+There is, then, between Mr. Pilleux's experiments and my own so great an
+analogy that we might draw the deduction therefrom that induced currents
+in alternating machines have, like those of the Ruhmkorff coil, a
+definite direction, which would be that of currents having the greatest
+tension, that is to say, that of direct currents. This hypothesis seems
+to us the more plausible in that Mr. J. Van Malderem has demonstrated
+that the attraction of solenoids with the currents, not straight,
+of magneto-electric machines is almost as great as that of the same
+solenoids with straight currents; and it is very likely that the
+difference which may then exist should be so much the less in proportion
+as the induced currents have more tension. We might, then, perhaps
+explain the different effects of the wear of the carbons serving as
+rheophores, according as the currents are continuous or alternating, by
+the different calorific effects produced on these carbons, and by the
+effects of electric conveyance which are a consequence of the passage of
+the current through the arc.
+
+We know that with continuous currents the positive carbon possesses a
+much higher temperature than the negative, and that its wear is about
+twice greater than that of the latter. But such greater wear of the
+positive carbon is especially due to the fact that combustion is greater
+on it than on the negative, and also to the fact that the carbonaceous
+particles carried along by the current to the positive pole are
+deposited in part upon the other pole. Supposing that these polarities
+of the carbons were being constantly alternately reversed, the effects
+might be symmetrical from all quarters, although the only current
+traversing the break were of the same direction; for, admitting that the
+reverse currents could not traverse the break, they would exist none the
+less for all that, and they might give rise (as has been demonstrated
+by Mr. Gaugain with regard to the discharges of the induction spark
+intercepted by the insulating plate of a condenser) to return discharges
+through the generator, which would then have, in the metallic part of
+the circuit, the same direction as the direct currents succeeding,
+although they had momentarily brought about opposite polarities in the
+electrodes. What might make us suppose such an interpretation of the
+phenomenon to have its _raison d'etre_, is that with the induced
+currents of the Ruhmkorff coil, it is not the positive pole that is
+the hottest, but rather the negative; from whence we might draw the
+deduction that it is not so much the direction of the current that
+determines the calorific effect in the electrodes, as the conditions of
+such current with respect to the generator. I should not be
+surprised, then, if, in the arc formed by the alternating currents of
+magneto-electric machines, there should pass only one current of the
+same direction, and which would be the one formed by the superposition
+of direct currents, and if the reverse currents should cause return
+discharges in the midst of the generating bobbins at the moment the
+direct currents were generated.--_Th. Du Moncel_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VOLCKMAR'S SECONDARY BATTERIES.
+
+
+The inventive genius of the country is now directed to these important
+accessories of electric enterprise, and no wonder, for as far as can at
+present be seen, the secret of electric motion lies in these secondary
+batteries. Among other contributions of this kind is the following, by
+Ernest Volckmar, electrician, Paris:
+
+The object of this invention is to render unnecessary the use in
+secondary batteries of a porous pot which creates useless resistance
+to the electric current, and to store in an apparatus of comparatively
+small weight and bulk considerable electric force. To this end two
+reticulated or perforated plates of lead of similar proportions are
+prepared, and their interstices are filled with granules or filaments of
+lead, by preference chemically pure. These plates are then submitted to
+pressure, and placed together, with strips of nonconducting material
+interposed between them, in a suitable vessel containing a bath of
+acidulated water. The plates being connected with wires from an electric
+generator are brought for a while under the action of the current, to
+peroxidize and reduce the whole of the finely divided lead exposed to
+the acidulated water. The secondary battery is then complete. It will be
+understood that any number of these pairs of plates may be combined to
+form a secondary battery, their number being determined by the amount
+of storage required. The perforated plates of lead may be prepared by
+drilling, casting, or in other convenient manner, but the apertures, of
+whatever form, should be placed as closely together as possible, and
+the finely divided lead to be peroxidized is pressed into the cells or
+cavities so as to fill their interiors only.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY, AND THE
+MINERALS OCCURRING THEREIN.
+
+By NELSON H. DARTON.
+
+
+There will be many persons in the city of New York and its suburbs who
+will not have the time or facilities for leaving town during the summer,
+to spend a part of their time enjoying the country, but would have
+sufficient time to take occasional recreation for short periods. I have
+sought by this paper to show a pleasurable, and at the same time very
+instructive use for the time of this latter class, and that is in
+mineralogy. In the surrounding parts of New York are many mineralogical
+localities, known to no others than a few professional mineralogists,
+etc., and from which an excellent assortment of minerals may be
+obtained, which would well grace a cabinet and afford considerable
+instruction and entertainment to their owner and friends, besides acting
+as an incentive to a further study of this and the other sciences. These
+localities which I will discuss are all within an hour's ride from New
+York, and the expenses inside of a half dollar, and generally very much
+less. I could detail many other places further off, but will reserve
+that for another paper.
+
+The course which I will pursue in my explanations I have purposely made
+very simple, avoiding--or when using, explaining--all technical terms.
+The apparatus and tests noticed are of the most rudimentary style
+consistent with that which is necessary to attain the simple purpose of
+distinguishment, and altogether I have prepared this paper for those
+having at the present time little or no knowledge or practice in
+mineralogy, while those having it can be led perhaps by the details of
+the localities noticed. Another reason why I have written so in detail
+of this last subject is, because the experiences of most amateur
+mineralogists are generally so very discouraging in their endeavors to
+find the minerals, and there is everything in giving a good start
+to properly fix the interest on the subject. The reason of these
+discouragements is simple, and generally because they do not know the
+portion of the locality, say, for instance, a certain township, in which
+the minerals occur. And if they do succeed in finding this, it is seldom
+that the portion in which the mineral occurs, which is generally some
+small inconspicuous vein or fissure, is found; and even in this it
+is generally difficult to recognize and isolate the mineral from the
+extraneous matter holding it. As an instance of this I might cite thus:
+Dana, in his text book on mineralogy, will mention the locality for
+a certain species, as Bergen Hill--say for this instance, dogtooth
+calespar. When we consider that Bergen Hill, in the limited sense of the
+expression, is ten miles long and fully one mile wide, and as the rock
+outcrops nearly all over it, and it is also covered with quarries,
+cuttings, etc., it may be seen that this direction is rather indefinite.
+To the professional mineralogist it is but an index, however, and he
+may consult the authority it is quoted from--the _American Journal of
+Science_, etc.--and thus find the part referred to, or by consulting
+other mineralogists who happen to know. Again, the person having found
+by inquiry that the part referred to is the Pennsylvania Railroad, and
+as this is fully a mile long and interspersed with various prominent
+looking, but veins of a mineral of little value, at any rate not the one
+in question, they are few who could suppose that it occurred in that.
+Apparently a vein of it would not be noticed at all from the surrounding
+rock of gravelly earth, but there it is, and in a vein of chlorite. This
+is so throughout the long and more or less complete stated lists of
+mineralogical localities. Thus I will, in describing the mineral, after
+explaining the conditions under which it occurs, give almost the
+exact spot where I have found the same mineral myself, and have left
+sufficiently fine specimens to carry away, and thus no time will be lost
+in going over fruitless ground, and further, this paper is written up to
+the date given at its end, insuring a necessary presence of them.
+
+In order that one not familiar with mineral specimens should not carry
+off from the various localities a variety of worthless stones, etc.,
+which are frequently more or less attractive to an inexperienced eye,
+the following hints may be salutary.
+
+There are the varieties of three minerals, which are very commonly met
+with in greater or less abundance in mineralogical trips: they are of
+calcite, steatite, and quartz. They occur in so many modifications of
+form, color, and condition that one might speedily form a cabinet of
+these, if they were taken when met with, and imagine it to be of great
+value. The first of these is calcite. It occurs as marble, limestone;
+calcspar, dogtooth spar, nail head spar, stalactites, and a number of
+other forms, which are only valuable when occurring in perfect crystals
+or uniquely set upon the rock holding it. The calcspar is extremely
+abundant at Bergen Hill, where it might be mistaken for many of the
+other minerals which I describe as occurring there, and even in
+preference to them, to one's great chagrin upon arriving home and
+testing it, to find that it is nothing but calcite. In order to avoid
+this and distinguish this mineral on the field, it should be tested with
+a single drop of acid, which on coming in contact with it bubbles up or
+effervesces like soda water, seidlitz powder, etc., while it does not do
+so with any of the minerals occurring in the same locality. This acid
+is prepared for use as follows: about twenty drops of muriatic acid are
+procured from a druggist in a half-ounce bottle, which is then filled up
+with water and kept tightly corked. It is applied by taking a drop out
+on a wisp of broom or a small minim dropper, which may be obtained at
+the druggist's also. I do not say that in every case this mineral should
+be rejected, because it is frequently very beautiful and worthy of place
+in a cabinet, but should be kept only under the conditions mentioned
+further on in this paper, under the head of "Calcite in Weehawken
+Tunnel."
+
+The next mineral abundant in so many forms is quartz, and is not so
+readily distinguished as calcite. It is found of every color, shape,
+etc., possible, and that which is found in any of the localities I am
+about to describe, with the exception of fine crystals on Staten Island,
+are of no value and may be rejected, unless answering in detail to the
+description given under Staten Island. The method of distinguishing the
+quartz is by its hardness, which is generally so great that it cannot be
+scratched by the point of a knife, or at least with great difficulty,
+and a fragment of it will scratch glass readily; thus it is
+distinguished from the other minerals occurring in the localities
+discussed in this paper.
+
+The other minerals so common are the varieties of steatite. This is
+especially so at Bergen Hill and Staten Island. They occur in amorphous
+masses generally, and may be distinguished by being so soft as to be
+readily cut by the finger nail. I will detail further upon the soapstone
+forms in discussing the localities on Staten Island, and the chloritic
+form under the head of "Weehawken Tunnel." The surest method of avoiding
+these and recognizing the others by their appearance, which is generally
+the only guide used by a professional mineralogist, is to copy off the
+lists of the various minerals I describe, and, by visiting the American
+Museum of Natural History on any week day except Mondays and Tuesdays,
+one may see and become familiar with the minerals they are going
+in quest of, besides others in the cases. This method is much more
+satisfactory than printed descriptions, and saves the labor of many of
+the distinguishing manipulations I am about to describe, besides saving
+the trouble of bringing inferior specimens of the minerals home.
+
+In going forth on a trip one should be provided with a mineralogical
+hammer, or one answering its purpose, and a cold chisel with which to
+detach or trim the minerals from adhering rocks, the bottle of acid
+before referred to, and a three cornered file for testing hardness,
+as explained further on. As I noticed before, the better plan of
+distinguishing a mineral is by being familiar with its appearance, but
+as this is generally impracticable, I will detail the modes used in
+lieu of this to be applied on bringing the minerals home. These
+distinguishments depend on difference in specific gravity, hardness,
+solubility in hot acids, and the action of high heat. I will explain the
+application of each one separately, commencing with--
+
+_The Specific Gravity_.--In ascertaining the specific gravity the
+following apparatus is necessary: a small pair of hand scales with a set
+of weights, from one grain to one ounce. These can be procured from the
+apparatus maker, the scales for about fifty cents, and the weights for
+not much over the same amount. The scales are prepared for this work by
+cutting two small holes in one of the scale pans, near together, with
+a pointed piece of metal, and tying a piece of silk thread about eight
+inches long into these. In a loop at the end of this thread the mineral
+to be examined is suspended. It should be a pure representative of the
+mineral it is taken from, should weigh about from one hundred grains to
+an ounce, and be quite dry and free from dirt. If the piece of mineral
+obtained is very large, this sized portion may be often taken from it
+without injury; but it will not do to mar the beauty of a mineral to
+ascertain its specific gravity, and it is generally only applicable
+when a small piece is at hand. With more weights, however, a piece of a
+quarter pound weight may be taken if necessary. The mineral is tied into
+the loop and weighed, the weight being set down in the note book, either
+in grains or decimal parts of an ounce. Call this result A. It is then
+weighed in some water held in a vessel containing about a quart, taking
+care while weighing it that it is entirely immersed, but at the same
+time does not touch either the sides or bottom. Both weighings should
+be accurate to a grain. This result we call B. The specific gravity is
+found by subtracting B from A, and dividing A by the remainder. For
+instance, if the mineral weighed eight hundred grains when weighed in
+the air, and in the water six hundred, giving us the equation: 800
+/ (800 - 600) = sp. gr., or 4, which is the specific gravity of
+the mineral. If the mineral whose specific gravity is sought is an
+incrustation on a rock, or a mixture of a number of minerals, or would
+break to pieces in the water, the specific gravity is by this method of
+course unattainable, and other data must be used.
+
+_The Comparative Hardness_.--The next characteristic of the mineral to
+be ascertained is the comparative hardness. In mineralogy there is a
+scale fixed for comparison, from 1 to 10, 10 being the hardest, the
+diamond, and Number 1 the soft soapstone. These and the intermediate
+minerals fixed upon the scale are generally inaccessible to those who
+may use the contents of this paper, and I will give some more familiar
+materials for comparison. 8, 9, and 10 are the topaz, sapphire, and
+diamond respectively, and as these and minerals of similar hardness will
+probably not be found in any of the localities of which I make mention,
+we need not become accustomed to them for the present. 7 is of
+sufficient hardness to scratch glass, and is also not to be cut with the
+file before mentioned, which is used for these determinations. 6 is
+of the hardness of ordinary French glass. 5 is about the hardness of
+horse-shoe or similar iron; 4 of the brown stone (sandstone) of which
+the fronts of many city buildings, etc., are built; 3 of marble; 2 of
+alabaster; and 1 as French chalk, or so soft as to be readily cut with
+the finger nail. The method of using and applying these comparisons is
+by having the above matters at hand, and compare them by the relative
+ease with which they can be cut by running the edge of the file over
+their surface. One will soon become familiar with the scale, and it
+may of course then be discarded. As it is one of the most important
+characteristics of some of the minerals, it should be carefully
+executed, and the result carefully considered. It is of course
+inapplicable under those conditions with minerals that are in very small
+crystals or in a fibrous condition.
+
+_Action of Hot Acids_.--This very important test is never, like the
+above, applicable upon the field, but applied when home is reached.
+From the body of the mineral as pure and clean as possible a portion is
+chipped, about the size of a small pea; this is wrapped in a piece of
+stiff wrapping paper, and after placing it in contact with a solid body,
+crushed finally by a blow from the hammer. A pinch of the powder so
+obtained is taken up on the point of a penknife, and transferred into
+a test tube. Two or more of these should be provided, about six inches
+long. They may be obtained in the apparatus shop for a trifle. Some
+hydrochloric, or, as it is generally called, muriatic acid, is poured
+upon it to the depth of about three quarters of an inch; the tube is
+then placed in some boiling water heated over a lamp in a tinned or
+other vessel, and allowed to boil for from ten to fifteen minutes;
+the tube is then removed and its contents allowed to cool, and then
+examined. If the powder has all disappeared, we term the mineral
+"soluble;" if more or less is dissolved, "partly soluble;" if none,
+"insoluble;" and if the contents of the tube are of a solid transparent
+mass like jelly, "gelatinous;" while if transparent gelatinous flakes
+are left, it is so termed. As this method of distinguishment is always
+applicable, it is very important, and its detail and result should be
+carefully noticed. Care should be taken that only a small portion of
+the mineral is used, and also but little acid; the action should be
+observed, and is frequently a characteristic, in the case with calcspar,
+which effervesces while dissolving. The acid used is hydrochloric at
+first, and then, if the mineral cannot he recognized, the same treatment
+may be repeated using nitric acid. Both of these acids should be at hand
+and two ounces are generally sufficient.
+
+_Action of Heat_.--This is, perhaps, the most important characteristic,
+and, when taken with the preceding data, will identify any of the
+minerals found in any one locality, which I will describe, from each
+other. The heat is applied to the mineral by means of a candle and
+blowpipe. A thick wax candle answers well, and an ordinary japanned tin
+blowpipe, costing twenty cents, will serve the purpose. The substance
+to be examined is held on a loop of platinum wire about one inch to the
+left and just below the top of the wick, which is bent toward it. Here
+it is steadily held, as is shown in Fig. 1, and the flame of the candle
+bent over upon it, and the heat intensified by blowing a steady and
+strong current of air across it by means of the blowpipe held in the
+mouth and supported by the right hand, whose elbow is resting upon the
+table. The current of air is difficult to keep up by one unaccustomed to
+the blowpipe, the skill of using which is readily obtained; it consists
+in breathing through the nostrils, while the air is forced out by
+pressure on the air held by the inflated cheeks, and not from the lungs.
+This can be practiced while not using the blow-pipe, and may readily
+be accomplished by one's keeping his cheeks distended with air and
+breathing at the same time.
+
+This heat is steadily applied until the splinter of mineral has been
+kept at a high red heat for a sufficient length of time to convince one
+of what it may do, as fuse or not, or on the edges. The first two
+are evident, as when it fuses it runs into a globule; the last, by
+inspecting it before and after the heating with a magnifying glass;
+sometimes it froths up when heated, and is then said to "intumesce;" or,
+if it flies to fragments, "decrepitates." Upon the first it is further
+heated; but in the latter case, a new splinter of mineral must be broken
+off from the mass and heated upon the wire very cautiously until quite
+hot, when it may then be readily heated further without fear of loss.
+For holding the splinter of mineral, which should well represent the
+mass and be quite small, is a three-inch length of platinum wire of the
+thickness of a cambric-needle; this may be bought for about ten cents at
+the apparatus shop. The ends should be looped, as is shown in Fig. 2,
+and the mineral placed in the loop.
+
+Sometimes a mineral has to be fused with borax, as I mention further
+on in my tables. This is done by heating the wire-loop to redness, and
+plunging it into some borax; what adheres is fused upon it by heating.
+Some more is accumulated in the same manner, until the loop is filled
+with a fair-sized globule. A small quantity of the mineral, which had
+been crushed as for the acid test, is caused to adhere to it while it is
+molten, and then the heat of the blast directed upon it for some time
+until either the small fragments of mineral dissolve, or positively
+refuse to do so. After cooling, the aspect of the globule is noticed as
+to color, transparency, etc. Care must be taken that too large an amount
+of the mineral is not taken, a very minute amount being sufficient.
+
+I trust by the use of these distinguishing reactions one will be able
+to recognize by the tables to be given the name of the mineral in hand,
+especially as they are from certain parts, where all the minerals
+occurring therein are known to us; and I have worded the characteristics
+so that they will serve to isolate from all that possibly could be found
+in that locality.
+
+The first general locality is Bergen Hill, New Jersey. This comprises
+the range of bluffs of trap rock commencing at Bergen Point and running
+up behind Jersey City and Hoboken, etc., to the part opposite about
+Thirtieth Street, New York, where it comes close to the river, and from
+there along the river to the north for a long distance, known as the
+Palisades. It is about a mile wide on an average, and from a few feet to
+about two hundred feet in height. The mineralogical localities in and
+upon it are at the following parts, commencing at the south: First
+Pennsylvania Railroad cuts where the mining operations are just about
+completed; then the Erie Tunnel, in which the specimens that first made
+Bergen Hill noted as a mineralogical locality, and whose equals have not
+since been procured, were found, but which is now inaccessible to the
+general public. Further north is the Morris and Essex Tunnel, in which
+many fine specimens were secured, and is also inaccessible; and last,
+but far from being least, is the Ontario Tunnel at Weehawken; and, as
+it is the only practicable part besides the Pennsylvania Railroad and a
+number of surface outcrops which I will mention, I will commence with
+that.
+
+_The Weehawken Tunnel_--This tunnel is now being cut through the
+trap-rock for the New York, Ontario, and Western Railroad, and will
+be completed in a few months, but will, probably, be available as a
+mineralogical locality for a year to come. It is located about half a
+mile south of the Weehawken Ferry from Forty-second Street, New York
+city, and the place where to climb upon the hill to get to the shafts
+leading to it is made prominent by the large body of light-colored rock
+on the dump, a few rods north of where the east entrance is to be. The
+western end is in the village of New Durham, on the New Jersey Northern
+Railroad, and recognized by the immense earth excavations. A pass is
+necessary to gain admittance down the shafts, and this can be procured
+from the office of the company, between the third and fourth shafts to
+the tunnel, in the grocery and provision store just to the north of
+the tramway connecting the shafts on the surface. As it will not be
+necessary to go down in any of the shafts besides the first and second
+in order to fulfill the objects of this paper, no difficulty need be
+encountered in procuring the pass if this is stated.
+
+These two shafts are about eight hundred feet apart and one hundred and
+seventy feet deep. A platform elevator is the mode of access to the
+tunneled portion below, and a free shower-bath is included in the
+descent; consequently, a rubber-coat and water tight boots are
+necessary. A pair of overalls should be worn if one is to engage in
+any active exploration below; candles should also be provided, as the
+electric lights, at the face of the headings, give but little light, and
+remind one very forcibly of a dim flash light with a foliaged tree in
+front of it. The electric wires for supplying these arrangements run
+along the north side of the tunnel for those on the east headings, and
+on the south side for the west. They are excellent things to keep clear
+of, as they have sufficient current passing through them to knock one
+down; thus their position can be readily ascertained.
+
+_Modes of Occurrence of the Minerals_.--In general, the greater number
+of the specimens which are to be found in the tunnel occur in veins
+generally perpendicular, and with other minerals of little or no value,
+as calcite, chlorite, and imperfect crystals of the same mineral. A
+few occur in nodules inclosed in the solid body of rock, and in which
+condition they are seldom of value. The greater abundance are in the
+veins of the dark-green soft chlorite, and some few in horizontal beds.
+The minerals are found in the first condition by examining all the veins
+running from floor to ceiling of the tunnel. The ores of calcite first
+mentioned are very conspicuous, they being white in the dense black
+rock. They may be chipped from, as there are about thirty or forty of
+them exposed in each shaft, and the character of the minerals examined
+to see if anything but calcite is in it. This is ascertained by a drop
+of acid, as explained before, and by the descriptions given further on.
+The veins of chlorite are not so conspicuous, being of a dark-green
+color; but by probing along the walls with a stick or hammer, they may
+be recognized by their softness, or by its dull glistening appearance.
+They are comparatively few, but from an inch to three feet wide; and
+minerals are found by digging it out with a stick or a three-foot drill,
+to be had at the headings. Where the most minerals occur in the chlorite
+is when plenty of veins of calcite are in its vicinity, and its edges
+near the trap are dry and crumbly. It is here where the minerals are
+found in this crumbly chlorite, and generally in geodes--that is, the
+faces of the minerals all point inward, formerly a spherical mass--rough
+and uncouth on the outside, and from half an inch to nearly a foot in
+diameter. These are valuable finds, and well worth digging for. The beds
+of minerals generally are of but one species, and will be mentioned
+under the head of the minerals occurring in them. Besides, in the tunnel
+there are generally more or less perfect minerals upon the main dump
+over the edge of the bluff toward the river. Here many specimens that
+have escaped the eyes of the miners may be found among the loose rock,
+being constantly strewn out by the incline of the bed; in fact, this is
+the only place in which quite a number of the incident minerals may be
+found; but I will not linger longer on this, as I shall refer to it
+under the minerals individually.
+
+The minerals occurring at the tunnel are as follows, with their
+descriptions and locations in the order of their greatest abundance:
+
+_Calcite_.--This mineral occurs in great abundance in and about the
+tunnel, and from all the shafts. There are two forms occurring there,
+the most abundant of which is the rhombohedral, after Fig. 3. It can
+generally be obtained, however, in excellent crystals, which, although
+perfect in form, are opaque, but often large and beautiful. It is always
+packed with a thousand or its multiple of other crystals into veins of a
+few inches thick; and crystals are obtained by carefully breaking with
+edge of the cold chisel these masses down to the fundamental form shown.
+As the masses are never secured by the miners, they can always be picked
+from the piles of _débris_ around the shafts and the dumps, and afford
+some little instruction as to the manner in which a mineral is built up
+by crystallization, and may be subdivided by cleavage to a crystal of
+the same shape exactly, but infinitesimally small. A crystal to be worth
+preserving should be about an inch in diameter, and as transparent as is
+attainable.
+
+Another form of calcite which is to be sparingly found is what is called
+dogtooth spar, having the form shown in Fig. 4. They occur in clear
+wine-yellow-colored crystals, from a quarter to half an inch in length;
+they occur in the chlorite in geodes of variable sizes, but generally
+two and a half inches in diameter, and which, when carefully broken in
+half, showed beautiful grottoes of these crystals. The few of these that
+I have found were in the four-foot vein of chlorite down the Shaft No.
+1, to the west of the shaft about one hundred and fifty feet, and on
+the south wall; it may be readily found by probing for it, and then the
+geodes by digging in. There need be no difficulty in finding this vein
+if these conditions are carefully considered, or if one of the miners
+be asked as to the soft vein. Both these forms of calcite may be
+distinguished from the other minerals by first effervescing on coming
+in contact with the acids; second, by glowing with an intense (almost
+unbearably so) light when heated with the blowpipe, but not fusing.
+Their specific gravity is 2.6, or near it, and hardness about 3, or
+equal to ordinary unpolished white marble.
+
+_Natrolite_.--The finest specimens of this mineral that have ever been
+found in Bergen Hill were taken from a bed of it in this tunnel, having
+in its original form, before it was cut out by the tunnel passing
+through, over one hundred square feet, and from one-half to two and a
+half and even three inches in thickness; it was in all possible shapes
+and forms--all extremely rare and beautiful. A large part of one end
+of this bed still remains, and, by careful cutting, fine masses may be
+obtained. This bed may be readily found; it is nearly horizontal, and in
+its center about four feet from the floor of the tunnel, and about half
+an inch thick. It is down Shaft No. 2, on the north wall, and commences
+about eighty feet from the shaft. It is cut into in some places, but
+there is plenty more left, and can be obtained by cutting the rock
+above it and easing it out by means of the blade of a knife or similar
+instrument. This natrolite is a grouping of very small but perfect
+crystals, having the forms shown in Fig. 5; they are from a quarter to
+an inch long, and, if not perfectly transparent, are of a pure white
+color; they may be readily recognized by their form, and occurring in
+this bed. Its hardness, which is seldom to be ascertained owing to the
+delicacy of the crystals, is about 5, and the specific gravity 2.2.
+This is readily found, but is no distinction; its reaction before the
+blowpipe, however, is characteristic, it readily fusing to a transparent
+globule, clear and glassy, and by forming a jelly when heated with
+acids. The bed holding the upright crystals is also natrolite in
+confused matted masses. This mineral has also been found in other parts
+of the shaft, but only in small druses. There is a prospect at present
+that another bed will be uncovered soon, and some more fine specimens to
+be easily obtained.
+
+_Pectolite_, or as it is termed by the miners, "silky spar."--This
+mineral is quite abundant and in fine masses, not of the great beauty
+and size of those taken from the Erie Tunnel, but still of great
+uniqueness. The mineral is recognized by its peculiar appearance, as
+is shown in Fig. 6, where it may be seen that it is in groups of
+fine delicate fibers about an inch long, diverging from a point into
+fan-shaped groups. The fibers are very tightly packed together, as are
+also the groups; they are very tough individually, and have a hardness
+of 4, and a specific gravity of about 2.5. It gelatinizes on boiling
+with acid, and a fragment may be readily fused in the blowpipe flame,
+yielding a transparent globule. The appearance is the most striking
+characteristic, and at once distinguishes this mineral from any of the
+others occurring in this locality. Considerable quantities of pectolite
+may generally be found on the dump, but also in Shaft No. 1, and
+especially No. 2. The veins of it are difficult to distinguish from the
+calcite, as they are almost identical in color, and many of the calcite
+veins are partly of pectolite--in fact, every third or fourth vein will
+contain more or less of it. There is, however, a very fine vein of
+pectolite about twenty-five feet further east from the natrolite bed; it
+runs from the floor to ceiling, and is about two inches in thickness;
+some specimens of which I took from these were unusually unique in both
+size and appearance. It makes a very handsome specimen for the cabinet,
+and should be carefully trimmed to show the characteristics of the
+mineral.
+
+_Datholite_.--This mineral has been found very frequently in the tunnel,
+it occurring in pockets in the softer trap near the chlorite, and also
+in the latter, generally at a depth of one hundred and fifty feet from
+the surface, and consequently near the ceiling of the tunnel. All that
+has been found of any great beauty has been in the western end of the
+Shaft No. 1 and the eastern of Shaft No. 2, where the trap is quite
+soft; here it is found nearly every day in greater or less quantity, and
+from this some may generally be found on the dump, or, in the vein
+of chlorite which I mentioned as a locality for the dogtooth spar,
+considerable may be obtained in it and on its western edge near the
+ceiling. A ladder about thirteen feet long is used for attending the
+lights, and may generally be borrowed, and access to the remainder
+of this pocket thus gained. Datholite is also very characteristic in
+appearance, and can only be confounded with some forms of calcite
+occurring near it. It occurs in small glassy, nearly globular crystals;
+they are generally not over three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and
+generally pure and perfectly transparent, having a hardness of a little
+over 5, and specific gravity of 3; as it generally occurs as a druse
+upon the trap, or an apopholite, calcite, etc., this is seldom
+attainable, however, and we have a very distinctive characteristic in
+another test: this is the blowpipe, under which it at first intumesces
+and then fuses to a transparent globule, and the flame, after playing
+upon it, is of a deep green color. Nitric acid must be used to boil it
+up with, and with it it may be readily gelatinized. This last test will
+seldom be necessary, however, and may be dispensed with if the hardness
+and blowpipe reactions may be ascertained.
+
+_Apopholite_.--This beautiful mineral has been found in fair abundance
+at times in Shafts No. 1 and 2 in pockets, and seldom in place, most of
+it being taken from the loose stone at the mouth of the shaft, and it
+may generally be found on the dump. It is readily mistaken for calcite
+by the miners and those unskilled in mineralogy, but a drop of acid will
+quickly show the difference. The sizes of the crystals are very various,
+from an eighth of an inch long or thick, to, in one case, an inch and
+a half. The colors have been varied from white to nearly all tints,
+including pink, purple, blue, and green; the white variety is, however,
+the most abundant, and makes a handsome cabinet specimen. The crystals
+are generally packed together in a mass, but are frequently set apart as
+heavy druses of crystals having the form shown in Fig. 7. Sometimes,
+as in the former grouping, the crystals are without the pyramidal
+terminations, and are then right square prisms. The fracture being at
+perfect right angles, distinguishes it from calcite. Its hardness is
+generally fully 5, the specific gravity between 2.4 and 2.5; it is
+difficult to fuse before the blowpipe, but is finally fused into an
+opaque globule. Upon heating with nitric acid it partly dissolves, and
+the remainder becomes flaky and gelatinous. Apopholite, although quite
+rare, now may be bought from the men, or at least one of the engineers
+of Shaft No. 2's elevator, and generally at low terms.
+
+_Phrenite_.--This mineral is quite abundant in Shafts No. 1 and 2, in
+very small masses, incrustations, and even in small crystals. It
+occurs embedded in or incrusting the trap, and also with calcite and
+apopholite. The only sure place to find it is at the southwest side of
+an opening through the pile of drift rock under the trestle work of the
+tramway, between shaft No. 1 and the dump, and within a few feet of a
+number of wooden vats sunk into the ground seen just before descending
+the hills and near the edge. Here on a number of blocks of trap it may
+be found, a greenish white incrustation about as thick as a knife blade;
+it also may be found on the main dump, and is sometimes found in plates
+one-eighth of an inch thick, of a darker green color, upon calcite. Its
+easiest distinguishment from the other minerals of this locality, with
+which it might be confounded, is its great hardness of from 6 to 7.
+It is very fragile and brittle, however, and is never perfectly
+transparent, but quite opaque; its specific gravity is 2.9, and it is
+readily fused before the blowpipe after intumescing. It partly dissolves
+in acid without gelatinizing, leaving a flaky residue; it is a beautiful
+mineral when in masses or crystals of a dark green color, but the best
+place in the vicinity to secure specimens of this kind is, as I will
+detail hereafter, at Paterson, N. J.
+
+_Iron and Copper Pyrites_.--Both of these common but frequently
+beautiful minerals occur in the tunnel and adjacent rocks in great
+abundance. The crystals are generally about one-fourth of an inch in
+diameter, and groups of these may be frequently obtained on the dump in
+the shafts, especially No. 1 and 2, and where the rock is being cleared
+away for the eastern entrance to the tunnel. They resemble each other
+very much; the iron pyrites, however, is in cubical forms and having the
+great hardness of from 6 to 7, while the copper pyrites, less abundant
+and in forms having triangles for bases, but having sometimes other
+forms and a hardness of but 3 to 4. Both are similar in aspect to a
+piece of brass, and cannot be mistaken for any other mineral. The form
+of the copper pyrites is shown in Fig. 8; the iron is, as before noted,
+in cubes, more or less modified.
+
+_Stilbite_.--Small quantities of this beautiful mineral have been found
+in Shaft No. 2, in a small bed of but a few square feet in area, but
+quite thick and appearing much like natrolite. This bed was about one
+hundred feet east from Shaft No. 2, and in the center of the heading
+when it was at that point. It has been encountered since in small
+quantities, and it would do well to look out for it in the fresh
+tunneled portion after the date appended to this paper. It generally
+occurs in the form shown in Fig. 9, grouped very similarly to natrolite,
+and being right upon the rock or a thin bed of itself. The crystals are
+generally half an inch long, but often less. The modifications of the
+above form, which are frequent in this species, strike one forcibly of
+the resemblance they bear to a broad stone spear head on a diminutive
+scale, with a blunted edge; their hardness is about 4, specific gravity
+2.2, the color generally a pearly white or grayish. After a long
+boiling with nitric acid it gelatinizes, but it foams up and fuses to a
+transparent glass before the blowpipe. A little stilbite may often be
+found on the dumps.
+
+_Laumonite_ occurs in very small quantities on calcite or apopholite,
+and can hardly be expected to be found on the trip; but as it might be
+found, I will detail some of its characteristics. Hardness 4, specific
+gravity 2.3; it generally occurs in small crystals, but more frequently
+in a crumbly, chalky mass, which it becomes upon exposure to the air.
+The crystals are generally transparent and frequently tinged yellow in
+color. It gelatinizes by boiling with acid, and after intumescing before
+the blowpipe, fuses to a frothy mass. To keep this mineral when in
+crystals from crumbling upon exposure it may be dipped in a thin mastic
+varnish or in a gum-arabic solution.
+
+_Heulandite_.--This rare mineral has been found under the same
+conditions as laumonite in Shaft No. 2, but it is seldom to be met with,
+and then in small crystals. It is of a pure white color, sometimes
+transparent. It intumesces and readily fuses before the blowpipe, and
+dissolves in acid without gelatinizing. Hardness 4, specific gravity
+2.2.
+
+The few other minerals occurring in the tunnel are so extremly rare as
+not to be met with by any other than an expert, and it is impossible
+to detail the localities, as they generally occur as minute druses or
+incrustations upon other minerals with which they may be confounded, and
+have been removed as soon as discovered. The minerals referred to are
+analcime, chabazite, Thompsonite, and finally, the mineral which I first
+found in this formation, Hayesine, which is extremely rare, and of which
+I only obtained sufficient to cover a square inch. The particulars in
+regard to its locality, etc., maybe found in the _American Journal of
+Sciences_ for June, page 458. I will now sum up the characteristics of
+these several minerals of this locality in the table:
+
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+   Name.  |  H. |Sp.|Action of        |Action of        |Color.|Appearance.
+          |     |Gr.|Blowpipe.        |hot acid.        |      |
+----------+-----+---+-----------------+-----------------+------+---------------
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Calcite   |  3  |2.6|Infusible,       |Soluble with     |White |Like Fig.
+          |     |   |but glows        |effervescence    |      |3 and 4.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Natrolite |  5  |2.2|Readily fused    |Forms a jelly    |  do. |Like Fig 5.
+          |     |   |to clear globule |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Pectolite |  4  |2.5|      do.        |  do.  do.       |  do. |Divergent
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |fibers, Fig. 6.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Datholite |  5  |3.0|Intumesces, fused|Forms a jelly    |Color-|Small, nearly
+          |     |   |to clear globule,|                 |less  |spherical, etc.
+          |     |   |gives green flame|                 |white |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Apopholite|  5  |2.5|Difficult, fused |Partly soluble   |Tinted|Like Fig. 7.
+          |     |   |to opaque globule|in nitric acid   |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Phrenite  |  6  |2.9|Intomesces, fused|Partly soluble   |Green-|In tables and
+          |to 7 |   |to clear globule |in nitric acid,  |ish   |incrustations.
+          |     |   |                 |leaving flakes   |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Iron      |  6  |5.0|Burns and yields |                 |Brass |Cubical.
+pyrites   |to 7 |   |a black globule, |                 |      |
+          |     |   |decrepitates     |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Copper    |  3  |4.2|    do.     do.  |                 |  do. |Tetrahedronal.
+pyrites   |to 4 |   |                 |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Stilbite  |  4  |2.2|Intumesces and   |Difficult; jelly |White |Like Fig. 8.
+          |     |   |fuses readily    |on long boiling  |      |
+          |     |   |                 |with nitric acid.|      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Laumonite |  4  |2.3|Intumesces and   |Readily          |  do. |Generally
+          |to 0 |   |fuses to frothy  |gelatinizes      |      |chalky.
+          |     |   |mass             |                 |      |
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+Heulandite|  4  |2.2|Intumesces and   |Soluble, no      |  do. |In right
+          |     |   |readily fuses    |jelly            |      |rhomboidal
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |prisms.
+          |     |   |                 |                 |      |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+_To Distinguish the Minerals together the one from the other_.--Calcite
+by effervescing on placing a drop of acid upon it. Natrolite resembles
+stilbite, but may be distinguished by gelatinizing readily with
+hydrochloric acid and by not intumescing when heated before the
+blowpipe; from the other minerals by the form of the crystals and their
+setting, also the locality in the tunnel in which it was found.
+
+Pectolite sometimes resembles some of the others, but may be readily
+distinguished by its _tough_ long fibers, not brittle like natrolite.
+Datholite may generally be distinguished by the form of its crystals and
+their glassy appearance, with great hardness, and by tingeing the flame
+from the blowpipe of a true green color. Apopholite is distinguished
+from calcite, as noticed under that species, and from the others by its
+form, difficult fusibility, and part solubility.
+
+Phrenite is characterized by its hardness, greenish color, occurrence,
+and action of acid. Iron pyrites is always known by its brassy metallic
+aspect and great hardness. Copper pyrites, by its aspect from the other
+minerals, and from iron pyrites by its inferior hardness and less
+gravity.
+
+Stilbite is characterized by its form, difficult gelatinizing, and
+intumescence before the blowpipe; from natrolite as mentioned under that
+species.
+
+Laumonite is known by its generally chalky appearance and a probable
+failure in finding it.
+
+Heulandite is distinguished from stilbite by its crystals and perfect
+solubility; from apopholite by form of crystals.
+
+In the next part of this paper I will commence with Staten Island.
+
+July 1, 1882. (_To be continued_.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANTISEPTICS.
+
+
+The author has endeavored to ascertain what agents are able to destroy
+the spores of bacilli, how they behave toward the microphytes most
+easily destroyed, such as the moulds, ferments, and micrococci, and if
+they suffice at least to arrest the development of these organisms in
+liquids favorable to their multiplication. His results with phenol,
+thymol, and salicylic acid have been unfavorable. Sulphurous acid
+and zinc chloride also failed to destroy all the germs of infection.
+Chlorine, bromine, and mercuric chloride gave the best results;
+solutions of mercuric chloride, nitrate, or sulphate diluted to 1 part
+in 1,000 destroy spores in ten minutes.--_R. Koch_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CRYSTALLIZATION AND ITS EFFECTS UPON IRON.
+
+By N.B. WOOD, Member of the Civil Engineers' Club, of Cleveland.
+
+[Footnote: Read January 10th. 1882.]
+
+
+The question has been asked, "What is the chemically scientific
+definition of crystallization?" Now as the study of crystallization and
+its effect upon matter, physically as well as chemically, will be of
+interest, considering the subject matter for discussion, I shall not
+only endeavor to answer the question, as I understand it, but try to
+treat it somewhat technologically.
+
+Having this object in view, I have prepared or brought about the
+conditions necessary to the formation of a few crystals of various
+chemical substances, which for various reasons, such as lack of time and
+bad weather, are not as perfect as could be desired, but will perhaps
+subserve the purpose for which they were designed. I think you will
+agree with me that they are beautiful, if they are imperfect, and I can
+assure you that the pleasure of watching their formation fully repays
+one for the trouble, if for no other reason than the mere gratification
+of the senses. From the earliest times and by all races of men, the
+crystal has been admired and imitated, or improved by cutting and
+polishing into faces of various substances. I have also procured
+specimens of steel and iron which show the effect of crystallization,
+which was produced (perhaps) under known conditions, so that the
+conclusions which we arrive at from their study will have a fair chance
+of being logical, at least, and perhaps of some practical value.
+
+When we examine inanimate nature we find two grand divisions of matter,
+_fluid_ and _solid_. These two divisions may be subdivided into, the
+former gaseous and liquid, the latter amorphous and crystalline; but
+whether one or the other of these divisions be considered, their
+ultimate and common division will be the ATOM. By the atom we understand
+that portion of matter which admits of no further division, which,
+though as inconceivable for minuteness as space is for extent, has still
+definite weight, form, and volume; which under favorable circumstances,
+has that power or force called cohesion, the intensity of which
+constitutes strength of material, which every engineer is supposed to
+understand, but which lies far beyond the powers of the human mind for
+comprehension or analysis. When we apply a magnet to a mass of iron
+filings, we observe the particles arrange themselves in regular order,
+having considerable strength in one direction, and very little or none
+in any other. Now, although we understand very little about the force
+which holds these particles in position, we do know that it is actual
+force applied from without and maintained at the expense of some of the
+known sources of force. But the force or power or property of cohesion
+seems to be a quality stored within the atom itself, in many cases
+similar to magnetism, having powerful attraction in some directions
+and very little or none in others. A crystal of mica, for instance, or
+gypsum may be divided to any degree of thinness, but is very difficult
+to even break. This property of crystals is termed cleavage. Cohesion
+and crystallization are affected variously by various circumstances,
+such as heat or its absence, motion or its absence, etc. In fact, almost
+every phenomenon of nature within the range of ordinary temperatures
+has effects which may be favorable to the crystallization of some
+substances, and at the same time unfavorable to others; so it will be
+seen that it is impossible to lay down any rule for it except for named
+substances, like substances requiring like conditions, to bring its
+atoms into that state of equilibrium where crystallization can occur.
+If we examine crystals carefully we find, not only that nature has here
+provided geometric forms of marvelous beauty and exactness, with faces
+of polish and quoins of acuteness equal to the work of the most skillful
+lapidist, "but that in whatever manner or under whatever circumstances a
+crystal may have been formed, whether in the laboratory of the chemist
+or the workshop of nature, in the bodies of animals or the tissues of
+plants, up in the sky or in the depths of the earth, whether so rapidly
+that we may literally see its growth, or by the slow aggregation of its
+molecules during perhaps thousands of years, we always find that the
+arrangement of the faces is subject to fixed and definite laws." We find
+also that a crystal is always finished and has its form as perfectly
+developed when it is the minutest point discernible by the microscope as
+when it has attained its ultimate growth. I might add parenthetically
+that crystals are sometimes of immense size, one at Milan of quartz
+being 3 feet 3 inches long and 5 feet 6 inches in circumference, and is
+estimated to weigh over 800 pounds; and a gigantic beryl at Grafton, N.
+H., is over 4 feet in length and 32 inches in diameter, and weighs not
+less than 5,000 pounds; but the most perfect specimens are of small
+size, as some accident is sure to overtake the larger ones before they
+acquire their growth, to interfere with their symmetry or transparency.
+This you will see abundantly illustrated by the examples which I have
+prepared, as also the constancy of the angles of like faces. Chemically
+speaking, the crystal is always a perfect chemical body, and can never
+be a mechanical mixture. This fact has been of great value to the
+science of chemistry in developing the atomic theory, which has
+demonstrated that a body can only exist chemically combined when a
+definite number of atoms of each element is present, and that there is
+no certainty of such proportions existing except in the crystal. I
+hold before you a crystal of common alum. Its chemical symbol would be
+Al_{2}O_{3},3SO_{3}+KO,SO_{3}+24H_{2}O. If we knew its weight and wished
+to know its ultimate component parts, we could calculate them more
+readily than we could acquire that knowledge by any other means. But the
+elements of this quantity of uncrystallized alum could not be computed.
+Then we may define crystallization to be the operation of nature wherein
+the chemical atoms or molecules of a substance have sufficient polarized
+force to arrange themselves about a central attracting point in definite
+geometrical forms.
+
+Fresenius defines it thus: "_Every operation, or process, whereby bodies
+are made to pass from the fluid to the solid state, and to assume_
+certain fixed, _mathematically definable, regular forms_." It would be
+folly for me to attempt to criticise Fresenius, but I give you both
+definitions, and you can take your choice. The definition of Fresenius,
+however, will not suit our present purpose, because the crystallization
+of wrought iron occurs, or seems to, _after_ the iron has acquired a
+_solid state_.
+
+Iron, as you all know, is known to the arts in three forms: cast or
+crude, steel, and wrought or malleable. Cast iron varies much in
+chemical composition, being a mixture of iron and carbon chiefly, as
+constant factors, with which silicium in small quantities (from 1 to
+5 per cent.), phosphorus, sulphur, and sometimes manganese (e.g.
+spiegeleisen) and various other elements are combined. All of these have
+some effect upon the crystalline structure of the mass, but whatever
+crystallization takes place occurs at the moment of solidification, or
+between that and a red heat, and varies much, according to the time
+occupied in cooling, as to its composition. My own experience leads me
+to think that a cast iron having about 3 per cent. of carbon, a small
+per centage of phosphorus, say about ½ of 1 per cent., and very small
+quantities of silicium, the less the better, and traces of manganese
+(the two latter substances _slagging_ out almost entirely during the
+process of remelting for casting), makes a metal best adapted to the
+general use of the founder. Such proportions will make a soft, even
+grained, dark gray iron, whose crystals are small and bright, and whose
+fracture will be uneven and sharp to the touch. The phosphorus in this
+instance gives the metal liquidity at a low temperature, but does not
+seem to influence the crystallization to any appreciable extent. The two
+elements to be avoided by the founder are silicium and sulphur. These
+give to iron a peculiar crystalline appearance easily recognized by
+an experienced person. Silicium seems to obliterate the sparkling
+brilliancy of the crystalline faces of good iron, and replace them with
+very fine dull ones only discernible with a lens, and the iron breaks
+more like stoneware than metal, while sulphur in appreciable quantities
+gives a striated crystalline texture similar to chilled iron, and very
+brittle. Phosphorus in very large quantities acts similarly. The form of
+the crystal in cast iron is the octahedron, so that right angles with
+sharp corners should be avoided as much as possible in castings, as the
+most likely position for a crystal to take would be with its faces along
+the line of the angle. Steel, to be of any value as such, _must_ be made
+of the purest material. Phosphorus and sulphur _must_ not exist, except
+in the most minute quantities, or the metal is worthless. If either of
+these substances be present in a bar of steel, its structure will
+be coarse, crystalline and weak. The reason of this is unknown, but
+probably their presence reduces the power of cohesion; and, that being
+reduced, gives the molecules of steel greater freedom to arrange
+themselves in conformity with their polarity, and this in its turn again
+weakens the mass by the tendency of the crystals to cleavage in certain
+directions. Carbon is a constant element in steel, as it is in cast
+iron, but is frequently replaced by chromium, titanium, etc., or is said
+to be, though it is not quite clear to me how it can be so if steel is
+a chemical compound. However this may be, we know that a piece of good
+soft steel breaks with a fine crystalline fracture, and the same piece
+hardened when broken shows either an amorphous structure or one very
+finely crystalline, which would indicate that the crystals had been
+broken up by the action of heat, and that they had not had sufficient
+time to return to their original position on account of the sudden
+cooling. The tendency of the molecules of steel after hardening to
+assume their natural position when cold seems to be very great, for we
+have often seen large pieces of steel burst asunder after hardening,
+though lying untouched, and sometimes with such force as to hurl the
+fragments to some distance. If a piece of steel be subjected to a bright
+yellow or white heat its nature is entirely changed, and the workman
+says it is burnt. Though this is not actually a fact, it does well
+enough to express that condition of the metal. Steel cannot be burnt
+unless some portion of it has been oxidized. The carbon would of course
+be attacked first, its affinity for oxygen being greatest; but we find
+nothing wanting in a piece of burnt steel. It can, by careful heating,
+hammering and hardening, be returned to its former excellence. Then what
+change has taken place? I should say that two modifications have been
+made, one physical, the other chemical. The change chemically is that
+of a chemical compound to a mixture of carbon and iron, so that in a
+chemical sense it resembles cast iron. The change physically is that of
+crystallization, being due partly to chemical change and partly to the
+effect of heat. I have procured a specimen of steel showing beautifully
+the effect of overheating. The specimen is labeled No. 1, and is a piece
+of Park Brothers' steel (one of the best brands made in America). It has
+been heated at one end to proper heat for hardening, and at the other is
+what is technically called "burnt." It has been broken at intervals
+of about 1½ inches, showing the transition from amorphous or proper
+hardening to highly crystalline or "burnt." Malleable or wrought iron
+is or should be pure iron. Of course in practice it is seldom such, but
+generally nearly so, being usually 98, 99, or even more per cent. It is
+exceedingly prone to crystallization, the purer varieties being as much
+subject to it as others, except those contaminated with phosphorus,
+which affects it similarly with steel, and makes it very weak to cross
+and tensile strains. I have never estimated the quantity present in any
+except one specimen, a bar of 1½ round, which literally fell to pieces
+when dropped across a block of iron. It had 1.32 per cent. of phosphorus
+and was very crystalline, though the crystals were not very large. Iron
+which has been, when first made, quite fibrous, when subjected to a
+series of shocks for a greater or less period, according to their
+intensity, when subjected to intense currents of electricity, or when
+subjected to high temperatures, or has by mechanical force been pushed
+together, or, as it is called, upset, becomes extremely crystalline.
+Under all of these circumstances it is subjected to one physical
+phenomenon, that of motion. It would seem that if a bar of iron were
+struck, the blow would shake the whole mass, and consequently the
+relative position of the particles remain unchanged, but this is not the
+case. When the blow is struck it takes an appreciable length of time for
+the effect to be communicated to the other end so as to be heard, if the
+distance is great. This shows that a small force is communicated from
+particle to particle independently along the whole mass, and that each
+atom actually moves independently of its neighbor. Then, if there be
+any attraction at the time tending to arrange it differently, it will
+conform to it. So much for theory with regard to this important matter.
+It looks well on paper, but do the facts of the case correspond? If
+practically demonstrated and systematically executed, experiments fail
+to corroborate the theory, and if, furthermore, we find there is no
+necessity for the theory, we naturally conclude that it is all wrong,
+or, at least, imperfectly understood. Now there is one other quality
+imparted to iron by successive shocks, which, I think, is independent
+of crystallization, and this quality is hardness and consequent
+brittleness. One noticeable feature about this also is, that as
+"absolute cohesion" or tensile strength diminishes, "relative cohesion"
+or strength to resist crushing increases. Specimens Nos. 2, 3, and 4 are
+pieces of Swedish iron, probably from the celebrated mines of Dannemora.
+Nos. 2 and 3 are parts of the same bolt, which, after some months' use
+on a "heading machine" in a bolt and nut works, where it was subjected
+to numerous and violent shocks, (perhaps 50,000 or 60,000 per day),
+it broke short off, as you see in No 2, showing a highly crystalline
+fracture. To test whether this structure continued through the bolt, I
+had it nicked by a blacksmith's cold chisel and broken. The specimen
+shows that it is still stronger at that point than at the point where
+it is actually broken, but the resulting fracture shows the same
+crystalline appearance. I next had specimen No. 4 cut from a fresh
+bar of iron which had never been used for anything. It also shows a
+crystalline fracture, indicating that this peculiarity had existed in
+the iron of both from the beginning.
+
+I next took specimen No. 3 and subjected it to a careful annealing,
+taking perhaps two hours in the operation. Although it is a 1-1/8 bolt
+and has V threads cut upon it we were unable to break it, although bent
+cold through an arc of 90°, and probably would have doubled upon itself
+if we had had the means to have forced it. Now what does this show? Have
+the crystals been obliterated by the process of annealing, or has only
+their cleavage been destroyed, so that when they break, instead of
+showing brilliant, sparkling faces, they are drawn into a fibrous
+looking mass? The latter seems to be the most plausible theory, to which
+I admit objections may be raised. For my own part, I am inclined to the
+belief that the crystal exists in all iron which is finished above a
+bright red heat, and that between that and black heat they are formed
+and have whatever characteristics circumstances may confer upon them,
+modified by the action of agencies heretofore mentioned.
+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement,
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